Learning agrobiodiversity: options for universities … agrobiodiversity: options for universities in Sub ... Building in Agriculture (RUFORUM). ... Learning agrobiodiversity: options

Learning agrobiodiversity:options for universities in Sub-Saharan AfricaProceedings of a regional workshop 21-23 January 2009, Nairobi, Kenya Per Rudebjer, Boudy Van Schagen, Sebastian Chakeredza, Henry Kamau, editors

Learning agrobiodiversity:options for universities in Sub-Saharan AfricaProceedings of a regional workshop21-23 January 2009, Nairobi, Kenya Per Rudebjer, Boudy Van Schagen, Sebastian Chakeredza, Henry Kamau, editors

Learning agrobiodiversity: options for universities in Sub-Saharan Africa

Bioversity International is an independent international scientific organization that seeks to improve the well-being of present and future generations of people by enhancing conservation and the deployment of agricultural biodiversity on farms and in forests. It is one of 15 centres supported by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), an association of public and private members who support efforts to mobilize cutting-edge science to reduce hunger and poverty, improve human nutrition and health and protect the environment. Bioversity has its headquarters in Maccarese, near Rome, Italy, with offices in more than 20 other countries worldwide. The Institute operates through four programmes: Diversity for Livelihoods, Understanding and Managing Biodiversity, Global Partnerships and Commodities for Livelihoods.

The international status of Bioversity is conferred under an Establishment Agreement which, by January 2007, had been signed by the Governments of Algeria, Australia, Belgium, Benin, Bolivia, Brazil, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Chile, China, Congo, Costa Rica, Côte d’Ivoire, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Ecuador, Egypt, Greece, Guinea, Hungary, India, Indonesia, Iran, Israel, Italy, Jordan, Kenya, Malaysia, Mali, Mauritania, Morocco, Norway, Pakistan, Panama, Peru, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Senegal, Slovakia, Sudan, Switzerland, Syria, Tunisia, Turkey, Uganda and Ukraine.

Financial support for Bioversity’s research is provided by more than 150 donors, including governments, private foundations and international organizations. For details of donors and research activities please see Bioversity’s Annual Reports, which are available in printed form on request from [email protected] or from Bioversity’s web site (www.bioversityinternational.org).

The geographical designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of Bioversity or the CGIAR concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. Similarly, the views expressed are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of these organizations.

Mention of a proprietary name does not constitute endorsement of the product and is given only for information.

CitationRudebjer P, Van Schagen B, Chakeredza S and Kamau H, editors. 2009. Learning agrobiodiversity: options for universities in Sub-Saharan Africa. Proceedings of a regional workshop, Nairobi, Kenya, 21-23 January 2009. Bioversity International, Rome, Italy.

Cover photoLocal vegetable market in Stown Town, Zanzibar, courtesy of © Frances Ferraiuolo, Bioversity International.

ISBN 978-92-9043-814-4

Bioversity InternationalVia dei Tre Denari 472/a00057 MaccareseRomeItaly

© Bioversity International, 2009

iii

Contents

Contents

Acknowledgements v

Acronyms vi

Preface viii

Executivesummary x

Part I. Opening and setting the scene 1Whythisworkshop? 2

Openingaddress 3

Openingremarks 4

Overviewofworkshopobjectives,outputsandprogramme 5

Partnerorganizations 6

Part II. Workshop objectives, process and results 9Objectivesandexpectedoutputs 10

Workshopprocess 10

Situationanalysisofagrobiodiversityandthecontextforitsteachingandlearning 12

Analysisofcurriculaandkeyissuesforteachingandlearningagrobiodiversity 15

Jobprofilesofgraduatesandapproachesandoptionsformainstreaming 20

ActionPlan,TaskForceandagrobiodiversitycurriculumframework 23

Part III. Presentations 27Session 1 – Creating a common understanding of agrobiodiversity and challenges of teaching agrobiodiversity in universities 28

Chair: Mikkel Grum

Keynotepresentation:Agrobiodiversityinfoodsystems,ecosystemsandeducationsystems 28

Per G. Rudebjer

Keynotepresentation:Challengesandapproachestolearningandteachingagrobiodiversity 34

Lenah Nakhone

Session 2 – Sharing experiences and perspectives on agrobiodiversity: Agrobiodiversity conservation 37

Chair: Oudara Souvannavong

Conservationofplantgeneticresources,includingcropwildrelatives 37Zachary Muthamia

Overviewofthestateofanimalgeneticresources 40Okeyo A Mwai and Julie Ojango

iv


Forestgeneticresourcesandfarmers’treedomestication 45Ramni Jamnadass, Ian Dawson, Roger Leakey, Roeland Kindt, Jonathan Muriuki, Jan Beniest and Tony Simons

Session 3 – Use of agrobiodiversity for livelihood services 51Chair: Jacob Mwitwa

FarmerinnovationsandindigenousknowledgewhichpromoteagrobiodiversityinKenya:acasestudyofMwingiandBondodistricts 51

Ratemo W. Michieka

Theimpactofbiodiversityandbiofortificationonnutritionandhealthforthemajorityofthepoor 57

Omo Ohiokpehai

Session 4 – Cross-cutting issues: markets, environmental services and policies 58

Chair: Gorettie Nabanoga

Addingvaluetoagrobiodiversity:developingthevaluechainforneglectedandunderutilizedspecies 58

Charity Irungu

Ecosystemsservicesinmosaiclandscapes 61Brent Swallow

Pollination 69Ian Gordon and Barbara Herren

Geneticresourcespolicyandintellectualproperty 72Robert J. Lewis-Lettington

Threatstoagrobiodiversity 78Mikkel Grum, Sibonginkosi Khumalo and Julia Ndungu-Skilton

Session 5 – Innovation in higher agricultural education 81Chair: Judith C.N. Lungu

FindingsfromsurveysonPGRandagrobiodiversityeducationinAfricaandLatinAmerica 81

Boudy Van Schagen

Innovationsystemsapproach:Implicationsforagriculturaleducationandresearch 85

Judith Ann Francis

ANAFE’sexperiencewithcurriculumreviews 88John Saka, Aissetou Yaye, Sebastian Chakeredza and August Temu

HighereducationinSub-SaharanAfrica:challengesandprospectsinagriculture 95

Wellington N. Ekaya

Annexes 103

Annex1.Workshopprogramme 104

Annex2.DraftAgrobiodiversityCurriculumFramework 107

Annex3.Listofparticipants 114

v

Acknowledgements

Acknowledgements

Theworkshopandthispublicationaretheresultofvaluablefinancialandin-kindcontributions provided by, in alphabetical order: ACP-EU Technical Centrefor Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA); African Network for Agriculture,AgroforestryandNaturalResourcesEducation(ANAFE);BioversityInternational;CommonwealthofLearning(COL);EastAfricaPlantGeneticResourcesNetwork(EAPGREN);FoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations(FAO)andtheRegionalUniversitiesForumforCapacityBuildinginAgriculture(RUFORUM).Wegratefullyacknowledgetheirsupport.

WeextendourwarmthankstoBioversityInternational’sSub-SaharanAfricaRegionalOfficeteam,inparticularDorisLewa, forherflawlessadministrativeandlogisticssupportpriorto,duringandaftertheworkshop.

Theorganizersalsowishtothankallpresenterswhosetasidevaluabletimetopreparepapersanddeliverpresentationsonkeydimensionsofagrobiodiversity.Finally, we appreciate all participants’ active participation and their valuableinputstotheworkshopsessions.Thesecontributionsshouldbereflectedinmanyuniversitycurriculainyearstocome!

vi


Acronyms

ABIA AgriculturalBiodiversityInitiativeforAfrica

ACP Africa,CaribbeanandPacific

AHT AfricaHumidTropics

ALVs Africanleafyvegetables

ANAFE AfricanNetworkforAgriculture,AgroforestryandNatural ResourcesEducation

AnGR AnimalGeneticResources

ASB AlternativestoSlash-and-BurnProgramme

CBD ConventiononBiologicalDiversity

CBO Community-basedorganizations

CGIAR ConsultativeGrouponInternationalAgricultureResearch

COL CommonwealthofLearning

COMESA CommonMarketforEasternandSouthernAfrica

CTA ACP-EUTechnicalCentreforAgriculturalandRuralCooperation

DACUM Developingacurriculum

EAPGREN EastAfricaPlantGeneticResourcesNetwork

ECA EasternandCentralAfrica

FAnGR Farmanimalgeneticresources

FAO FoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations

FARA ForumforAgricultureResearchinAfrica

FFS Farmerfieldschool

FNPP FAO-NetherlandsPartnershipProgramme

ICRAF WorldAgroforestryCenter

ICT Informationandcommunicationstechnology

IK Indigenousknowledge

IPR Intellectualpropertyrights

LMO Livingmodifiedorganism

MA MillenniumEcosystemsAssessment

NAFT NationalAgriculturalForumforTraining

NARES Nationalagricultureresearchandextensionsystems

NARS Nationalagriculturalresearchsystems

NGO Non-governmentalorganization

NTFP Non-timberforestproduct

PAR PlatformforAgrobiodiversityResearch

PBRs Plantbreeders’rights

PGR Plantgeneticresources

vii

Acronyms

PRA Participatoryruralappraisal

PRSP PovertyReductionStrategyPaper

RAFT RegionalAgriculturalForumforTraining

RUFORUM RegionalUniversitiesForumforCapacityBuildinginAgriculture

SA SouthernAfrica

Sahel theSaheliancountries

SRO Subregionalorganization

SSA Sub-SaharanAfrica

SUCAPRI StrengtheningofUniversityCapacityforPromoting,Facilitating andTeachingRuralInnovationProcesses

TRIPs TradeRelatedIntellectualPropertyRights

UNEP UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme

UPOV UnionfortheProtectionofNewPlantVarieties

viii


Preface

Agriculturalbiodiversity includes thediversityofplants,animals, fish, treesandmicrobesthatareuseddirectlyorindirectlyforfoodandagriculture.Thehumanracecouldnotsurvivewithoutaccesstothisdiversity,whichenablesplantandanimalspeciestoevolveandadapttodifferentgrowingconditions.Yetwehaveboth undervalued this critical resource and squandered it, with the result thatagriculturalbiodiversityisatgreaterrisknowthanatanytimeinrecenthistory.

Whilethevalueofagriculturalbiodiversityisnotwidelyknown,overthepastfew decades a growing number of scientists and policy-makers have startedto take it more seriously. Nowhere is this more evident than in the sector ofcropdiversity,wherea lotofworkhasbeendonebyvariousorganizationsandcountries.However, even in thedomainof cropdiversity, a lotmoreeffort hasbeenputintoex situconservationandmuchlessonin situconservationanduseandthemanagementofdiversityonfarms.Thereisalsothematterofpolicyandpublicawarenessinrelationtoadvancingthecausesofbettermanagementanduseofagriculturalbiodiversity.All theseareareasthat requiregreaterefforts inresearch,educationanddevelopment.

BioversityInternational,astheworld’slargestresearchorganizationdedicatedsolelytotheconservation,managementanduseofagriculturalbiodiversity,hasbeen playing a leading role in this area. Bioversity recognizes the importantrolethateducationplaysinthepropermanagementanduseofbiodiversityandhas, over the last decade, contributed substantially to strengthening capacitydevelopment in plant genetic resources and lately in the management anduse of agricultural biodiversity. Bioversity has collaborated with universities indevelopingMScprogrammes in this fieldof learning, includingworkonplants,animals,fishandmicrobialbiodiversityandtheprocessesthatsustainfunctionalagro-ecosystems.Thesocio-culturalaspectsassociatedwith theknowledgeofbiodiversityarealsokeyelementsofthiswork.Itistimetotakestockofhowthisbroaderconceptisbeingtaughtinhighereducationandhowtrainingcurriculainuniversitiescouldbestrengthened.

Inrecentyears,policy-makersandscientistshavebeenpayingincreasingattentiontoagriculturalbiodiversity.Theeffectsofclimatechange,actualandpotential,havegivenevenmoreweighttotheimportanceofthisresourceandtheurgencyfor itsconservation.Climatechangewillhaveagreat impactonbiodiversity,includingagrobiodiversity.Butagrobiodiversityalsoholdsakeytostrategiesforadaptationtoclimatechange;itencompassesthegenesthatwillbeneededtoadaptvarietiesandspeciestothenewconditionsinanygivenfuture climate. Currently, agricultural biodiversity is a thematic programmeunder the Convention on Biological Diversity. The International Treaty onPlant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, which entered into forcein 2004, has secured the open access to germplasm of 64 of the world’smost important food and fodder species and genera. On the conservationside, there is an increasing awareness that production landscapes – wherefarmersarecustodiansofagriculturalbiodiversity–willplayacritical role inbiodiversityconservation.

ix

Preface

Because of these developments, agrobiodiversity needs to enter universitycurricula inabroader fashion, topreparegraduates fora futurewhere there isan increasing need for both conserving and using agrobiodiversity sustainably.Consultations with universities and surveys of curricula have revealed thatagrobiodiversityrarelyfeaturesasanentity intheuniversitycurriculum,orevenasadedicatedcourse.Innovativeapproachesforintegratingagrobiodiversityintocurriculaareneeded.

This regional workshop is the first regional consultation to addressagrobiodiversity education in universities in Sub-Saharan Africa. It is importantthatuniversities,educationalnetworksandpolicy-makerstakenoteoftheresultsofthisworkshopandtakeactiontostartintegratingthisimportantareaoflearningintoAfrica’shighereducationsystem.

Kwesi Atta-Krah DeputyDirectorGeneral,BioversityInternational

x


Executive summary

The workshop ‘Learning agrobiodiversity: options for universities in Sub-Saharan Africa’ washeldinNairobifrom21to23January2009.Thisfirstregionalworkshopofitskindgathered46participantsfromuniversitiesandinternationalorganizations in16Africanand twoEuropeancountries.Theobjectivesof theworkshopwereto:

• shareknowledgeandexperiencesonthecurrentstatusandtrendsofthescience,practiceandpolicyofagrobiodiversity

• discuss the implications for and feasible approaches to, mainstreamingagrobiodiversityinhighereducationinSub-SaharanAfrica

• explore modalities and mechanisms for strengthening agrobiodiversityeducationandresearchinAfricathroughnetworkingandjointlearning.

Theopeningsessionof theworkshopwaschairedbyProf. JohnSaka, theBoard Chair of the African Network for Agriculture, Agroforestry and NaturalResources Education (ANAFE), who also gave an opening address. Openingremarks were given by Dr Mikkel Grum, Acting Regional Director, BioversityInternational,DrDennisGarrity,DirectorGeneral,WorldAgroforestryCentreandDrJudithAnnFrancis,SeniorProgrammeCoordinator,ScienceandTechnologiesStrategies, ACP-EU Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation(CTA). Dr Aissetou Yayé, Executive Secretary of ANAFE then introduced theworkshopprogramme.Part I of these proceedings summarizes the opening session and gives a background to the workshop.

DrPaulKibwika,aconsultant, facilitated theworkshopprocess,whichwasdesigned to identify options for mainstreaming learning of agrobiodiversity inuniversities in Sub-Saharan Africa. ‘Buzz-groups’ were formed to extract keyissuesemergingfromexpertpresentations.Workingingroupsandinplenary,theparticipantsthenmadeafour-stepanalysis.

• Situation analysis of agrobiodiversity and the context of its teaching and learning: definitions of agrobiodiversity; megatrends and patternsimpactingonagrobiodiversity;stakeholders.

• Analysis of curricula and key issues for mainstreaming agrobiodiversity content: opportunitiesandnichesforagrobiodiversityeducationinhighereducation; gaps in content relating to agricultural biodiversity; criticalissuesformainstreamingagrobiodiversityinhighereducation.

• Job profiles of graduates and approaches and options for mainstreaming: profiles of graduates; approaches to facilitateagrobiodiversityeducation;optionsformainstreamingofagrobiodiversityinhighereducation.

• Action Plan, Task Force and agrobiodiversity curriculum framework.

The results of the workshop sessions are presented in Part II of these proceedings. Theseoutputsinclude:

• a draft curriculum framework, consisting of 10 learning ‘clusters’(Annex 2). For each cluster, the rationale, key learning points andsuggested content were identified. These would be further developed

xi

Executive summary

aftertheworkshop,indialoguewiththeworkshopparticipantsandotherkeystakeholders

• five different options for mainstreaming of agrobiodiversity in highereducation were identified and their advantages and challenges listed(page17)

• ajointPlan of Action wasagreeduponandaTaskForcewassetuptoleadtheworktofollowupontheworkshopresults(page19).

Part III of this report contains presentations by experts from nationaland international organizations on the many dimensions of agrobiodiversity.Similarly, educational experts talked about educational issues of relevance toagrobiodiversity. The presentations provided the thematic background for theworking groups and aimed to harmonize participants’ knowledge and buildawareness of the complexity of agrobiodiversity conservation and use. Thispart of the proceedings may be used as a resource book in future curriculumdevelopment.

Inconclusion,theneedformainstreamingagrobiodiversityinhighereducationinAfricawasconfirmed.Giventhepositiveresultsofthisworkshop,effortsshouldbe made to offer a similar workshop for French-speaking Africa. Because ofthecomplexityof teachingthemulti-disciplinarysubjectofagrobiodiversity, theTaskForceshouldseekadviceanddraw lessons learned fromrelatedareasofeducation,suchasagroforestryorintegratedfarmingsystems.

Part I. Opening and setting the scene

2


Why this workshop?

Agricultural biodiversity - the subset of biodiversity important for food andagriculture – is a source of products that sustain livelihoods and services thatmaintainecosystemfunctions.Agrobiodiversityandsustainabledevelopmentareintimatelyrelated.Agrobiodiversityprovidesresiliencetolivelihoodsystemsthroughtheabilitytomitigateandadapttosystemschangeandshocks.Agrobiodiversitymaintainsecosystemfunctionsthroughwaterandnutrientcycling,pestanddiseaseregulationandpollination.Agrobiodiversityisalsoapartofourculturalheritage.

The pressure on ecosystems is higher than ever before. The MillenniumEcosystems Assessment (MA) found that 60% of the ecosystem servicesexaminedweredegradedorusedunsustainably.Onekeyfindingwasthat ‘The degradation of ecosystem services could grow significantly worse during the first half of this century and is a barrier to achieving the Millennium Development Goals.’ ¹Thesenseofurgencytoactisreflectedintheenvironmentalconventionsonclimatechange,biodiversityconservationanddesertification,allofwhichhaveastronglinktothemanagementofagriculturalbiodiversity.

The availability of well-educated professionals who can perform researchon agrobiodiversity, advise on its use and undertake proper conservation, iscritical to successfully meeting these challenges. The relatively recent conceptof‘agrobiodiversity’issubjecttoarapidlyincreasingbodyofresearch,coveringawiderangeofdisciplinesandmethodologies,includingcutting-edgemoleculargenetics,traditionalbreedingandpre-breeding²,environmentalservices,marketanalysisandvalue-chainenhancement, traditionalknowledgeandcultures,etc.Thisresearchhasgeneratedabodyofstate-of-the-artknowledgethatneedstoentercurricula.

A2007surveyofselecteduniversitiesineasternandsouthernAfricarevealedan absence of comprehensive agrobiodiversity education programmes, ordedicatedcoursesonagrobiodiversity.Isolatedcoursesrelatedtoagrobiodiversityaretaughtatsomeuniversitiesbutanagreedapproachtoteachingandlearningthesubjectislacking.Graduateswouldthereforenotbefullyawareoftheroleofagrobiodiversityforenhancingthevalue,productivityandsustainabilityofAfricanagro-ecosystems.

It is timetoreviewcurrentapproachestoagrobiodiversityeducation,analysegapsincontentordeliveryandadviseonwaysforward,inordertomakingthemostofagriculturalbiodiversity.ThiseffortisinlinewithWorldBankrecommendationstoaddressshortcomingsinSub-Saharanagricultureeducationby,amongothers,‘traininganewgenerationofagriculturalprofessionalswithdifferentskillsets’³.

¹MillenniumEcosystemAssessment,2005.EcosystemsandHumanWell-being:Synthesis.

IslandPress,Washington,DC.² Pre-breeding is a form of genetic enhancement and refers to all activities designed toidentifydesirablecharacteristicsand/orgenesfromun-adaptedmaterials.³WorldBank2007.CultivatingKnowledgeandSkillstoGrowAfricanAgriculture.AgriculturalandRuralDevelopmentNotes.Issue29,December2007.

3


Bioversity International therefore partnered with the African Network forAgriculture,AgroforestryandNaturalResourcesEducation(ANAFE),theRegionalUniversitiesForumforCapacityBuildinginAgriculture(RUFORUM)andtheACP-EU Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA) in organizingtheworkshop‘Learningagrobiodiversity:optionsforuniversitiesinSub-SaharanAfrica’inNairobi,on21-23January2009.

This partnership ensures that the workshop outputs reach the majority ofAfricanuniversitiesandbeyond:

• ANAFEisanetworkof131educationalinstitutionsin35Africancountrieswhose objective is to strengthen the teaching of multi-disciplinaryapproachestolandmanagement

• RUFORUM is a consortium of 25 universities in eastern and southernAfrica, with a mandate to oversee graduate training and networks ofspecialization in the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa(COMESA)countries

• CTA has a mission is to strengthen policy and institutional capacitydevelopmentandinformationandcommunicationmanagementcapacitiesofACP(Africa,CaribbeanandPacific)agriculturalandruraldevelopmentorganizations.

Intotal46participants,from16AfricanandtwoEuropeancountries,attendedthe workshop. They represented universities, national agricultural researchsystems (NARS), regional education networks and genetic resources networksandinternationalorganizations.Mostparticipantshadabackgroundinagricultureorforestry,whiletherewasalimitedrepresentationof,forexample,livestockandsocialsciencedisciplines.

Opening address

TheOpeningSessionoftheworkshopwaschairedbyProf. John Saka, ANAFE Chair Person,whoalsogaveanopeningaddress.Prof.SakasaidthatANAFEwas very happy to be associated with this workshop because the objectiveswereconsistentwith thosehisorganization.He told theworkshopparticipantsthat ANAFE was launched in 1993 and is now one of the largest networks ofeducationalinstitutionsinAfrica,withmemberinstitutionscoveringthewholeofSub-SaharanAfrica.Ithasamembershipof128Africanuniversitiesandcollegesin34Africancountries,workingtotransformagriculturaleducationandimproveitsquality,relevanceandapplication.TheWorldAgroforestryCentrehasplayedan important role in launchingandnurturingANAFEandnowhosts theANAFESecretariatatitsheadquartersinNairobi,Kenya.

The initial objective of ANAFE was to incorporate agroforestry and multi-disciplinaryapproachesintoagriculturaleducation.Thisinitiativehasresultedinmajorandsignificantsuccess.Manycollegesanduniversitiesareteachingagroforestryasapartofagriculture,forestryornaturalresourceprogrammesandalsoasaseparatediscipline.Overtheyears,theANAFEmandatehasbeenexpandedto includetheoveralltransformationofagricultureandnaturalresourceseducation.

4


In June 2007, ANAFE was registered as an international non-govermentalorganization (NGO). ANAFE’s current mission is ‘To improve agriculturaleducation for impact on development’. This can be achieved through awide range of activities including policy advocacy, institutional reforms tolink education to development, review of curricula, development of learningresources, facilitating knowledge sharing, promoting women and youth inagriculture, HIV/AIDS mitigation, sound environmental practices, mitigationand adaptation to climate change, quality education assurance and riskmanagementinagriculture.

ANAFE is a decentralized organization that conducts its work through fourregional chapters known as RAFTs (Regional Agricultural Forums for Training)There is one RAFT each in Eastern and Central Africa (ECA), Southern Africa(SA), theSaheliancountries (Sahel) and theAfricaHumidTropics (AHT).Underthe RAFTS, there are 21 ANAFE national chapters known as NAFTs (NationalAgriculturalForaforTraining).

OnbehalfoftheANAFEBoardandthejointorganizingcommitteecomprisingalso Bioversity, CTA and RUFORUM, Prof. Saka thanked all participants foraccepting the invitation to this importantmeeting.He thanked thepartners forexcellent networking in the conceptualization and realization of this workshop.HealsocommendedICRAFforhostingandtheregionalofficeofBioversity forfacilitatingtheworkshop.Finally,hethankedtheleadingpartners,especiallyCTAand Bioversity, for funding the workshop and all partner institutions includingHeadsofUniversitiesandCollegesforallowingtheirstafftoparticipate.

Heexpressedthehopethatallparticipantswoulddevotetheirenergiestoasuccessful andproductiveworkshopand that thenextactions ledby the jointTask Force will ensure implementation of the workshop recommendations. HenotedthatANAFEwaspleasedthatthefour institutionsareworkingtogether–ANAFEhasamemorandumofunderstandingwithRUFORUM–andexpressedthehopethatthiswillbethecasealsowithmattersofcapacitybuilding.

Prof.Sakathendeclaredthemeetingopen,wishingallaproductiveworkshopandlookingforwardtovaluableoutputsandaclearroadmap.

Opening remarks

Dr Mikkel Grum, Acting Regional Director, Bioversity International, in hisopening remarks noted that agricultural biodiversity is a challenging subject.In its broadest definition it encompasses all aspects of general biodiversityconservationanduse.Wild relativesofcrops,domesticanimals, treesand fishexistinwildecosystems,alongwithpollinators,pests,diseases,weedsandmanyotherorganismsthatimpactonagriculturalproductionsystems.

In a narrower definition, agrobiodiversity is the diversity within agriculturalproductionsystems,developedthroughintensivemanagementbyhumans.Thefateofthisdiversityisentirelyinthehandsofhumanbeings.Oncloserinspectionitbecomesobviousthattherearenoclearboundariesbetweendomesticatedand‘wild’agrobiodiversity.

5


DrGrumsaid that thechallenge that liesbeforeus includes lookingathowwe deliver a topic of such complexity and with so many nuances to the nextgenerationofscientists,inwaysthatwillenablethemtoproviderealsolutionstorealworldproblems.

On behalf of Bioversity and its Regional Director, Dr Jojo Baidu-Forson, DrGrumwelcomedparticipantstoNairobiandwishedthemfruitfuldeliberations.

Dr Dennis Garrity, Director General, World Agroforestry Centre, made hisopening remarks on behalf of the hosting organization of this workshop. Heemphasizedthatagrobiodiversityisa‘frontierissue’tostudentsanduniversities.DrGarritynotedtheimportanceofconservingandnurturingagrobiodiversity.HeexpressedhopeinquotesfromPresidentBarackObama’sinaugurationspeech,wherehetalkedabout‘restoringsciencetoitsrightfulplace’and‘harnessingthesunandthewindsandthesoil’.

DrGarritysaidthatagrobiodiversityisimportantatdifferentscales,fromplotlevel to theglobalscale.Theenormousgeneticdiversity in trees isaparticularchallenge and one is humbled by the task of characterizing this diversity andapplyingappropriateconservationandmanagementoptions.

In his address, Dr Garrity also highlighted the Second World Congress onAgroforestry,beingorganizedby theWorldAgroforestryCentreand theUnitedNationsEnvironmentalProgramme(UNEP),totakeplaceon23-28August2009andexpressedhopethatthecongresswillbelinkinguniversitiesandscience.

Dr Judith Ann Francis, Senior Programme Coordinator, Science and Technologies Strategies, ACP-EU Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA)mentionedinheropeningremarksthatCTArecognizesthatagriculture is underperforming and that agrobiodiversity is important, not onlyits conservation, but also its contribution to wealth creation. Recognizing theinterdisciplinarynatureofbiodiversityshenotedthatcollaborationandnetworkingisanopportunitytochartingawayforthefuture.

Learningandsciencearecentral toCTA’sapproach.Sincea2005meetinginParis,CTAhas includedbiodiversity in itsprogrammes.DrFrancis said it isnecessarytoengagewithpolicy-makersandemphasizedtheneedforcurriculumreformatalllevels.ThecapacityandqualityofinnovatorsandenterprisesneedtobeenhancedtotakeAfricanbiodiversityintothefuture.

Finally,sheencouragedtheworkshoporganizersandparticipantstotransferlessonsfromthisworkshoptootherregions.

Overview of workshop objectives, outputs and programme

Dr Aissetou Yayé, Executive Secretary, ANAFEthenintroducedtheworkshopprogramme,attachedinAnnex1.DrYayésaidthatadvancinghighereducationis all about collaboration; south/south collaboration in particular. We are tryingtoavoid isolation,shepointedout.ANAFE isworkingcloselywithRUFORMto

6


buildcapacityofAfricanuniversities.Thenetworkslookforwardtostrengtheningsouth/southcollaborationfurther.

Dr Yayé then gave an overview of the workshop objectives and expectedoutputsandemphasized thatoutputsshouldbeextendedbeyondtheEnglish-speakingworldtoFrench-andPortuguese-speakingcountries.

Finallyshe thankedall theViceChancellorsandDeanswhoaresupportingthis process. She said that she was looking forward to a powerful documentcoming out of this conference, which could also be presented at the WorldAgroforestryCongress.

Partner organizations

Launched in April 1993, the African Network for Agriculture, Agroforestry and Natural Resources Education (ANAFE) presently (2009) comprises 131universitiesandcolleges in35Africancountries. Initiallycreated to incorporateagroforestry and multi-disciplinary approaches into agricultural education,ANAFE’s mandate has expanded to include agriculture and natural resourceseducation. ANAFE’s current mission of ‘improving agricultural education forimpactondevelopment’isachievedthroughactivitiesincludingpolicyadvocacy;knowledge sharing; promoting women and youth in agriculture; HIV/AIDSmitigation;mitigationandadaptationofclimatechange;reviewofcurriculaanddevelopment of learning resources, etc. ANAFE works through four regionalchaptersknownasRAFTs(RegionalAgriculturalForaforTraining)—oneeachinEasternandCentralAfrica(ECA),SouthernAfrica(SA),Saheliancountries(Sahel)and the Africa Humid Tropics. ANAFE has national chapters, NAFTs (NationalAgriculturalForaforTraining)in21countries.

The Association for Strengthening Agricultural Research in Eastern and Central Africa (ASARECA) is a non-political organization of the NationalAgriculturalResearchSystems (NARS)of tencountries—Burundi,D.R.Congo,Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Madagascar, Rwanda, Sudan, Tanzania and Uganda.Through ASARECA, agricultural scientists in the 10 countries work togetherand inpartnershipwith farmers,extension,privatesector,scientistsof regionaland international institutions, and development partners to come up with newinnovations for agricultural-led economic growth, poverty eradication andimproved livelihoods in Eastern and Central Africa. The Eastern Africa Plant Genetic Resource Network(EAPGREN)isaprojectundertheAgrobiodiversityand Biotechnology program of ASARECA whose primary aim is to enhancecapacitydevelopmentforsustainableutilizationandconservationofplantgeneticresourceineasternAfrica.

The Commonwealth of Learning(COL)isanintergovernmentalorganizationcreatedbyCommonwealthHeadsofGovernmenttoencouragethedevelopmentandsharingofopenlearninganddistanceeducationknowledge,resourcesandtechnologies.

The Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA) wasestablished in 1983 under the Lomé Convention between the ACP (African,

7


CaribbeanandPacific)GroupofStatesandtheEuropeanUnionMemberStates.Since 2000, it has operated within the framework of the ACP-EU CotonouAgreement.CTA’s tasksare todevelopandprovideproductsandservices thatimprove access to information for agricultural and rural development, and tostrengthen the capacity of ACP countries to acquire, process, produce anddisseminateinformationinthisarea.CTAisfinancedbytheEuropeanUnion.

The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations leadsinternational efforts to defeat hunger. Serving both developed and developingcountries, FAO acts as a neutral forum where all nations meet as equals tonegotiate agreements and debate policy. FAO is also a source of knowledgeand information. The Organization helps developing countries and countries intransitionmodernizeandimproveagriculture,forestryandfisheriespracticesandensuregoodnutritionforall.Since itsfoundingin1945, FAOhasfocusedspecialattentionondevelopingruralareas,hometo70percentoftheworld’spoorandhungrypeople.

The Regional Universities Forum for Capacity Building in Agriculture (RUFORUM) is a consortium of 25 universities in Eastern, Central and SouthernAfricaestablishedin2004.Theconsortiumhadpreviouslyoperatedasaprogramof the Rockefeller Foundation beginning in 1992. It has a mandate to overseegraduatetrainingandnetworksofspecializationintheCommonMarketforEasternandSouthernAfrica(COMESA)countries.Specifically,RUFORUMrecognizestheimportantandlargelyunfulfilledrolethatuniversitiesplayincontributingtothewell-beingofsmall-scalefarmers,andeconomicdevelopmentofcountriesthroughouttheSub-SaharanAfricaregion.RUFORUM’svisionisavibrantagriculturalsectorlinked to African universities which can produce high-performing graduates andhigh-qualityresearchresponsivetothedemandsofAfrica’sfarmers.

Part II. Workshop objectives, process and results

10


Objectives and expected outputs

Theobjectivesoftheworkshopwereto:• Shareknowledgeandexperiencesonthecurrentstatusandtrendsofthe

science,practiceandpolicyofagrobiodiversity• Discuss the implications for and feasible approaches to, mainstreaming

agrobiodiversityinhighereducationinSub-SaharanAfrica• Explore modalities and mechanisms for strengthening agrobiodiversity

educationandresearchinAfricathroughnetworkingandjointlearning.Theexpectedoutputswere:

• Synthesis of trends and emerging issues in agrobiodiversity and theirimplicationsforhighereducation

• Curriculumguidelines/frameworkforagrobiodiversityeducation,includingoutlineofkeycurriculumcomponents

• Options for mainstreaming biodiversity education in higher educationidentified

• AnactionplanformainstreamingagrobiodiversityinhighereducationinAfrica• Mechanism for interaction between communities of agrobiodiversity

researchersandeducatorsforcontinuedlearningandsharingofknowledgeandexperiences

• Workshopproceedings.

Workshop process

The3-dayworkshopincludedtwomainparts.Thefirstpartaimedatcapturingthe state-of-the-art knowledge of agricultural biodiversity: what it is, why itis important, the issues that are emerging and the methodologies availablefor enhancing conservation and use of agrobiodiversity. Continuing effortsto strengthen higher agricultural education in SSA were considered, with anemphasisonregional initiatives,networksandinnovationsystems.Experiencesregardingcurriculumneedsandreformswereshared.

The second half of the workshop was a participatory process, led by anexternal facilitator, to identify options for mainstreaming agrobiodiversity incurricula,todevelopadraftcurriculumframeworkandtoprepareanactionplanforfutureimplementationofworkshoprecommendations.

TheworkshopprocessandfacilitationprincipleswereintroducedbyDr Paul Kibwika, Facilitator of the workshop. He described the expected workshop‘processflow’,insixsteps:

• Create a common understanding of agrobiodiversity and challenges ofagrobiodiversitylearning

• Shareexperiencesinagrobiodiversityandidentifyissuesforlearning• Explorepatternsandtrendsinagrobiodiversity• Defineprofileofdesiredgraduates• Describecurriculumelementsanddeliveryoptions• Definehowtoorganizeourselvestotakethisinitiativeforward.

11


DrKibwikaalsointroducedsixworkshopprinciples:• Jointownershipandresponsibility• Opendialogue• Appreciationofallcontributions• Creativeandinnovativethinking• Informalinteractionandatmosphere• Transparency.

Theworkshop’sprocessflow Corevaluesoftheworkshop

Building on the expert presentations (Part III of these Proceedings) andparticipants’knowledgeandexperience,aseriesofworkshopsessions–‘buzzgroup’discussions,groupworkandplenarydiscussions–analysedtheneedsforteaching and learning of agrobiodiversity in universities in Sub-Saharan Africa.Theworkproceededasfollows:1. Situation analysis of agrobiodiversity and the context of its teaching and

learning• Definitionsofagrobiodiversity• Megatrendsandpatternsimpactingonagrobiodiversity• Stakeholders

2. Analysis of curricula and key issues for mainstreaming agrobiodiversity content• Opportunitiesandnichesforagrobiodiversityeducationinhighereducation• Gapsincontentrelatingtoagriculturalbiodiversity• Criticalissuesformainstreamingagrobiodiversityinhighereducation

3. Job profiles of graduates and approaches and options for mainstreaming• Profilesofgraduates• Approachestofacilitateagrobiodiversityeducation• Optionsformainstreamingofagrobiodiversityinhighereducation

12


• Actionplan,taskforceandagrobiodiversitycurriculumframework• Actionplanandtaskforce• Agrobiodiversitycurriculumframework.

Situation analysis of agrobiodiversity and the context for its teaching and learning

Definitions of agrobiodiversityAdiscussionemergedintheworkshoponthedefinitionofagrobiodiversity.Theworkinggroups thereforestudiedseveraldifferentdefinitions, twoofwhicharecitedhere:

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)‘Agricultural biodiversity is a broad term that includes all components of

biological diversity of relevance to food and agriculture and all components ofbiologicaldiversitythatconstitutetheagriculturalecosystems,alsonamedagro-ecosystems: thevarietyandvariabilityofanimals,plantsandmicro-organisms,atthegenetic,speciesandecosystemlevels,whicharenecessarytosustainkeyfunctionsoftheagro-ecosystem,itsstructureandprocesses’(ConferenceofthePartiesdecisionV/5,appendix).

Source:www.cbd.int/agro/whatis.shtml

United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)‘The variety and variability of animals, plants and micro-organisms that are

used directly or indirectly for food and agriculture, including crops, livestock,forestryand fisheries. It comprises thediversityofgenetic resources (varieties,breeds) and species used for food, fodder, fibre, fuel and pharmaceuticals. Italsoincludesthediversityofnon-harvestedspeciesthatsupportproduction(soilmicro-organisms,predators,pollinators)andthoseinthewiderenvironmentthatsupportagro-ecosystems(agricultural,pastoral,forestandaquatic)aswellasthediversityoftheagro-ecosystems.’

Source:www.fao.org/docrep/007/y5609e/y5609e01.htm

Megatrends and patterns impacting on agrobiodiversityWorking in five groups, the participants identified megatrends and patternsnow and in the next 15 years that would make it crucial to mainstreamlearning and teaching of agrobiodiversity in university education. Thegroups’analyses focusedon: foodandagriculture, science, technologyandinnovation, environment and ecosystems, socio-cultural values and incomeandpartnershipsinvolved.

Group 1. Megatrends – food and agricultureChangingfoodandnutritionpatterns:

• Morepeopleneedingfoodsecurity• Peopleconsumingmoreanimalproductsasaresultofincreasedincome

13


• Growinginterestin‘exoticfood’• Increaseinorganicfood,fairtrade,etc.• Awareness of nutrition and health benefits of agrobiodiversity (including

medicines).Impactofchangingfoodhabitsonlanduseandagriculturalbiodiversity:

• Globalization,marketinfluenceonagrobiodiversity• Mono-culturesmoredominating• Continuedconversionoflandusetoagriculture,ratherthanintensification• Increaseinuseofmoderncrops/varieties• Lossoftraditional,indigenouscropsandvarieties,creatingvulnerability• Increasedfishfarming• Biofuelvs.foodproductionissues• Increaseduseofagrobiodiversity(e.g.interestinneglectedandunderutilised

species).

Group 2. Megatrends – science, technology and innovationChanginguseofagrobiodiversity:

• Discoveryofnewproducts(forfood,nutrition,healthandotheruses)fromplantsandanimals

• Medicinalandaromaticplantsplayingamoresignificant role inhumanhealth

• IncreasedprospectingforbiodiversityinAfrica• Moredemandforunderutilizedplantandanimalspecies• Moredomesticationofplantandanimalspecies• Information and communication technologies (ICT) playing a more

significantroleinmanagingagrobiodiversity.Advancesinbreeding:

• Agriculturewillrelymoreonwildspeciesforthetransferofdesiredtraits(modernbiotechnology)

• Conventionalbreedingwillusegenesasdiverseaspossible• Indigenousknowledgeincorporatedinmodernscience• Improveddocumentationofagrobiodiversity.

Group 3. Megatrends – environment and ecosystemsChangesofagro-ecosystems:

• Increasinghumanpopulationandgrowingdemandforgoodsandservicesfromtheenvironment

• Increasinglivestockpopulation• DeforestationandforestdegradationinAfricawillcontinuetoincrease• Changesinnaturalhabitatsofspecies• Lossofbiodiversityandthreatstobiodiversityhotspots• Erosionofbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture• Expansion of monocultures (e.g. rice, sugarcane, maize, wheat, forest

plantations,livestock)• Changeinlandusetowardsbiofuels• Decreasingavailabilityofsourcesoffuel.

14


Globalenvironmentalimpacts,includingclimatechange:• Increasedpollution–air,landandwater• Increasedinvasiveandalienspeciesinecosystems• Reducedfishstocksinnaturalwatersystems• Reducedavailabilityoffreshwater;somelakesandriverswilldryup• Concernforimpactofclimatechangeonagriculturalbiodiversity• Increased occurrence of extreme weather events, such as flooding and

drought• Changingrainfallpatterns• Increasingneedfordataandnewknowledgeonagrobiodiversityandthe

environment:- Howclimatechangewillinfluenceagrobiodiversity- Howagrobiodiversitychangeswillinfluenceecosystemsustainability.

Group 4. Megatrends – socio-cultural values and incomeDemographictrendsandimpactsonagriculture:

• Populationexpansion• Increaseddemandforfood• Urbanization,associatedwith:

- Changingfoodhabitsandmarkets- Foodsubstitution- Supermarketrevolutioninfoodmarketing- Shiftfromtraditionaltomoderndiets

• Increasedpollution• Pressuresonnaturalrecoursesforagriculturalpurposes• Needforfast-growingcrops• Needforirrigation• Needfordrought-tolerantgenotypes.

Changingfoodpreferences:• Awarenessofandincreaseddemandfor,healthyandqualityfood• Likelyre-introductionoftraditionalfoods• Moreemphasisonproducinghigh-valueplantsandanimals.

Socialandinstitutionaltrends:• Lossofindigenousknowledge• Increasedawarenessofgenderissues• EmpowermentofwomenandyouthsinAfricansocietiesleadingtoequity

andequality• ImprovededucationanduseofICT• Improvedentrepreneurship.

Group 5. Megatrends – PartnershipsThe fifthgroupdiscussedthestatusofpartnerships relating toagrobiodiversityeducationandresearch(Table1).

15


Table 1. Current and desired status of partnerships for agrobiodiversity education and research

Current DesiredUniversities Poorlinksbetweenpublic

andprivateuniversities

Duplications

Strongnetworkstocreatesynergismandqualityperformance

Credittransfer

South-southpartnerships

Partnershipswithallstakeholders

Researchinstitutions

Poorlinksbetweenresearchinstitutesanddisciplines

Duplications

Researchplatforms

Focusonrelevance

South-southpartnerships

StakeholdersThe workshop participants also identified key stakeholders in agrobiodiversityeducation. These would need to be mobilized to support the process ofmainstreamingagrobiodiversityeducation.Thekeystakeholdersinclude:

• Farmersandnaturalresourcemanagers• Ministries,departmentsandagenciesofagriculture,forestry,fisheriesand

environment• Policy-makers• Universities• Research organisations and networks, including national agriculture

researchandextensionsystems(NARES)• NGOsandcommunity-basedorganizations(CBOs)• Privatesector• CBD• ConsultativeGrouponInternationalAgricultureResearch(CGIAR)• PlatformforAgrobiodiversityResearch(PAR).

Analysis of curricula and key issues for teaching and learning agrobiodiversity

Opportunities and niches for agrobiodiversity education in higher educationWhataretheopportunitiesandnichesforteachingandlearningagrobiodiversityin higher education programmes? The groups identified six opportunities andniches that could facilitate mainstreaming agricultural biodiversity in highereducation(Table2).

16


Table 2. Opportunities and niches for mainstreaming agrobiodiversity in higher education

Opportunities/niches Aspects and mechanisms to consider

Concernsforclimatechangeandinitiativestotakeaction

Improvedknowledgeofclimatechange

Adaptationtoclimatechange

Increasinginterestinandawarenessoftheimportanceofagrobiodiversityforecosystemsustainability

Globalinterestinbiodiversity

Agrobiodiversityisimportantatdifferentlevels:farmer,landscape,nationalandglobal

Growinginterestindiversification

Needforagrobiodiversitylearning

Existingrelatedprogrammesinuniversitiesandexistinghumancapacity

Existingprogrammesinuniversitiesandcollegescanbeenhancedwithagrobiodiversitycontent

Manyaspectsofagrobiodiversityarealreadybeingtaughtinuniversities

Theregionhasexperienceincurriculumdevelopmentandreview

Existingagrobiodiversitycoursesandinstitutionalframeworks

Existingstaffcapacity

Existingnetworksandplatformscanbetappedtofacilitatemainstreamingagrobiodiversityinuniversities

Networkingofinstitutionsforharnessingresources

Existenceofkeynetworksworkinginareasrelevanttoagrobiodiversity,e.g.ANAFE,RUFORUM

Useofexistingplatforms(ANAFE,RUFORUM)incapacitybuilding

MakeuseofexistingresourcesinCGIARandNARStodeveloplearningresources

Identify/develop‘centresofexcellence’

Existingknowledgecentresonagrobiodiversity

Nationalandinternationalplatforms

Exchangeprogrammes-humanresourcesexchangeacrossuniversities(short/logterm)

Sharinginformationthroughexistingorcreatingagrobiodiversitynewsletter

Interestedagenciestosupportthemainstreamingofagrobiodiversity

Fellowships

Supportiveinternationalinstitutions:CTA,Bioversity,ANAFE,etc.

ICTasamechanismforexchangeofknowledgeanddeliveryofagrobiodiversityprogrammes

UseofICTinsharinganddisseminatingagrobiodiversityinformation

MoreICT-basedlearning

17


Gaps in content relating to agricultural biodiversityHavingidentifiedopportunitiesandnichesforagrobiodiversity,theparticipantssoughttoanswer thequestion ‘Whatare theglaringgaps inagrobiodiversityeducation?’(This workshop did not specifically review current curricula.) The participantsresponded to this question based on their personal experiences as lecturers orresearch and development professionals. The five working groups captured theirideasoncards,whichwere thenorganized intoclustersduringaplenarysession.Eleven‘gapareas’relatingtoagrobiodiversitycurriculumcontentemerged(Table3).

Later in the workshop, these areas were re-visited, to form the first draftcurriculumframework(Annex2).

Table 3. Gaps in content relating to agricultural biodiversity

Area of content TopicsThevaluechainofagrobiodiversity

Effectoftradeonagrobiodiversity

Markets

Marketingofnewproducts

Utilizationandvalueaddition

Processing

Economicvaluationofagrobiodiversity

Valuechain,traditionalvs.modern

Valuechainup-scaling

Commercialisationofagrobiodiversity,includingunderutilisedspecies

Benefitsofproducts

Effectofclimatechangeonagrobiodiversity

Impactsofclimatechangeonagrobiodiversity:modelling

Impactofagricultureintensification

Threatstoagrobiodiversityandmanagementofthosethreats

Socio-economicissues,conflicts,demographicdynamics

Agrobiodiversitylinkingtolivelihood

Inter-linkagesbetweenagrobiodiversityandnutritionandhealth

Nutritionandfoodscience,socio-economicanthropology

Foodsecurity

Nutritionalsecurity

Foodcomposition

Ecosystemsservices,includingcarbonsequestration

Linksbetweenagrobiodiversityandecosystemsservices

Paymentsforenvironmentalservices

Environmentalaccounting

Ecotourism

Influenceoffragmentationonnaturalhabitats

18


Critical issues for mainstreaming agrobiodiversity in higher educationWhat are the key issues for ‘mainstreaming’ the conservation and use ofagrobiodiversityinuniversities’teachingandlearning?Theparticipantsidentifiedseven critical issues and listed a series of constraints/observations, that needto be considered by universities interested in enhancing their teaching ofagrobiodiversity(Table4).

Table 3. Gaps in content relating to agricultural biodiversity (cont.)

Area of content TopicsGeneticresources:plants,animals,microbialbiodiversity

Domesticationofagrobiodiversity

Animalgeneticresources

Below-groundbiodiversity

Aquaticbiodiversity

Breeding,includingbiofortification

Pollinationecology,pollinationaspectsandeffects

Taxonomy

Neglectedandunderutilizedplants

Awareness/promotionofagrobiodiversitypotentials

Public-privatepartnerships(internships/research)

Optimisationofpublic/privateinterests

Conservationthroughuse

Skillsforagrobiodiversityconservation

Traditionalconservationstrategies(ex situ)

Onfarmconservation

Inter-andintraspeciesdiversity

Revitalisationofdisappearingcropsandanimals

Localknowledge Traditionalconservationstrategies

Agrobiodiversityandfarmerinnovations

Sensitisationtothevalueofindigenousknowledgeonagrobiodiversity

Databases

Systemsapproachtoteachingandlearningagrobiodiversity

Whattoconserve?

Howmuchtoconserve?

Underutilizedandneglectedspecies

Mosaiclandscapes

Cross-cuttingareasofknowledge

Datacollectionmethodology,biometricsandstatistics

Participatorylearning

19


Table 4. Critical issues for mainstreaming agrobiodiversity in higher education

Key issue Constraints/observationsHowtostimulateinterestandmakeagricultural-relateddisciplinesrelevantsothattheyareattractivetostakeholders,includingstudents

Limitedjobopportunities

Littleinterestinstudyingagriculture;limitedcareeropportunities

Howtointegraterelevantdisciplinesanddevelopaholisticapproachtolearningandteachingagrobiodiversity

Fragmentationofcomponentsofthevaluechain

Lackofconvergenceintraditionaldisciplines

Poorunderstandingofgeneticvariationwithinspecies

Lackofintegrationofagrobiodiversityacrosssectors

Lackofintegrationofindigenous/localknowledgewithscientificknowledge

Neglectoflocalknowledge

Lackofsystemsapproachinextensionandteaching

Lackofmultidisciplinarycollaboration

Lackofmechanismsforfosteringinterdisciplinaryintegration

Failuretoapproachagrobiodiversityteaching,learningandresearchfromamulti-disciplinaryperspective

Howtoclarifyanddistinguishtheconceptofagrobiodiversity

Theconceptofagrobiodiversityisnotwellknown

Lackofcleardefinitionsofagrobiodiversity

Unclear/widescopeofagrobiodiversity:holistic,interdependent,bothbioticandabiotic,landscapesystems,etc.

Howtoaddressagrobiodiversityissuesinacomprehensiveandholisticmanneratalllevelsofuniversitytraining

Noagrobiodiversitycurriculum

Rigidexistingcurriculastructures:needtoregularlyreviewandchangewhennecessary

Identifytheentrypoint,e.g.anundergraduatecorecourseforagricultureandnaturalresources’management;environmentalstudies

Howtoreorientacademicstaffinemergingissuesandenhancetheirabilitiestofacilitatelearningofagrobiodiversity

Inadequatecompetenceofstaffinagrobiodiversity

Humancapacity

Lackofemphasisonlearningvs.teaching

Lackofcapacityandexpertiseinagrobiodiversityamongtrainers

Limitedavailabilityofknowledgeondiversespecies

Rigidmindset

Limitedcapacitytoconceptualizeandfacilitatelearninginagrobiodiversity

Howtobuildandsustainpartnershipsandnetworksforenhancingthelearningandteachingofagrobiodiversity

Poor/unclearlinkagebetweenresearchandaction

Weaknetworksofresearchandtraining

Weaklinksbetweenconservationistsanduniversities

Howtomobilizeresourcestosupportmainstreamingofagrobiodiversityinuniversityeducation

Limitedfinancialsupport

Lackoflearningresources

Unclearpolicyonagrobiodiversity

Infrastructuraldevelopmentforteachingandlearning

20


Job profiles of graduates and approaches and options for mainstreaming

Profile of graduatesWhat should a graduate (at professional level) be able to do, in order toappropriately respond to megatrends relating to agricultural biodiversity? Theparticipantslistedthefollowingtasks(Table5).

Table 5. Job profile of graduates relating to agrobiodiversity

Area of competence TasksSustainablelivelihood

Determinerelationsbetweenagrobiodiversityandlivelihoodandmanageagrobiodiversityforsustainablelivelihood

Supportuseofneglectedandunderutilizedspecies

Demonstratethecontributionofagrobiodiversitytosustainablelivelihoodandecosystems

Manageandfacilitateuseofdifferentformsofknowledge,includingindigenousknowledge,inuseandconservationofagrobiodiversity

Conservationofgeneticdiversity

Assessdiversityinagro-ecosystems,usingparticipatorymethods

Understandecologicalprinciplesofagro-ecosystems

Designconservationstrategies,ex situ,in situandonfarm

Integratednaturalresourcesmanagement

Applyasystemsapproachtomanagementandconservationofagrobiodiversity

Identify,mapandcharacterizeallcomponentsofagrobiodiversity

Manageintegrated,complexsystems

Designandimplementadaptivemanagementstrategiesonagrobiodiversity

Communicateagrobiodiversityissuesatvariouslevels

Constructivelyoperateininterdisciplinary/multidisciplinaryteams

Workwithpeopleinrelateddisciplines

Mobilizeandcoordinateactivitiesofallstakeholdersforeffectivemanagementandsustainableuseofagrobiodiversity

Createandfacilitateplatformsforinteraction,dialogueandjointactiononagrobiodiversityissues,engagingawiderangeofstakeholders

Policyadvocacyandimplementation

Advisefarmers,policy-makers,etc.onpolicyissues

Lobby,advocateanddialoguetoinfluencepolicyreformstopromoteandintegrateagrobiodiversityinthevaluechain

Articulateandconsciouslyapplypolicyandlegalrequirementsatnational,regionalandinternationallevels,toensurefairnessandequityinsharingbenefitsofagrobiodiversity

Implementpolicies,e.g.theInternationalTreatyonPlantGeneticResourcesforFoodandAgriculture

Researchanddevelopment

Facilitateandundertakeresearchonagrobiodiversity

Designandconductresearchinagrobiodiversityusingavailabletoolsandmethods

Thinkcriticallyandfacilitatecollectiveinitiativesforconservation,rehabilitationandrestorationofagrobiodiversity

Stimulateandsupportenterprisedevelopmentforincreasingbenefitsofagrobiodiversitytoindividualsandthesociety(valueaddition)

21


Approaches to facilitating agrobiodiversity educationAgainst this analysis, the workshop participants then suggested a set ofapproachesthatcouldfacilitatethemainstreamingofagrobiodiversity(Table6).

Table 6. Approaches to facilitate the mainstreaming of agrobiodiversity education

Educational approaches Aspects/mechanisms to considerParticipatorydesignofeducation,respondingtomarketneeds

Respondtothedemandofstudentsinrenamingandredesigningdegreeprogrammesforthejobmarket

Haveabottom-upapproachbasedonproblem-solvingandaddressingknowledge-to-action

Inter-disciplinarydesignanddelivery

Teachagrobiodiversityasamulti-disciplinarysubject

Integratedagrobiodiversitycourses

Participatoryandmulti-/inter-/intra-disciplinarycurriculadevelopment

Jointacademicprogrammesbetweenfacultiesandbetweenuniversitieswithinaregion

Teachhealthissues,workingwithmedicaldoctors

Experientialandpractical-orienteddeliverymethods

Examiningstudentsontheapplicationofknowledge-into-action

Attachmentsandinternshipsforstudents,includingpracticalattachments

Mentoringofthenextgeneration,e.g.throughpaidassistance-ships

Flexiblelearningapproach Introducemodularlearning

Options for mainstreaming of agrobiodiversity in higher educationHow should universities respond to this need for developing competences forconserving and managing agrobiodiversity? Working first in groups, then inplenary,theworkshopparticipantssuggestedfivedifferent,butcomplementary,optionsformainstreamingofagrobiodiversityinhighereducation,eachonewithitsadvantagesandchallenges(Table7):

• Option1.Integrateagrobiodiversityinexistingcurricula• Option2.Shortcoursesinagrobiodiversity(on-the-jobtraining)• Option3.Diplomainagrobiodiversity• Option4.PostgraduateDiploma• Option5.MScandPhDoptions.

22


Table 7. Options for mainstreaming of agrobiodiversity in higher education

Option Advantages Challenges

Integrateinexistingcurricula

Costeffective:useofexistingresources

Value-additiontotheprogramme–integratesemergingissues

Integrationcanbe‘soft’andgradual

Easytoimplement

Easytobeapprovedbythebureaucraticprocess

Catalyseschange

Completeprofileofagrobiodiversitygraduatenotrealized

Difficulttointegrateduetoinflexibilityofprogrammes

Limitsthecoverageofagrobiodiversityissues

Shortcourses Easyenrollment

Easilyfitinindividualsworkingschedules

Easiertomount

Easiertogetresourcepersons

Costeffectives

Noagelimits

Flexibleintime,venueetc

Doesnotrequireformalapproval

Targetsthoseinthejobmarket

Maybeofferedbydistancelearning

Cantarget/tailorusergroups

Canbeplatformforsharingacrossstakeholders

Canbeadaptedfore-learning

Limitedtimefordelivery

Limitednumberofparticipatesperenrollment

Heterogeneityofparticipants

Limiteddepth

Diplomainagrobiodiversity

Provideapooloffieldorientedtechnicians

Workcloserwithstakeholders

Cost-effectivebecauseitischeapertotrainlargenumbers

MorewomenareenrolledinDiplomaprogrammes

Takelesstimetograduate

Limitedvalueadditionbecausegraduateshavetoonarrowcompetence

Inadequatebasicscienceslimitsstudentsunderstandingofagrobiodiversity

LimitedknowledgeastheDiplomaprogrammeisshort

Lesschanceofemployment

23


Action Plan, Task Force and agrobiodiversity curriculum framework

Action Plan and Task ForceATask forceonagrobiodiversityeducationwasestablishedat theworkshop,consisting of representatives of Bioversity International, RUFORUM, ANAFEandCTA.

TheTaskForcewillleadtheimplementationoftheworkshoprecommendations,whichwerecapturedinadraftActionPlan(Table8).

Agrobiodiversity curriculum frameworkBuilding on the workshop results described above, the participants starteddeveloping a curriculum framework. First, ten ‘clusters’, or topics, of thecurriculum were agreed upon. Secondly, the clusters were assigned to smallworkinggroups,whodescribethemingreaterdetail.Foreachcluster,thegroupsdrafted: Introduction; Main learning points; Contents; Methods; Bibliographyand;Internetresources.Thecurriculumframework,consistingofthepreliminaryclustersortopicsisattachedinAnnex2.NOTE:Thisframeworkisincompleteandpreliminaryandwillrequirefurtherconsultationpost-workshop,aprocesswhichis lead by the Task Force. The aim is to publish a final document, preliminaryentitled‘GuidelinesforDevelopingAgrobiodiversityCurricula’in2010.

Table 7. Options for mainstreaming of agrobiodiversity in higher education (cont.)

Option Advantages Challenges

PostgraduateDiploma

Learncontentfast

Allowsspecializationanddiversificationafteracquiringbasicagricultureknowledge

Studentshavefieldexperience

CanbeupgradedtoMasters

Studentscanworkwithfarmers

Canattractmorewomen

Lessresearchcompetence

Doesnotaddtothenumberofpeopleinthelabourmarket

MScandPhDoptions

Greaterscopeforin-depthstudies(basicsalreadycovered)

Thesisanddissertation–research,publications

Opportunitytocreatenewprograms–flexibilityinprogramdesign

Existingplatformatregionallevels(facilities,humanresources,finances)

Mayattractstudentsifproperlydesigned

Humancapital,resourcesatlocalandregionallevels

Takeslongertodevelopaprogramandgetapproval(longtermstrategy)

Situationanalysis/needsassessmentrequiredtoestablishreadinessoflabourmarketforthegraduates

24


Table 8. Action Plan for mainstreaming agrobiodiversity education

Task Process Who? Time frame Notes

EstablishaTaskForceonagrobiodiversityeducation

DevelopTermsofReferenceforTaskForce

Aninclusiveprocessisimportant

Mainactorstoconfirminwriting

RUFORUMandANAFEinfluencinguniversities

Bioversityhasakeysupportingrole,(e.g.sharingscientificinformation)andcancontributestafftimeoffromitsCapacityDevelopmentUnitinNairobiandRome

ANAFE

RUFORUM

Bioversity

CTA

Chair:tobeconfirmed(ANAFEhasbeensuggested)

February RUFORUMandANAFEplayingcomplementaryroles

Collaborationakeyforsuccess

Workshopproceedings

Editing

Printing

Distribution

Bioversitytakingthelead(PerRudebjer),inconsultationwiththeTaskForceandPaulKibwika

Mid-May ProductionanddistributionsponsoredbyCommonwealthofLearning

Finalizethecurriculumframework

On-lineWikidialogue

HostedatPlatformforAgrobiodiversityResearch(PAR)

http://www.agrobiodiversityplatform.org/

BoudyVanSchagen(lead)+committedWSparticipants+additionalinterestedstakeholders

1stdraftbyendFebruary

InvolveotherANAFE/RUFORUMmembers

Participantstoproposeotherinterestedpersons

Finalizeastrategyformainstreamingagrobiodiversityatdifferentlevelsofeducation

Analyzeandvalidatetheoptionsformainstreamingidentifiedintheworkshop

Reachaconsensusonstrategicapproachforenhancingagrobiodiversityabilitiesattherespectivelevelofeducation:BSc,MScandshortcourses

Meetingisneededtodiscusshowtomoveforward

TaskForce Theframeworkshouldbeanopensource,foreveryonetouse

Summarypaper/workshopbrief

Capturekeymessagesfromtheworkshop

Usedforcreatingawarenesswithinuniversitiesandamongotherstakeholders

Tofacilitateresourcemobilization

ANAFE,RUFORUM

May ReviewandinputsofBioversity,CTAandotherpartners

Engaging/informingotherstakeholders

Plananawareness‘campaign’toinformrelevantstakeholders,including

AssociationofAfricanUniversities(AAU),SROsandothers

InformDeansandViceChancellorsofrelevantfaculties

ANAFE,RUFORUM

Tobedecided

SharingworkshopprocessandoutputswithWestandCentralAfricainstitutions

Detailedprocesstobedeveloped

Assessneedsforafollow-upworkshopforFrancophonecountries

SeekfundsfortranslationofworkshopoutputsinFrench

TaskForce Tobedecided

25


Table 8. Action Plan for mainstreaming agrobiodiversity education (cont.)

Task Process Who? Time frame Notes

Verifyingneedsthroughadditionaldatacollectiononagrobiodiversityeducation.

Approachtobediscussedandagreedupon

Usingthethemesofthecurriculumframeworktoanalysehowtheseareaddressedintrainingprogrammescouldbeonewayforward

Statusofagrobiodiversityeducationverified,documentedandshared

Comparisonsbetweenregionsanoption

TaskForce Tobedecided

SharetheworkshopoutputsatWorldAgroforestryCongress23-29August,2009

Synergiesbetweenagrobiodiversityandagroforestryastartingpoint

InformtheCongressaboutwhatishappeninginAfricanUniversities

ThelogicalplaceforacontributionwouldbetheTechnicalSessionon‘IntegratingDisciplinesthroughAgroforestryEducation’,whichAissetouYayeisleading

ANAFEtodiscusswiththeconference’sglobalorganizingcommitteeandreportbacktotheTaskForce

Formattobedecided(presentationorposter?)

ANAFEtodiscusswiththeconference’sglobalorganizingcommitteeandreportbacktotheTaskForce

TaskForcetopreparetheworkshoppaper/poster

August2009

Resourcemobilization

Buildacasefortheneedtofacilitatemainstreamingofagrobiodiversityinhighereducation

Processtobedefined

NeedtoidentifyclearlydefinedoutputsWhatdoestheTaskForcewanttogetoutoftheprocess?

Phasedapproach

Realisticbudget

Potentialco-fundingpartnerstobeidentified

Bringstakeholderstogether

TaskForce ?

Part III. Presentations

28


Session1–Creatingacommonunderstandingofagrobiodiversityandchallengesofteachingagrobiodiversityinuniversities

Chair: Mikkel Grum

Keynote presentation: Agrobiodiversity in food systems, ecosystems and education systemsPer G. RudebjerScientist, Capacity Development Unit, Bioversity International

Introduction

Theworlds’foodsystemneedstofeedagrowingpopulationatatimeofrapidchange in consumer demands and threats such as those posed by climatechange.Toincreasefoodsecurity,thegeneralapproachhasbeenintensificationthroughacombinationofgenetic,agronomicandagrichemicalmeasures, inanincreasinglyglobalizedmarket.

Some Asian countries, like China and Vietnam, have used this approachsuccessfully(butoftenatenvironmentalcosts).Manyothercountries,especiallyinSub-SaharanAfrica,stillfallshortoftheMDGtargetsforfoodsecurity,leavingmillionsofpoorfarmershungryatleastpartoftheyear.Thesefarmersoftenliveinmarginalareaslesssuitableformodern‘greenrevolution’agriculture,orelselackcapitalandresourcestopurchase improvedseeds, fertilizerandagrochemicalsrequiredforsuchvarietiestothrive.

Farmers in marginal areas often depend on agriculture based on locallydomesticatedlandracesofawidevarietyofspecies,includingwildspecies.Lowexternalinputsandinformalseedsystemsarekeyfeatures.Riskmitigation,ratherthanmaximumyield,isoftenakeystrategy.Preferredvarietiestendtoberobustandresistanttostressessuchasdroughtorpests.Yet,scientistsinagriculturalscience and development have only recently started to work with farmers tounderstandandenhancesuchtraditionalsystems.

Farmers are also custodians of valuable genetic resources that have oftenvanishedfrommodernagriculturallandscapesandthatcontaintraitsthatmightbeusedforbreedingnewvarieties,suchasthoserequiredintheadaptationtoclimatechange.Farmer-managedgenetic resourcesalsoplayakey role in theimplementation of the conventions on biodiversity, combating desertificationand climate change. Agrobiodiversity, including below-ground microorganisms,contributetoprovidingecosystemsservicesthatarenecessaryforasustainableagriculture.

Thispaperfirstdiscussesagrobiodiversityinfoodsystems,comparingmodernintensiveagriculturewithtraditionalagriculturesystems.Secondlyitdiscussesthefunctionandtrendsofagrobiodiversityattheecosystemslevel.Lastly,thepaper

29


reflects on how university education today is addressing agrobiodiversity in itseducationprogrammesandwhatmightbedesirableforfuturecurriculumreviews.

Agrobiodiversity in food systems

Global agriculturehascome todependona verynarrow rangeof crops.Onlythree– rice,wheatandmaize–account forabouthalfof theworld’s intakeofcaloriesandproteinand30cropsprovide95%ofourfoodenergy.Thisistobecomparedwiththeestimated7000plantspeciesthathavebeenusedforfoodoranimalfeedgloballyatonetimeorother,oraround150thatarecommercializedonaglobalscale(Wilson,1992).

Tropical agricultural development has, since the 1960s Green Revolution,followedashiftfromatraditionaltoamodernagriculturalapproach(Table9).Thisshifthassucceededinraisingtheproductionmany-foldinAsia’s‘ricebowls’orinhigh-potentialwheat-andmaize-growingareas.IthasbeenlesssuccessfulinotherenvironmentssuchastheuplandsinSoutheastAsia,orinthedrylandareasofSub-SaharanAfrica. Insuchareas,hundredsofneglectedandunderutilizedplant and animal species continue to be important locally or sub-regionally, inparticularforpoorcommunities.

Table 9. Comparison of modern and traditional agricultural approaches

Modern TraditionalHighyieldstrategy Riskmanagementstrategy

Fewspecies Manyspecies,includingthosecollectedinthewild

Commoditieswithglobalmarketchains Shortmarketchains

Supermarketdominance Subsistence/localmarkets(somealsohaveimportantregionalmarkets);

Standardizedproducts,tomeetmarketrequirements

Variableproducts,lackofstandardsandregulations

Specializationalongthevaluechain Integratedsystems

Modernvarieties,includinghybrids,designedforspecificenvironments

Robustlandracestowithstandstress

Breedingbyresearchcentresandseedcompanies

Traditionalvarietyselectionbyfarmers

Formalseedsystems,includingprivatesector Informalseedsystems(oftenexchangedforfree)

Highinputofseeds,fertilizers,agrochemicals,irrigation

Lowinput–lowoutput

Advancedagriculturaltechnologies,includingfoodprocessing

Limited/low-techpost-harvestprocessing

Policy-intensive,includingcompetitionwithsubsidizedproductionintheNorth

Neglectedbypolicy-makers

Scientificknowledgesystem Traditionalknowledgesystem

Fastfood-dominatesresearchanddevelopmentinvestmentsinagriculture

Slowfood-limitedinvestmentininnovationandeducation

30


Modern agriculture is often linked to negative environmental impacts,including: lossofbiodiversity,unsustainablewateruseandpollutionofsoilandwaterbyagrochemicalsandexcessfertilizers.

There is an alarming erosion of the genetic complexity of agrobiodiversity,caused by substitution of modern varieties for local landraces, by habitat lossandbydegradation,both innatural andagricultural ecosystems.Forexample,in Nepal, the area planted to modern rice varieties increased from only 7000hectaresin1965to1.16millionhain2000(Figure1),leadingtoanalarminglossoflocalcultivars.Someofthesevarietiesandtheirwildrelatives,areconservedingenebanks,butnotallcanbesavedthatway.Conservationofgeneticresourcesin situandonfarmsisacriticalcomplementtogenebanks.

Figure 1.Area(1000ha)planted(orharvested)tomodernvarietiesofriceinNepal.Source:FAOSTATDatabase,2006,Rome.

Similarly, the world’s animal genetic resources for food and agriculture arethreatenedandmanybreedshavebeenlostinthelast100years.Itisestimatedthat20%oftheworlds’breedsareatriskandthat9%arealreadyextinct(FAO,2007).

Forestgenetic resources,onwhichmillionsofpeopledepend for foodandtraditional medicines and many other products, are under great stress, giventhecontinueddeforestationanddegradationofforestresources,asreportedbyFAO’sForestResourceAssessment(FAO,2005).

Akeyquestion is:cantheworlds’ foodsystemsmakebetteruseabroaderrange of agrobiodiversity? Some recent trends give hope: Globally, there is anincreasing interest in exotic food, facilitated by cheap transport and effectivemarket chains. Supermarkets now sell food from all over the world, productsthatwerehardto findonlya fewyearsback.Organicagricultureandfair tradeare growing fast too. Speciality foods, such as cacao or coffee, have a briskmarket,atpremiumprices.Suchtrendsprovidenewopportunitiesforfarmerstoparticipategainfullyinthemarketchain.

Thereisagrowingawarenessofthevalueofusingawiderrangeofdiversityin the food systems. Traditional/local grains, pulses, vegetables and fruits canalsooftenbeverynutritious.Neglectedandunderutilizedspecies,suchasminor

Modern rice varieties in Nepal, 1000 ha1400

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

01965 1970 1975 1980 1983 1993 1996 2000

31


millets, leafy vegetables or local fruits, are starting to gain increased attentionin research, development and marketing. The launch, in November 2008, of‘CropsForTheFuture’www.cropsforthefuture.org/,topromote,informandshareknowledge about neglected and underutilized species, is one example of thisrecognition.

Bioversity International has in the last decade led successful projects tocommercializespeciessuchasquinoainPeru,AfricanleafyvegetablesinKenya,minormillets in Indiaor rocketsalad in Italy.Manymorespeciesarewaitingtobe‘discovered’.

Thetoolsandmethodsdevelopedforsuchenhancementcannowbescaledup for a wider range of crops and in a broader geographic area. The toolsdiffer from main-stream agronomy because they require a focus on the entireproductionandmarketingchainandastrongemphasisonparticipatoryactionresearch.Thisisinstarkcontrasttothespecializationalongthemarketchainthatis found in commodity crops. These differences have repercussions regardingwhatandhowtoteach.

Agrobiodiversity in ecosystems

Notonlydoesagrobiodiversityincludeincludesplant,animalandforestgeneticresources.Italsoprovidesservicessuchaspollination,soilprocesses,watershedservicesandcarbonandnutrientcycling,allofwhicharerequiredforsustainableagriculture development. Agrobiodiversity contains the genetic variation thatis required for continuedadaptationandevolutionof species (essential for theadaptationtoclimatechange).Accordingly,theConventionofBiologicalDiversity(CBD)includesecosystemfunctionsinitsdefinitionofagrobiodiversity:

‘… all components of biological diversity that constitute the agro-ecosystem: the variety and variability of animals, plants and micro-organisms, at the genetic, species and ecosystem levels, which arenecessary to sustain key functions of the agro-ecosystem, its structureandprocesses’(CBD,2000).

In the past decade, policy-makers have become aware of the role ofagrobiodiversityinsustainingproductionsystemsforfuturegenerations.Originallynot mentioned in the Convention on Biological Diversity, agrobiodiversitywas added in a decision at the third Conference of the Parties in 1996 (CBD,1996). Agrobiodiversity is currently a thematic programmes under the CBD.TheUNConventiononCombatingDesertificationalsodependsonagriculturalbiodiversityforitsimplementation.

Recognizingthemulti-disciplinarynatureofagrobiodiversity,FAOestablishedaCommissiononGeneticResourcesforFoodandAgriculture.TheCommissionplays an important role in monitoring the status of agricultural biodiversity,coordinating the development of global plans of actions and advising on theirimplementation.

32


Manyagro-ecosystemsareundergreatstress,asaresultofarangeofwell-known drivers. Is it possible to move towards a more agrobiodiversity-friendlyagricultureapproach?Whatalternativeoptionsareavailablethatcanslowdown,orreversethedeclineofecosystemsservices?Afewexamplescanbementioned:

• conservation organizations have in recent years adopted a landscapeapproach to biodiversity conservation. Protected areas cannot do thejobalone. It is recognizedthat farmer-managed landscapemosaicsplayimportantrolesinconservationstrategies

• schemesforpaymentsforenvironmentalservices–biodiversityconservation,watershed functions and carbon sequestration – can provide alternativeincomeopportunitiesorotherbenefitssuchassecuretenurerights

• somefarmer-managed landscapes,suchasmulti-storeyagroforestscansustainaveryhigh levelofbiologicaldiversityandmaintainmanyofthefunctionsofanaturalecosystem

• agro-tourismisexpandingasanalternativeincomesource.

Agrobiodiversity in educational systems

Managingbiodiversityinagriculturalecosystemsisacomplex,dynamicprocess,involvingmultiplestakeholdersatmultiplescales.Agrobiodiversity is influencedby a range of biophysical, socio-economic, cultural and policy drivers. Notinfrequently conflicts arise over natural resources. Given such complexity, howshould universities teach agrobiodiversity, to develop graduates with ability tofacilitatetheconservationandsustainableuseofagriculturalbiodiversity?

A fairly new concept, agrobiodiversity has only recently started to appear,in a rather limited way, in some university curricula. Full programmes onagrobiodiversity hardly exist and even courses on agrobiodiversity are hardto find, as confirmed by two surveys conducted by Bioversity International, inEasternandSouthernAfricaandLatinAmerica,respectively.

Itistimetoreviewhowtoteachandlearnagrobiodiversity.Thiswouldalsobeadirectresponseto internationalpolicycommitments.Forexample, theGlobalPlan of Action for Animal Genetic Resources, in its strategic areas for action,includes ‘Policies, Institutions and Capacity Building’ as one of four strategicpriority areas (FAO, 2007). It notes that a ‘lack of trained personnel is a majorimpediment todevelopingand implementinganimalgenetic resourcespolicies,strategies,programmesandprojects’.Itemphasizesthateducationandtrainingtobuildsustainablecapacityinallpriorityareasisrequired.

Morespecifically,thePlanofActionforAnimalGeneticResourcesidentifiedthefollowingactions,inrelationtothestrengtheningofnationaleducationalandresearchfacilities:

• identifyneedsforresearchandeducation• promotetheformationofrelevantcadresofexperts,nationallyorthrough

internationaltraining• reviewnationalresearchandeducationcapabilities inrelevantfieldsand

establishtargetsfortraining.

33


• establishorstrengthenrelevantresearch,trainingandextensioninstitutionsto support efforts to characterize, inventory and monitor trends andassociated risks, sustainably use and develop and conserve animalgeneticresources

• reviewthenationaleducationalneedoflivestockkeepers,whilerespectingtraditionalknowledgeandindigenouspractices.

Similar capacity development targets can be found in many other policyinstruments of relevance to agricultural biodiversity, including the Conventionon Biological Diversity, the UN Framework Convention on Climate Changeand the UN Convention to Combating Desertification. Strengthening capacityon agricultural biodiversity is also required for implementing the AgriculturalBiodiversityInitiativeforAfrica(ABIA),currentlybeingdevelopedbytheForumforAgricultureResearchinAfrica(FARA)andBioversityInternational.

ThisworkshopisconvenedtodiscusshowtomainstreamagrobiodiversityinuniversityprogrammesinSub-SaharanAfrica.Theworkshopwilltakestockofthedimensionsofagriculturalbiodiversity,considerhowuniversitiesaddressthematpresentandhowtheyshouldbetaughtinfuture.Someofthekeyquestionstoexploreinclude:

• the niche for agrobiodiversity in education systems dominated bycommoditycrops

• managingplant,animalandforestgeneticresourcesinanintegratedway• the role of socio-economics and nutrition and health in agricultural and

forestryprogrammes• learning approaches for developing abilities to enhance neglected and

underutilizedspecies• whatcanbe learnt fromeducational innovation in relatedareassuchas

agroforestry,integratedpestmanagementorfarmerfieldschools?

References

CBD.1996.ConventiononBiologicalDiversity1996.COP3DecisionIII/11www.cbd.int/decisions/cop-03.shtml?m=cop-03<Accessed28June2008>

FAO.2005.GlobalForestResourcesAssessment2005.FAO,Rome,ItalyFAO. 2007. The State of the World’s Animal Genetic Resources for Food and

Agriculture.RischkowskyB,PillingD.Editors.FAO,Rome,Italy.Wilson,E.O.1992.TheDiversityofLife.Penguin,London,UK.Pp432.

http://www.cbd.int/decisions/cop-03.shtml?m=cop-03

http://www.cbd.int/decisions/cop-03.shtml?m=cop-03

34


Keynote presentation: Challenges and approaches to learning and teaching agrobiodiversity

Lenah NakhoneEgerton University, Kenya

Learning points

• Learning agrobiodiversity is an incentive to sustainable utilization andconservationofagrobiodiversity.

• Researchinagrobiodiversitywillcreatenewknowledgethatcanbeusedbyuniversitiesforitseffectivelearningandteaching.

• IntegratingagrobiodiversitymodulesinexistingcurriculawillenhancethelearningofagrobiodiversityinuniversitiesinSub-SaharanAfrica.

• A paradigm shift in the training and education system to participatory,inclusive approaches focusing on the reality at farmers level. Generalwillingness to draw lessons from experience is vital in learning andteachingagrobiodiversity.

• Development of enabling and responsive policies on agrobiodiversitydependsonthelevelofawarenessofthepolicy-makersandprofessionalsinagricultureandrelateddisciplines.

Overview of the topic

Agrobiodiversity encompasses the variety and variability of animals, plantsand microorganisms that are necessary to sustain key functions of the agro-ecosystem, its structure and processes for and in support of, food productionand foodsecurity.Asanapproach todevelopmentandcooperationstrategies,agrobiodiversity focuses on improvement of poor people’s livelihoods throughsustainable utilization and management. Local knowledge and culture can beconsidered an essential part of agrobiodiversity as it is the human activity ofagriculturewhichconservesthisdiversity.

Agrobiodiversity is an important asset for people’s livelihoods. Its rapiddecrease affects most directly the people who are living in close relationshipwithanddependupon it.Africa’sgreatestchallenge ispoverty, food insecurityand nutrition-related problems. The sustainable use and conservation ofagrobiodiversity is an important element in achieving food security. Applyingagrobiodiversity in farming is a skill that is learned either through experienceor formal learning.Topromoteagrobiodiversity,wemust influence the farmers’capacity to manage it. This requires professionals in agriculture and relatedfieldswhocancarryout research inagrobiodiversity,disseminate theacquiredknowledgeandconserveagrobiodiversity.

Training is an important incentive for the use and conservation ofagrobiodiversity. It is a motivating influence for the use and conservation of

35

Part 1. Opening and setting the scene

agrobiodiversity. Inthepast,professionalshavebeentrainedintechniquesandmethods of identification and conservation of agricultural genetic resources.Theseskillsneed tobecomplementedwithan increasedunderstandingof thelinkagebetweenthenatural resourcesandpeople’s livelihoods, thesustainableutilization of agrobiodiversity and appreciation of the local knowledge of thefarmers.Itisthereforenecessarytobuildcapacitythroughlearningandteachingat universities in Africa, to be able to promote the sustainable utilization andmanagement of agrobiodiversity to counteract poverty, food insecurity andgenerallymeettheMillenniumDevelopmentGoalofpovertyalleviation

However,thereareseveralchallengestolearningandteachingagrobiodiversity.Thereisneedforaparadigmshiftinthetrainingandeducationsystemtowardsparticipatory,inclusiveapproachesthatfocusonrealityatthefarmerlevel.Thereis need for a change in attitude of researchers, policy-makers and extensionworkers and a willingness to draw lessons from experience available fromsuccessful case studies. Integration of agrobiodiversity can only be supportedby those researchers and other professionals who are eager to experimentwith farmers to conserve agrobiodiversity. It is necessary to integrate farmerknowledge, innovationandpractices in researchandextension.Theattitudeofsuperiorityinthecustodianshipofknowledgebyuniversitystaffandresearchersisamajorchallenge.

Foreffectivelearning,thereisaneedtodevelopuniversitycurriculathatarerelevanttothefarmerssituation‘ontheground’.Currently,modulesthatintegrateagrobiodiversityinvariousdisciplinesarelacking.Researchinagrobiodiversityisneededtogeneratenewknowledgethatmaybe included incurriculaandalsoin extension. A combination of local and scientific knowledge in research andextensioncantranslateintorelevantcurricula.

In addition, getting the relevant courses into university programmes is achallenge,especiallyatundergraduatelevel.Theapprovalofanewprogrammetakes time. There are several stages where different committees assess thecurriculumbeforeapprovalisgivenbytheuniversitySenate.Analternativeoptionmaybetoincorporatemodulesonagrobiodiversityintoexistingprogrammesandcourses.Thismaybedoneduringtheregularcurriculumreview.

Another major challenge is the dwindling interest in agriculture. There is adramaticdecreaseinthenumberofstudentswhoopttotakeagriculture-relatedcourses inKenyanuniversities.Thishasbeenattributedto lackofemploymentopportunitiesforgraduatesinthisfield.Sowhereasappropriatecurriculamaybedeveloped, thenumbersofavailablestudents to learnagrobiodiversitymaybelimited.

Lackofawarenessofagrobiodiversitybydecision-makersandprofessionalscan create an obstacle in learning and teaching agrobiodiversity. Publicinformation and awareness creation should serve as a basis for change inattitudes and development of interest and understanding of agrobiodiversity.In Kenya, the existing policy frameworks and legal regimes have not beenresponsivetoactivitiesofagrobiodiversityconservationanditssustainableuse.Thedraftenvironmentpolicyof2008proposesabroadrangeofmeasuresandactions responding to key environmental issues and challenges. There is need

36


for enabling, effective and responsive policies and legal frameworks that willcreate institutional structures that address agrobiodiversity conservation andsustainable use. Some of the policy actions may include capacity building atinstitutionallevels.Thiswillprovideprofessionalswhocansupportfarmersintheconservationanduseoftheirresources.

Approaches to learning are varied depending on the age of the learners.Learning has shifted from only knowledge to the ability to perform tasks.For a person to do this there is need to have a combination of necessaryknowledge, skills and attitudes. Generally, building on prior experience is anefficient way of learning, especially so in agrobiodiversity. At university, theteachingofagrobiodiversityneedstobebasedontheactiveparticipationofthelearners.Experimentationwithfarmersandsupporttofarmersthroughresearchshould be adopted by the university staff. Experiential learning is central incommunication on agrobiodiversity, which indeed is a cross-cutting issue. Ingeneral,competence-basededucationisthewayforwardforuniversitiesifwearetosucceedinteachingagrobiodiversity.

Recommended reading

Atlere AF. 1994. Conservation of plant genetic resources in Sub-SaharanAfrica,In:PutterA.(Editor)1994.SafeguardingtheGeneticBasisofAfrica’sTraditionalCrops.ProceedingsofaCTA/IBPGR/KARI/UNEPseminar,5-9Oct.1992,Nairobi,Kenya.InternationalPlantGeneticResourcesInstituteandCTA.IPGRI,Rome,Italy.

CromwellE,CooperD,MulvanyP.1999.Agriculture,biodiversityandlivelihood:issues and entry points for development agencies. Final Report. ODI,London,UK.

FAO2005.BuildingonGender,AgrobiodiversityandLocalKnowledge.ATrainingManual.FAO,Rome,Italy.

KibwanaOT,HaileML,VanVeldhuizenL.2001.Clappingwithtwohands:bringingtogether local and outside knowledge for innovation in land husbandry inTanzaniaandEthiopia.J.Agric.Edu.Ext.7/3,133-142.

Useful websites

FoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations.AgriculturalbiodiversityinFAO:www.fao.org/biodiversity/biodiversity-home/en/

The World Bank. Indigenous Knowledge Program: www.worldbank.org/afr/ik/what.htm

37


Session2–Sharingexperiencesandperspectivesonagrobiodiversity:Agrobiodiversityconservation

Chair: Oudara Souvannavong

Conservation of plant genetic resources, including crop wild relativesDr. Zachary MuthamiaKenya Agricultural Research Institute, National Genebank of Kenya

Learning points

• Genebanksareimportantasrepositoriesofgermplasm• Foreffectiveconservation,soundstandardsneedtobeadheredto• Stronglinkswithusersarecrucial• Needforcapacitybuildinginmoderntoolse.g.biotechnology,taxonomy,

pre-breeding• Needforcollaborationwithotherplantgeneticresourcesinstitutions• Importanceofsharinginformation.


Genebankssupportcropimprovementbyprovidingimportantgenesintheformofseedsofcropsandtheirwildrelatives.Theyprovidebreedersandotheruserswithusefulgermplasmforcropimprovementandotherrelatedresearchactivities.Theyaretheonlysecurityincaseofthelossofimportantgermplasm.Genebanksactasaback-upforgermplasminothercountries.

Techniques for conserving orthodox seeds involve drying seeds to lowmoisture content and storing them in low temperature in special containers.The physiological storage behaviour and inherent longevity of each specieswill dictate the mode of conservation. Seed storage is most preferred due toits practicality. This is the main conservation method for species producingorthodox seeds that tolerate desiccation to low moisture content and storageat lowtemperatures.Mostarable,forageandforestspeciesfall inthecategoryoforthodoxseeds.Someotherseedsalsotoleratecombinationsofdesiccationand low temperatures. Recalcitrant seeds do not survive desiccation and lowtemperatures.Theserequiredifferenttechniquesforconservation.

Mostgenebankshaveorganizedtheiroperationsasfollows:• Explorationandcollection• Seedscienceandconservation• Characterization,regenerationandmultiplication• On-farmconservation• Documentationandinformationdissemination.

38


Assemblingaccessionsinvolvescollectionsinthefield,orthroughdonations.Oncereceivedsamplesareaddedto theexistingcollection, theyhavetomeetthe required quantity and quality standards and accompanying informationrequirementsincludingpassportdataandothercollectioninformation.Theseedsarecleaned,moisturedetermined,dried,viability-testedandpackaged.

Highlevelsofseedviabilityarerequired.Theroutinemonitoringofthisviabilitywill determine when to regenerate the accession. To minimize genetic drift,adequatenumbersofplantsaregrownandsampled.Controlledpollinationandisolationshouldbemaintained.

Seedsshouldbeharvestedonreachingphysiologicalmaturityandprocessedunderoptimalconditionstoensurehighviability.Lowhumidityallowsfastdryingoftheseedswhilehighhumiditywilldelayseeddryingleadingtodeterioration.

Challenges in genebank management

• Inadequatefundingandbureaucracy• Inadequatehumanresourcesandinfrastructure• Inappropriateinstitutionalarrangements• Absenceofsupportivenationalpoliciesandlaws• Highmaintenancecosts• Inadequatenetworking,hencelowgermplasmutilization• Risks associated with germplasm conservation include climate change

andgeneticerosion• Appropriate information management is key to sound database and

informationdissemination.

Areas that should be strengthened

• Scientificcapacitybuildinginareassuchaspre-breeding,biotechnologytools,taxonomy,documentationandcharacterization

• Thecentralpositionthatuniversitiesplay• Collaborativeactivities,e.g.seedbiologystudies,collection• Researchmethodologiesinconservationofplantgeneticresources• Jointthesessupervision• Hands-on training, e.g. student attachment programmes, linking theory

andpractice• Importanceofinformationsharing• Supportivepoliciesthataddressthefollowing:

- ImplementationoftheInternationalTreatyforPlantGeneticResourcesforFoodandAgriculture,e.g.MaterialTransferAgreements

- Plantgeneticresourceslegislationandinstitutionalarrangements- Accessandbenefit-sharingregimes- Bio-prospectingandpatenting.

39


Recommended reading

RaoNK,HansonJ,DullooME,GoldbergE.2006.ManualofSeedHandling inGenebanks.BioversityInternational,Rome.

FAO. 1997. The State of the World’s Plant Genetic Resources for Food andAgriculture.FoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations,Rome.

National Information Sharing Mechanism on Plant Genetic Resources. www.pgrfa.org/gpa/ken

MugabeJ,ClarkN.1998.ManagingBiodiversity:NationalSystemsofConservationand Innovation in Africa. Nairobi. African Centre for Technology Studies,Nairobi.

40


Overview of the state of animal genetic resourcesOkeyo A Mwai and Julie OjangoInternational Livestock Research Institute (ILRI)

Learning points

• Whatareanimalgeneticresources(AnGR)andwhatrolesdotheyplay?• HowareAnGRdistributed;whatkeyfactorsdrivethedynamicsinAnGR?• HowcanAnGRbesustainablymanaged/conserved• Whatarethecurrentgapsinknowledgeandopportunitiesforapplication

ofnewtechnologiesandforresearch?

Introduction

Animal genetic resources (AnGR) comprise all animal species, breeds and strainsthatareofeconomic,scientificandculturalvalueorinteresttohumankindintermsof food and agricultural production now and in the future. Farm animal geneticresources(FAnGRorlivestock)comprisethespecies,breedsandpopulations(strainsandindividuals)thatareusedforhumanfoodandagriculturalproduction.Withfewexceptions,suchasthewildboar(Sus scrofa)andtheredjunglefowl,theancestorsandwildrelativesofmajorFAnGRareeitherextinctorhighlyendangeredasaresultof hunting, changes to their habitats and in the case of the wild red jungle fowl,intensivecross-breedingwiththedomesticcounterpart.IntheStateoftheWorld’sAnimalGeneticResources(FAO,2007a)thenumberoflivestockbreedsintheworldwasestimatedtobe7616,86%ofwhichoccurredinonlyonecountry,while14%were trans-boundary—occurring inmore thanonecountry.Of the trans-boundarybreeds,52%areinternational,while48%occurinonlyoneregionoftheworld.

Livestockplaysmany roles,particularly indevelopingcountries,where theyprovidefood(milk,meatandeggs),draughtpower,fertilizerandfuels,industrialrawmaterials(hidesandskins),directemploymentandcapital(cash,socialandculturalvalues).Inquantitativeterms,30-40%oftheworld’sagriculturaloutputsareproducedby livestock,while70-80%of total farm incomes in the intensivecrop-livestockproductionsystemsarederivedfromlivestock.

Dynamics in animal genetic resources and the key drivers of change

Genetic resources naturally ebb and flow within ecosystems, resulting in theevolutionofnewspeciesandthelossofothers.ThevalueofavastmajorityofAnGR ispoorlyunderstoodbyscientistsandpolicy-makers,yet it isestimatedthatonaverage,abreeddisappearseverymonthand20%oftheworld’suniquelyadaptedbreedsofdomesticanimalsareatriskofextinction(FAO,2007a).Thisrisk isgreatest indevelopingcountries,wherenearly70%of theentireworld’s

41


remaining unique livestock breeds are found. This loss of breeds is occurringwhile it is still unknown which breeds contain significant genetic diversity orspecificgenesthatshouldbetargetedforconservationand/orincorporationintobreedingprogrammes(FAO,2006).

It is noteworthy to recognize that despite the past and ongoing losses ofdistinct breeds, new populations and breeds have been created. Potential stillexists for continued creations through planned crossbreeding, synthetic breedformationandthroughapplicationofbiotechnologies.Biotechnologyhasenabledan increase in the variety of genetic material available for different species oflivestock(semen,embryos,oocytes,somaticcellsandDNA).

Key drivers to the rate of change in AnGR include economic developmentand globalization; market demand for livestock products; environmental effects,especiallyclimatechange;scienceandtechnologyandhumanpopulationpressureonthelimitednaturalresourcebase,amongothers(Seréet al.2008).Asustainedriseindemandforfoodofanimalorigindrivenbygrowingpopulations,increasingconsumer affluence and increasing urbanization has resulted in great structuralchangesalongthewholeanimalfoodsupplychain.Thechangesareaccompaniedbyan increasinguseofcrops for livestock feed, rather thanhuman food, raisingquestionsabout foodsecurityandpoverty.The ‘supermarket revolution’ inurbanareas is shaping an increasing demand for convenience, variety and qualityassuranceoflivestockproducts.Thisconsumer-drivenchangehasgreatimplicationsforlivestockproductionandtheplayersinthemarketsforlivestockproducts.

Sustainable use of AnGR

Monitoring and characterization of AnGRForefficientandsustainableuseofAnGRwithinacountry,theextent,distribution,basiccharacteristicsandcomparativeperformanceofthedifferentAnGRneedtobeunderstood.This information is thebasicbuildingblock toguidedecisionmakingin livestock development and breeding programmes. Since genetic resources arenotstatic,routineinventoriesandongoingmonitoringareneeded.FewdevelopingcountrieshavecurrentdataontheirAnGRtomakeanaccurateanalysisoftheirstate.

Intheareasofdiversitymeasurement,conservationandutilization,newandcutting-edgegenomictools,suchasdensesinglenucleotidechips,assaysandre-sequencing,providenewopportunitiestostudygenome-wideDNAvariations.Theavailabilityofhighcomputingpowermakesitpossibletolinksuchvariationswith various layers and levels of environmental variables. This enables betterunderstandingofthecomplexco-evolutionofAnGRandtheirrelationshiptotheenvironmentinwhichtheyareraisedtoday,includingpredictionsoftheirpotentialandoptionsfortheirsustainedutilizationinthefuture.

Conservation of AnGRThe conservation of the diversity of AnGR is critical. Countries have a moralcommitment to future generations to conserve the existing diversity as stated

42


under the CBD. Genetically diverse livestock populations provide a greaterrange of options for meeting future challenges, whether associated withenvironmental change, emerging disease threats, new knowledge of humannutritionalrequirementsorchangingmarketconditions(FAO,2007b).

Thelastdecadeshaveseenincreasingpossibilitiesforbio-banking(ex situ, in vitro)asaresultofadvancesincryobiologyandreproductivetechnology.Semenand embryos can be obtained, cryo-preserved and used for most species offarmanimals.Morerecentlydevelopedpossibilitiesincludetheuseofepididymalsperm, oocytes, ovarian tissue, stem cells and somatic cells. Reproductivetechniques necessary to obtain and use these types of germplasm includeembryo transfer, in vitro fertilization, ovum pick-up and generation of embryosbysomaticcellnucleartransfer.Appropriateembracementofthese,particularlyincaseswherethethreatstoAnGRaregreatandskillsareavailable,wouldleadtosustainablemanagement(improvementandconservation)ofpopulationsthatarecurrentlyunder-exploited.Furtherstudyisneededtocalculateandcomparecosts for different strategies, which should include short-term and long-termcostsandperspectives.

Needs and priority research areas for AnGR in developing countries

Inadequate human and institutional technical capacity, including poorinfrastructure, currently constrain not only the improved understanding ofAnGR,butalsohampertheiroptimumutilizationandconservationindevelopingcountries. Inadequate understanding and domestication of global agreements(e.g. CBD, the Global Plan of Action) and the related, often too complicated,intellectual property rights issues around AnGR make it difficult to freely sharethemamongcountiesandregions.WhatisneededtoimpactAnGRutilizationinthesecountriesincludes:

• NationalpoliciesandlegalstructuresforsustainableutilizationofAnGR• Database (inventory) developments and monitoring to increase

understanding of the state of AnGR and the characteristics of animaldiversity

• Developmentofcosteffectivemonitoringandconservationmeasures toensuregeneticdiversityismaintained

• Integration of traditional and modern approaches and technologies indevelopingstrategiesforAnGRutilization

• Supporting infrastructure for domestic markets—particularly for poorfarmersinremotevillageswherethemajorityofindigenousAnGRarekept

• Structuresfornational,regional&internationalcooperation• Capacity building and basic institutional development for AnGR

characterization, inventory & monitoring, breeding & conservation andutilization.

43


Priority areas for research

• Scientificguidanceforstrategicdecisionswithimperfectinformation• Supportforearlywarningandresponsemechanisms(geo-referencingof

breeds)• Genetic improvement strategies for low external-input environments,

particularlyinviewofeffectsonlivelihoods• Methods for prioritization of AnGR for conservation beyond molecular

information• In situ, in vivoconservationstrategiesfordevelopingcountries• Cryo-conservationmethodscoveringalldomesticatedspecies• Economicassessments(optimization)ofalternativeconservationstrategies• Facilitationofaccesstomarketsforsmall-holders(food-safetyrequirements

mightactasimpediments)• Identification of policy distortions (e.g. direct or indirect subsidies

impactingAnGR)• Exploringtheneedforaregulatory frameworktoensureaccessandfair

andequitableexchangeofAnGR.

Learning resources

Biodiversity and Conservation, University of California, Irvine. http://darwin.bio.uci.edu/~sustain/bio65/

LectureNotes,ShortCourseinEvolutionaryQuantitativeGenetics.BruceWalsh,UniversityofArizona.http://nitro.biosci.arizona.edu/workshops/Aarhus2006/notes.html

FAO.2007a.TheStateof theWorld’sAnimalGeneticResources forFoodandAgriculture.FAO,Rome,Italy.

FAO. 2007b. The Global Plan of Action for Animal Genetic Resources and theInterlakenDeclaration.FAO,Rome,Italy.

What’s a genome? www.genomenewsnetwork.org/resources/whats_a_genome/Chp1_1_1.shtml

OldenbroekJK.editor.1999.GenebanksandtheConservationofFarmAnimals.ID-DLO,Lelystad,TheNetherlands.

Useful websites

Animal Genetics Training Resource (AGTR), version 2, 2006. Ojango, J.M.,Malmfors, B. and Okeyo, A.M. editors. International Livestock ResearchInstitute, Nairobi, Kenya and Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences,Uppsala,Sweden:http://agtr.ilri.cgiar.org/

ConventiononBiologicalDiversity:www.biodiv.org/

http://darwin.bio.uci.edu/~sustain/bio65/

http://darwin.bio.uci.edu/~sustain/bio65/

http://nitro.biosci.arizona.edu/workshops/Aarhus2006/notes.html

http://nitro.biosci.arizona.edu/workshops/Aarhus2006/notes.html

http://agtr.ilri.cgiar.org/

http://www.biodiv.org/

44


DomesticAnimalGeneticResourcesInformationSystem(DAGRIS):http://dagris.ilri.cgiar.org

DomesticAnimalDiversityInformationSystem(DAD-IS):www.fao.org/dad-is

Recommended reading

DekkersJC,HospitalF.2002.Theuseofmoleculargeneticsintheimprovementofagriculturalpopulations.Nat Rev Genet.3:22-32.

ERFP. 2003. Guidelines for the constitution of national cryopreservationprogrammes for farm animals. Publication No. 1.European Regional FocalPointonAnimalGeneticResources.HiemstraSJ(editor).

FABRE Technology Platform. 2006. Sustainable farm animal breeding andreproduction.AVisionPaper.WorkingGroup,FABRETechnologyPlatform.

Groeneveld E, Huu Tinh N, Thi Vien N, Phu Nam Anh B, Thi Thu Ha L. 2006.Creationofalowcostgenebankfromsomaticcellsinadevelopingcountry.8th World Congress Applied to Livestock Production, August 13-18, 2006.BeloHorizonte,MG,Brazil.

Oldenbroek K. 2007. Utilisation and Conservation of Farm Animal GeneticResources.WageningenAcademicPublishers,Wageningen,Netherlands.

Seré C, Van der Zippo A, Persely G, Rege JEO. 2008. Dynamics of livestockproduction systems, drivers of change and prospects for animal geneticResources.Animal Genetic Resources Information Bulletin.42:3-28.

SimianerH,MartiSB,GibsonJ,HanotteO,RegeJEO.2003.Anapproachtotheoptimalallocationofconservationfundstominimizelossofgeneticdiversitybetweenlivestockbreeds.Ecological Economics45:377-392.

Woolliams JA, Matika O, Pattison J. 2008. Conservation of animal geneticresources:approachesandtechnologiesfor in situandex situconservation.Animal Genetic Resources Information Bulletin.42:71-89.

http://dagris.ilri.cgiar.org

http://dagris.ilri.cgiar.org

http://www.fao.org/dad-is

45


Forest genetic resources and farmers’ tree domestication Ramni Jamnadass¹, Ian Dawson¹, Roger Leakey ², Roeland Kindt¹, Jonathan Muriuki¹, Jan Beniest¹ and Tony Simons¹¹ World Agroforestry Centre, Nairobi, Kenya ² James Cook University, Cairns, Australia

Background issues

Toaddress thebigsocial,economicandenvironmental issues in theworldweneedtosimultaneouslyrestore:

• Biologicalresourcesandnaturalcapital(soilfertility,water,forests,etc.)• Livelihoods(nutrition,health,culture,equity,income)• Agro-ecological processes (nutrient and water cycles, pest and disease

control,etc.).• Agroforestrycancontributetotheseobjectives

Agroforestry promotes agro-ecological succession

Natural ecosystems progress from a ‘pioneer’ stage to ecological maturity.Likewise,eachphaseofanagro-ecologicalsuccessionwillbemorebio-diverse,as‘planned’biodiversity(plantedtrees,cropsandintroducedlivestock,poultry,fish,etc.)areenrichedby‘unplanned’biodiversity(allthoseorganisms,aboveandbelowground,thatfindnichestofillamongintroducedplantsandanimals).Agroforestrycontributestowardsdiversificationtocreatematureor‘climax’agro-ecosystems.

Agroforestry promotes multifunctional agriculture

Agroforestry is the integration of trees into the farming system and provides awiderangeofproductsandenvironmentalservices.Treesdiversifyfarmsandhelptorestoreecologicalservicesandenvironmentalresilience.Suchmixedfarmingsystemscanbedevelopedtobecomemoreproductiveandgenerateincomeandemploymentopportunities,so thathousehold livelihoodsare restored.Thiscanbefacilitatedby‘domesticating’treesintofarminglandscapes.

Agroforestryisuniquelysuitedtoaddresstherequirementsforincreasedfoodsecurityandbiomassresourcesandtheneedtosustainablymanageagriculturallandscapes for their critical ecosystem services. Agro-ecological functions ofagroforestryinclude:

• Improvedsoilstructureandorganicmattermanagement• Enhancednutrientcycling-soilinvertebrates,saprophyticandsymbiotic

fungalandbacterialassociations• Improvedwateruseefficiency• Moreeffectivecroppollination

46


• Enhanced food chains/life cycles - reduced pest, disease and weedoutbreaks(thesefunctionsarescaledependent)

• Carbon/greenhousegassequestration.

The future of trees is on farms

Evolution has created 60 000 tree species. For thousands of years humansextracted what they needed from the forest. Today, the human populationexceeds the extractive capacity of natural ecosystems. In 1850 there were 1billionpeople;todaythereare6billion.Originalglobalforestcoverwasestimatedtobe70%ofthelandarea,nowit is26%.Mosttreespeciesarewildbuttheyneed tobebrought intocultivation to fulfil futureneedsasnatural forestcovercontractsanddegrades.

Tree breeding practices

Treebreedingpracticesarelargelybasedon:• Recurrentselectionforadditivelyinheritedtraits• Theuseofhighselectionintensities(1in100000trees)• Recentbreedingforhybridvigour,e.g.,tropicalpines• Recentlyclonalforestrytopropagatesuperiortypes,e.g.,rootedcuttings

ofeucalyptus• Most recently, assisted selection using molecular markers is being

practicedonasmallnumberofspeciesandanarrowrangeoftransgenictreesarebeingdeveloped(pulpyield,diseaseresistance,etc.).

Treebreedershavehadsuccessinincreasingproductivity,buttheydealwithvery few species. Centralized breeding works best when one organization cancontrolallstepsinproduction:e.g.speciestrials,provenance/progenytests,seedorchardestablishment,seedcollectionandhandling,nurseryseedlingproduction,plantationmanagement.Comparethistoagroforestry,wherewehaveadiverseclientgroup,atleast3000usefultreespeciesonfarmsandmanyorganizationsinvolved in thework.Sotreedomesticationfromanagroforestryperspective isnotabouttreebreeding.Whilsttrialsandselectionareimportant,itisalsoaboutthefollowingactivitiesthatcannotbedoneinisolation:

• Prioritysetting-whichtreesdofarmerswanttoplant?(importantspeciesandfarmers’andmarkets’traits)

• Proactiveseedmultiplicationofarangeofspeciesoptions• Engenderingbestnurserypracticesamongcommunities• Appropriatetreemanagementmethodsonsmallholderplantings• Extensionmessagesonseedcollectionmethods• Working out how to deliver germplasm to decentralized producers in

efficientways• Themarketingoftreeproductsinawaythatbenefitssmall-scaleproduction• Policiestosupportalloftheabove.

47


Domesticating agroforestry trees involves accelerated and human-inducedevolution tobringspecies intowidercultivation througha farmer-drivenand/ormarket-ledprocess.Thisisascience-basedanditerativeprocedureinvolvingtheidentification,production,managementandadoptionofhighqualitygermplasm.Highqualitygermplasminagroforestry incorporatesdimensionsofproductivity,fitnessofpurpose,viabilityanddiversity. In tandemwithspeciesstrategiesareapproachestodomesticatelandscapesbyinvestigatingandmodifyingtheuses,values, interspecificdiversity,ecological functions,numbersandnichesofbothplantedandnaturallyregeneratedtrees.

Tree domestication is a farmer-driven process, which needs to considerquestionssuchas:

• Istheresearchaddressingfarmers’problems?• Arefarmersinvolvedinthework?• Dofarmersrecognizeandappreciatethebenefits?• Aretheapproachesusedsustainable?• Shouldeffortsseektoincreaseproductionormaximizestability?• Arewedetrimentallyskewingfarmers’priorities?• Doweunderstandfarmers’decision-makingprocesses?

Genetic variation in tropical trees in agroforestry systems

Animportantquestionisthefollowing:whatdoweknowaboutgeneticvariationintropicaltreesinagroforestrysystemsandhowdowelinkthisknowledgetoactionforenhancedlivelihoodsandimprovedconservation?Thenatureoftheproblemisthat:

• Farm productivity depends on both tree species diversity and geneticvariation, but research on the latter has until recently not received therecognitionitdeserves

• When knowledge has become available, it has not been linked in anysystematic way with management, indicating a ‘disconnect’ betweenresearchandpractice.

Problems in gaining information on genetic variation

Practicalandconceptualproblemsingaininginformationongeneticvariationintreespeciesinfarmlandscapesinclude:

• Lack of recognition of the nature of the problem. This is related to thepersistence of trees in landscapes, meaning that it can be too late tointervenebythetimetheproblemisrecognized

• An inability to assemble appropriate teams to undertake effective research.Theinstitutionalframeworkswithinwhichresearchersworkrarelysupporttheteam-basedapproachesneededtoassessgeneticvariationandthenmeaningfullyapplyknowledge.Foragroforestrythesituationisacute,as‘forestry’and‘agriculture’aretraditionallyconsideredasdiscreteschoolsofresearchthatshouldbetreated/taughtseparately

48


• Difficulties in recognising and quantifying variation.Geneticvariationmaybedifficulttomeasureandimportantdiversitymaybe‘cryptic’

• The large number of species involved.Averylargenumberoftreespeciesarefoundinagroforestrysystemsandcomprehensiveanalysisofgeneticvariation in all taxa is impractical. Is the concept of ‘model’ speciesrelevant?

Recent advances in assessing genetic variation

Recent advances have been made in both ‘direct’ and ‘indirect’ researchapproachesformeasuringgeneticdiversityintrees.

Directmethods:• Morphological studies. There has recently been an increased emphasis

onusingparticipatorysurveytechniqueswithcommunitiesandonfarm-forest comparisons of trees, to assess useful morphological variation instands,especiallyforfruittrees

• Molecular studies. Therehasbeenanincreaseduseofmolecularmarkersinmoretargetedwaysthatrelatetoaddressinggenuinefarmers’problemsandthatdealwithcurrentconcernsofthelackofpracticalapplicationofthesemethods.

Indirectmethods:• Source surveys. Advancesinmethodsthatconsultalltheactors(nursery

managers, local seed dealers, etc.) involved in sourcing germplasm forfarmershavebeenmadeandtheseapproacheshavebeenusedtoprovideindicationsofgeneticvariationinplantedtrees

• Farm inventories. Therehavebeendevelopmentsinthemethodsusedtocharacterizetreespeciesfoundinfarmsandinhowtointerpretsuchdataintermsofgeneticvariationinagriculturallandscapes,notjustintermsofspeciesdiversity.

Current state of knowledge on genetic variation in farmland

Basedonthetypesofapproachestoresearchdescribedabove,itisobservedthatmany trees are subject to poor germplasm collection practices in farmland thatmanyspeciesoccuratvery lowdensitiesandthata largenumberof taxaoccurinaggregated(e.g.,clumped,notwelldispersed)distributionsinfarmland.Thesepointsallleadtotheconclusionthattheeffectivepopulationsizesoftreesspecies–andthereforetheirsustainabilityandproductivity–infarmlandscapesareonthedecline.Theconsequencesforanindividualspecieswilldependtosomedegreeonthefunctionalusetowhichitisput;consequenceswillbemoreseriousforsomecategoriesofuse–e.g.,whentreesareusedforfruitproduction–thanforothers.

Thecurrentstateofknowledgeindicatesthatarangeofinterventionsrelatedtogermplasmaccess is necessary to improveexistingmanagementpractices,including:

49


• Enhancingcommunityseed-andseedling-exchangenetworks, includingthe development of local commercial suppliers to support farmers withgermplasmprovision

• Improvingaccesstogeneticresourcesthrough‘diversityfairs’thatincludebothtreeandcropactivities(thisisespeciallyrelevantforfruittrees)

• Encouraging locallybased,participatorytreedomesticationprogrammesthatempowerfarmers’tocollecttheirowngeneticresources.

Moredifficulttoaddress,butequallynecessary,isthedevelopmentofmarketstructures that support genetic diversity in tropical tree species. Measuressuggested include the development of niche markets that support a rangeof variation within a species (possibly using a ‘Denomination of Origin’ typeapproach). It is clear that tree seed and seedling supply and product (fruit,timber,medicine,etc.)saleneedtobeconsideredaspartsofonevaluechainifgermplasm-andmarket-basedinterventionsaretobesuccessful.

What resources have ICRAF and partners developed for teaching in this area?

ICRAF has developed a series of resources for teaching and learning in thedomestication of agroforestry trees, including short courses, databases andpublications.

Short coursesThejust-concludedSII/WorldAgroforestryCentreproject‘AdvancingAgroforestryResearchandDevelopmentthroughTrainingandEducation’,supportedbyTheNetherlands’ Ministry of Foreign Affairs, conducted 20 courses for training-of-trainers.CoursematerialsareavailableonCD-ROMfromICRAF’sTrainingUnit.Afewrecentcoursesonthetopicoftreegeneticresourcesanddomesticationare:

• Agroforestry and tree genetics: making markers meaningful (2008).ThiscourseenabledAfricanscientiststomoreeffectivelydeploymoleculargenetic markers to the field management of tree species. It was aboutmakingthelinkagebetweentechnicalknowledgeandgroundapplicationinthecontextofemergingchallengestoagriculture

• Delivering trees to farmers: improving strategies for germplasm supply (2007).Thiscoursebroughttogetherthedifferentactorsinvolvedindeliveringplantingmaterial(treeseedandseedlings)tofarmers,sothattheycandevelopmoreproductive,sustainableandenvironmentallyfriendlyagroforestry systems (this course relates to the need for germplasm-accessbasedinterventionsinmanagingdiversity)

• Training workshop on Allanblackia domestication (2006).ThiscoursefocusedondevelopingmoreproductiveandsustainablefarmingsystemsbybringingintocultivationtheAllanblackiatree,anewcropforedibleoilproductionofinteresttotheglobalfoodindustry.Itisacasestudyofthetreedomesticationmethod,asameanstoavoidexcessiveexploitationofnaturalresourcesandimprovetheincomesoffarmers.

50


DatabasesMostnotablearethefollowing:

• The Agroforestree Database provides information on more than 600tropicaltrees–includingtimbers,fruits,fodderprovidersandsoilfertilityimprovingspecies–thatareof interestforplantingbysmallholders.Thedatabase includes informationonwherespeciesgrow,howtheycanbepropagated and managed, their uses and pests and diseases problems(mostusefulofICRAF’sonline‘tree’databasesforeducationalpurposes)www.worldagroforestry.org/Sites/TreeDBS/aft.asp

• TheTree Seed Suppliers Directoryprovidesinformationonthedifferentsuppliers of tree planting material. The database lists several thousandtreespecies,indicateswhereseedofthesespeciescanbeobtainedandprovidesinformationonthequalityofdifferentseedsources.TheDirectoryallows users to make more informed choices about the trees that theyplant(moreusefulforfieldmanagersthanforeducation,butusefulifneedto access seed for research). www.worldagroforestry.org/Sites/TreeDBS/tssd/treessd.htm

PublicationsICRAF’strainingmaterialsontreedomesticationinclude:

• Tree seeds for farmers: a toolkit and reference source.Thisdescribesthe technical methods involved in supplying tree seed and seedlingsto farmerandhow togoaboutmakingseedandseedlingproductionacommercialconcern

• Tree seed education at agricultural and forestry colleges in eastern and southern Africa (FAO, ANAFE). Describes a possible furthereducationcurriculumonthetopicoftreeseedsupply

• Training in agroforestry: a toolkit for trainers. Describes the relevantmethods for teaching agroforestry to students at different levels, butespeciallyina‘training-of-trainers’approach

• Tree diversity analysis: a manual and software for common statistical methods for ecological and biodiversity studies.Describeshowtodovariousstatisticalanalysesofbiodiversitydata(CD-ROM)

• Molecular markers for tropical trees: a practical guide to principles and procedures.Describesmolecularmarkermethodsandprotocolsandtheirrelevancefortreeresearch.Theguideseekstoinformmorepracticalapplicationofmethods. Information ispresented ina formatsuitable forstudentsatBSc,MScandPhDlevels

• Indigenous fruit trees in the tropics: domestication, utilization and commercialization (ICRAF and CABI). A recent publication (2008) thatdescribesthecurrentstateofknowledgeonindigenousfruittreeresearchacrossthetropics.

51


Session3–Useofagrobiodiversityforlivelihoodservices

Chair: Jacob Mwitwa

Farmer innovations and indigenous knowledge which promote agrobiodiversity in Kenya: a case study of Mwingi and Bondo districtsRatemo W. MichiekaUniversity of Nairobi and FAO Consultant

Introduction

Farmer innovations are important in agrobiodiversity. Such innovations areoccasioned by necessity, changing conditions and curiosity. Farmers carryout experiments inspired by new ideas from their own thoughts, neighbours,extension personnel, researchers and the mass media. However, research andextension tend to ignore the importance of local innovations for agriculturaldevelopment(ReijandWaters-Bayer2001).

Farmer innovations and Indigenous Knowledge (IK) that promoteagrobiodiversity go a long way in ensuring sustainable production of food.Indigenousknowledgeiscomposedof ideas,beliefs,values,normsandrituals,which are native and embedded in the minds of a people and unique to agiven culture or society (Warren et al. 1987). Areas of IK that are relevant toagrobiodiversityincludepreparationofrecipes,agronomy,seedissuesandherbalmedicine,amongothers.ThosewithIKknowwildplantswiththeirtraitssuchasearliness,lateness,cookingqualityanddroughttolerance.IndeedIKhasplayedakeyroleinconservationanduseofbiodiversity.

FAO,inconjunctionwiththegovernmentofKenya,establishedaprogrammeonagrobiodiversity in2005meant tosupportecosystems,rural livelihoodsandfood security. The programme, sponsored by FAO-Netherlands PartnershipProgramme(FNPP),selectedtwodistrictsinwhichtoimplementtheprogrammei.e.MwingiandBondo.Mwingidistrictisasemi-aridareawhoseagro-ecosystemisagropastoral,inEasternProvince.BondoisfoundintheLakeVictoriabasininNyanzaProvinceandisthereforeasub-humidlakezone.Theagro-ecosystemiscomposedofaquaticandterrestrialcomponents.

Theprogrammeisinlinewiththefarmerfieldschool(FFS)approach,adoptedbyFAO,whoseaimistobuildfarmercapacitytoanalyzetheirproductionsystems,identifyproblems,testpossiblesolutionsandeventuallyadoptsuitablepractices.Theaimof thispaper is tocontribute to themainstreamingofagrobiodiversitythroughexperiencesgainedfromthetwodistricts.

Farmerinnovationsandindigenousknowledgeareimportantcomponentstobe considered when developing curricula for agrobiodiversity in institutions ofhigherlearning.

52


Methodology

The areas of study were Mwingi and Bondo districts of Kenya (Figure 1).These districts host FAO’s FFS pilot projects since 2001. The agrobiodiversityprogramme was introduced in the same districts in 2005 and therefore hasdocumentedinformation.

Figure 1. MapofKenyashowingthelocationofBondo(A)andMwingi(B).

Reports fromparticipatory ruralappraisal (PRA)andstakeholderworkshopswerethemainsourcesofdata.ThePRAteamswerecomposedofgovernmentofficialsfromtheMinistriesofAgriculture,ForestryandWater,theFFScoordinatorfor thedistrictandselectedparticipating farmers.The teamselected thestudysites that captured diverse ecosystems. Information was collected in focusedgroupdiscussionsusingaPRAchecklistdevelopedbyFAO.Twodivisionsperdistrictwereselected:CentralandNuudivisionsinMwingidistrictandUsiguandMadianydivisionsinBondodistrict.

The workshops involved facilitators from the government and FAO aswell as innovator farmers. Cross visits to nearby farms were made during theworkshops.TheMwingiworkshopattracted19 innovative farmerswhileBondo

B

A

53


had42.FurtherinformationwasobtainedattheFAO-KenyaofficeheadquartersinNairobi.Thedataweresubjectedtodescriptivestatisticstogivesummaries.

Findings and Discussion

FFSsinthetwodistrictsidentified,verifiedandcharacterizedsome230innovativefarmers.Morethan20categoriesoffarmerinnovationswereidentified.Themainonesareintheareasofwaterharvesting(16%),irrigation(8%),ethno-veterinary(7%), soil andwater conservation (6%)andbiologicalpest control (6%).Othercategoriesofinnovationarelivestockmanagement,agroforestry,farmtoolsandmachinery, poultry management, bee keeping, soil fertility management, cropmanagement,treecropfarming,waterstorage,seed/cropstorage,processingforexport,seedcropbulking,agro-processingandwatertablemanagement.

Innovationsbyfarmersareoccasionedbynecessity,changingconditionsandcuriosity.Inthiscontext,innovationmaybedefinedasthesuccessfulexploitationof new ideas (DTI, 2002). However, research and extension tend to ignore theimportance of local innovation for agricultural development (Reij and Waters-Bayer, 2001). It is important that formal systems recognize these innovationsandincorporatethemtomakeabetterimpactinadoptionofnewtechnologies.Towards this end FAO has been at the forefront of identifying and analyzinginnovativefarmersandinnovations.

In the case of Mwingi and Bondo, the innovative farmers were organizedinto groups that promote cross visits and exchange of ideas. Competitions areoccasionally staged where the farmers are asked to present their innovations indrawings.Impressiveartshowingvariousinnovationslikegoodfarmlayout,contourfarmingandgoodhusbandryareusuallyproduced.Althoughmoremenparticipate,womentoomakesignificantcontributions;innovativenesscutsacrossgender.Thisisanapproachbasedonacombinationofscienceandlocalknowledgesystems,innovationsandpracticesaspartofintegratedecosystemmanagement.

TheIKsysteminfoodpreparationusesawidevarietyofplantsandanimals.In Mwingi, it includes porridge and ugali made from bulrush millet, sorghumand finger millet; processing and preservation of milk and milk products suchas ghee and preservation of meat. Others are fermentation where mixing withvariousgrainsorgroundtubercropsisdone,cookinginghee,groundsesameorgroundnutpasteandcookingwithfreshorsourmilk.

InMwingi,focusedgroupdiscussionsestablishedthenumberofindigenouscropsthathadbeenlost,orweredisappearingandthenumberofcropsthathadbeenaddedtothefarmingsystems.Thebalancesheet(Table1)showsanetlossof nine indigenouscrops.This trend is reducingagrobiodiversity andexposingpopulationstomajorrisksincaseofharshconditions.ThegovernmentofKenyahasannouncedthatupto10millionpeopleare threatenedwithhunger.Failingrainshavebeencitedasamajorcause.Thetablebelowshowsthatevendrought-tolerantcropslikecassavaaredisappearing,yetitisattimeslikethesethatsuchcropscometotherescue.Itisknownthattraditionalfoodsaregenerallyavailablebeforeharvestandduringperiodsofscarcity.

54


Table 1. Balance sheet comparing indigenous and introduced crops in Mwingi District

Lost crops (or disappearing) Crops gained

Millet,fingermillet,sorghum,Dolichos,arrowroot,pumpkin,cowpeas,banana,sweetpotatoes,datepalm,tamarind,cassava,dumbbell,‘ndakithi’,‘mbumbu’,‘thalama’

Maize,pawpaw,mangoes,oranges,sisal,guavaandloquat

Total=16 Total=7

Netloss=9

(Quotes=localnames)

InBondo,traditionalfoodstuffsembeddedinfarmers’IKincludebloodmeal,ghee,milk,ugali fromsorghum,gingermillet,groundnutpaste, fish,dried localvegetables and honey. Others are quils (an edible bird), mushroom, pumpkin,sweetpotatoesandsimsim.(Translationsforthefollowingfoodstuffscouldnotbeimmediatelyestablished:KnoniAnang’a,Ovied,Nderema,KnonandDek.)

The balance sheet for crops in Bondo shows a net loss of 11 while threelivestock and 12 fish species had been lost (Table 2). Most of the loss in fishoccurredinLakeVictoriaasaresultofpredationfromtheNileperch.Thelossisalarmingandrequiresconcertedeffortstostopit.Theimportanceoftheselocalcropsand indigenous fish is that theyare rich innutrientsandhelp topreventmalnutrition,afactthathasbeenwelldocumented.

Table 2. A balance sheet for indigenous and introduced crops, livestock and fish in Mwingi and Bondo districts

Mwingi BondoLostindigenouscrops(orbeinglost) 16 22

Introducedcrops 7 11

Net loss (or gain) -9 -11

Lostindigenouslivestock(orbeinglost) 3 3

Introducedlivestock 2 3

Net loss (or gain) -1 0

Originalfishstock(species) - 16

Lostorunavailable - 12

Currently available - 4

Traditionalritesdoencouragesustainableproductionandutilizationofanimaland plant species for various uses, for example marriages, food and feed,medicinal,paymentofdebtsandservices,nutritional,etc.

Indigenous knowledge can sometimes prove modern ways wrong. As anexamplefarmersinMwingiwereurgedtostop‘ratooning’sorghum,fearingthatpests would multiply. But, recent research findings by the Kenya Agricultural

55


Research Institutehaveupheld the IKon this issue.Ecologicallyadaptedplantand animal species in Mwingi, generally, give better returns as they can dorelativelywellunderadverseconditions.MostfarmersinMwingistillintercropasariskaversionstrategytoadverseweatheranddiseases.Indigenousmethodsofpestcontrolsuchasuseofashhaslittleenvironmentalimpact,forinstancethereislittleornointerferencewithpollinators.

Many of the agro-pastoral inhabitants have over the years used plant andanimalbehaviourtoforetellclimatevariability.Thebehaviourofsomebirdsandinsectsandplantsheddingof leaves,areexamples thatwereused to forecastweather.ThisisIKthatisgettinglostasplantsandanimalsgetdepleted.

Although herbal medicines are known to be collected from the wild, thereare some that are grown in Bondo. These are ‘Luboga’ and ‘Atipa’ which arecombined to treat constipation, ‘Apoth’ and ‘Boo’ which are blended to treatmalnutritionand‘Achak’tohealstomachache.(Thebotanicalnamescouldnotbeimmediatelyestablished.)

Indigenous knowledge has a strong correlation with gender. Men tend toknowaboutthingsinthewildandherbalmedicine,whereaswomenhaveexpertknowledge on agronomy and seed issues. For instance, preservation of seedincalabasheswithashandabovecookingstones inkitchens isapreservationtechnologyusedbywomen.Womenareindeedthecustodiansofplantgeneticmaterialsofmosttraditionalcrops.Thisisparticularlyimportantbecauseprivateseedcompaniespaylittleattentiontothesecrops.

InBondo, itwasobservedthat the informalseedsectorsuppliesover90%of seed needs, but related regulations give no support to development of thesector,includingproduction,processing,maintenance,exchangeandmarketing.Existingseedpoliciestargetnationalseedrequirementsandlarge-scalefarmers,neglectingsmall-scalefarmers,especiallywomen.Althoughwomenarethemainplayersintheinformalseedsector,theirinvolvementinnationalseedpolicyandprogramsislimited.MostNGOsandCBOsinvolvedininformalseedinitiativesatthegrassrootlevelsarestructurallyweak,poorlyresourcedandlackrecognitionfromstateinstitutionsandresearchprocess.Farmershavemoretrustintheirownsavedseedorseedsfromrelatives,ascomparedtocertifiedseeds.

Indigenous knowledge is diminishing mainly due to changing values asglobalizationtakescentrestage.TraditionalvaluesandrelatedIKarethusshunnedasoutdated.Agrobiodiversityisbeingdiminishedbydestructionofhabitantsforbirds and insects, including pollinators, as well as forests and bushes that aresourcesofmedicinalanddietaryherbs.Themuchsought-afterhoneytooisunderthreat.Commercializationfocusesonafewhigh-yieldingvarietiesattheexpenseofmanyadaptedlandraces.Traditionaldietshavelargelybeenabandoned.Theresultisalossofagrobiodiversityinplantsandanimals.

Conclusion and Recommendations

Farmer innovations and indigenous knowledge abound but are neglected byresearchandextension.Thetwocanplayabigroleinpromotingagrobiodiversity

56


and food security. IK is embedded in the minds of people and is embeddedin social-cultural norms. For adoption of new technologies to be easier, it isimportant to incorporate IK. Women are the main custodians of plant geneticresources throughseedhandlingand thereforeneed tobeassisted to improveselection, processing and storage of seed. Funding of innovative farmers isrecommended,aswellasvisitsandexposuretoursamongthem.Thesefarmersshouldbelinkedtothemarkets.

There is general loss of indigenous plants, animals and insects andsubsequently of IK. Consequently, benefits like medicinal herbs, honey andpollinatorsaregettingscarce.Measuresarerequiredtostemthetideandimprovethebalancesheetsintheirfavour.Aclearpolicyonconservationandsustainableuse of agrobiodiversity in the Kenya is lacking and should be formulated. Theongoingprocessofmainstreamingagrobiodiversityisencouragedanditshouldbeincorporatedintocurriculaofhigherlearningtoencouragebetterresearchanddocumentationofthisnewarea.

References

Akullo D, Kanzikwera R, Birungi P, Alum W, Aliguma L, Barwogeza M. 2007.IndigenousKnowledgeinAgriculture:acasestudyofthechallengesinsharingknowledgeofpastgenerationsinaglobalizedcontextinUganda.

BarclayROandMurryPC1997.What isknowledgemanagement?KnowledgeManagementAssociateswww.media-access.com/whatis.html

ConventiononBiologicalDiversity.2000.UN,NewYork,USA.DepartmentofTradeandIndustries2002.Investingininnovation.Astrategyfor

science,engineeringandtechnology.HMTreasury.London.UKReijCandWaters-BayerA.editors.2001.FarmerInnovationinAfrica:ASource

ofInspirationforAgriculturalDevelopment.Earthscan,London,UK.Warren DM, Slikkerveer LJ, Oguntunji Titilola S. 1989. Indigenous Knowledge

Systems.ImplicationforAgricultureandInternationalDevelopment.AcademyforEducationalDevelopment,Inc,WashingtonD.C.

Acknowledgements

TheauthorhighlyappreciatesthecontributionofReginaLaub in this importantinitiative.SallyBunningofFAORome,MichaelMakokhaandPaulOmangaofFAOKenyaareacknowledgedfortheirsupportandprovisionofdocumentation.ManythankstoFrancisMambalaforeditingthepaper.

http://www.media-access.com/whatis.html

57


The impact of biodiversity and biofortification on nutrition and health for the majority of the poorOmo OhiokpehaiHelen Keller International, Ralph Shodeinde Str., CBD, Abuja, Nigeria

Abstract

Biodiversity provides essential components of health, the environment andsustainable livelihoods. Agrobiodiversity includes the cultivated plants andanimals that form the raw material of agriculture, the wild foods and otherproducts gathered by rural populations within traditional subsistence systemsandorganismssuchaspollinatorsandsoilbiota.Forestbiodiversitycontributestofood,medicineandproductsforsaleamongforestdwellersandfarmersintheadjacentagriculturallandscape.

Agro-biodiverse systems tend to comprise smaller quantities of multiplespecies for culinary, medicinal and cultural uses. Farmers often retain orencouragevaluablewildplantswithintheirfields,onfieldmarginsandinadjacentnaturalareas.Thesesystemsarecharacterizedbyawiderangeofcrops,manyofwhichmayberepresentedbynumeroustraditionalvarieties.

Biofortificationisthesystembywhichstaplefoods(e.g.beans,cassava)areimprovedwithessentialnutrients(e.g.zinc,iron)throughconventionalbreeding.Agrobiodiversity is a potential source of genetic resources that plant breedersand scientists can use to add nutrients to foods, to reach the majority of thepopulationcheaplywith‘nutrient-dense’food.Thisactionisnecessarytoreachthemillionsofpoorruralpeoplesufferingfromchronicdiseases,foodinsecurity,HIV/AIDSandespeciallythedevastatingimpactofclimatechange.

All these issues require integrated and multidisciplinary responses forsustained livelihoods and food, nutritional and health security. This paperdiscussedtheimportanceofthestudyofthefood/nutrition/health/nexusandtheprospects of harnessing agrobiodiversity and biofortification to improve food-based approaches for better health among the poor, especially those who arehardtoreach.

58


Session4–Cross-cuttingissues:markets,environmentalservicesandpolicies

Chair: Gorettie Nabanoga

Adding value to agrobiodiversity: developing the value chain for neglected and underutilized speciesCharity IrunguSt Paul’s University, Limuru, Kenya

Learning points

• Marketingissuesandthemarketsystem• Pro-poorgrowth,marketandrurallivelihoods• Agro-valuechainanalysisandmanagement• Marketingaudit• Producttransformationthroughagribusinesssupplychain• Supportservicesinagriculturalvaluechains


African leafy vegetables (ALVs) are important sources of essential macro- andmicro-nutrients. They offer a source of livelihood when marketed as well ascontribute to crop biodiversity. Despite these positive aspects, out of the 210knownALVsspecies inKenyaonlya fewaregrown,marketedandconsumed.Thisneglecthasbeenattributedtoanumberoffactorsincluding:

• Erosion of culture and breakdown of traditional systems that ensuredproductionandconsumption

• Emergenceofexoticvegetablesthatweremarketedassuperiorfoods• Loss of growing areas where these vegetables used to grow naturally,

especiallyalongtheriverbanks,duetoenvironmentaldegradation• Lackofemphasisinagriculturaltraining,researchandmarketingpolicyon

traditionalcrops.Howeversince2001,therehasbeenamarkedincreaseinthedemandandsupply

ofALVsinbothformalandinformalmarketsaroundNairobi.Researchcarriedoutin2006showedthatthemarketgrossvalueshadincreasedbyabout212%betweenthe period 2001 and 2006. The main species traded were found to be Africannightshade,leafyamaranth,cowpeasandspider-plant.Thegrowthofthismarkethasbeengreatlyinfluencedbyincreasedconsumerdemandduetoanumberoffactors.These include promotional strategies of local NGOs, international organizationssuchasBioversityInternational, increasedhealthawarenessandconsciousnessofNairobidwellers,effectsofHIV/AIDsandimprovedALVpresentationinsupermarkets

59


andupmarketgroceries.Supplyhas increaseddue topromotionofproduction inperi-urbanand‘upcountry’keyproductionareasbyinternationalorganizationsandlocalNGOs,especiallyFarmConcernInternational,provisionofexternalmarketingsupportbyNGOs,enhancedfarmers’capacityforself-organizationandimprovementoftelecommunicationtechnology.TheplacementofALVsinmajorsupermarketsinNairobihasparticularlyhelped toenhanceconsumers’ ratingof thesevegetables.The demand has been matched with increased production mainly by small-scalefarmersintheperi-urbanareasofNairobiaswellasincreasedsuppliesfromfar-offtraditionalproductionareasofwesternandeasternKenya.

According to one study, the major hindering factor the growth of the ALVmarket in Nairobi was the inadequacy of physical infra-structural developmentin termsof the transport network, storage facilitiesandactualphysical tradingspace.Otherhinderingfactors includeunfavourablepoliciesforproductionandmarketingofALVs, lackofcapacity toregulatedrasticsupply fluctuations, lackofproductdifferentiationandvalueadditionand lackofcreditandother formsofsupporttocouncilmarkets’traders.AnotherdrawbackisthepresenceinthemarketofALVsthataregrowninunhygienicconditions,e.g.usingsewerspillage,makingpotentialconsumersapprehensiveaboutALVsaltogether.

Topromotethemarketfurther,favourablepoliciesforproductionandmarketingofALVsareneeded.ALVsshouldbeincludedasascheduledcropintheAgricultureActandtrainingguidelinesonproductionandconsumptionofALVsshouldbedeveloped,whichcouldalsobeincludedinthecurriculaofalllevelsofagriculturaltraining.

Ananalysisof theeffectofmarketdevelopmenton inter-and intra-specificon-farmbiodiversityshowedthatmarketdevelopmenthadanegativeinfluenceonbiodiversity.However,thiswasnotstatisticallysignificant,butitis,nevertheless,an indication that the influence is important and should be monitored as itdevelopsfurther,becausesupermarketsandotherhighvaluegroceriesonlystockafewvarietieswiththehighestdemand.

Fromthestudyit isclearthattorediscoverALVsanddevelopavaluechainthefollowingaspectsarenecessary;curriculashouldendeavourtocapturethem:

• InitialexploratorysurveytodocumentinformationonALVs(pastandpresent)• Valuechain,stakeholderandmarketpotentialanalysis• PromotionandraisingconsumerawarenessofALVstoincreaseconsumer

demand• Development of marketing strategy aimed at linking the small scale

farmerstothemarketdeveloped.Thishastwostages:- Collective action on the farmer’s side to ensure bulking, continuous

supplyandentrytohighvaluesupermarkets- Training to ensure quality in production and handling and other

value addition aspects; ensuring phytosanitary conditions, grading,transportation,acceptablequalitystandards,labelling,etc.

• Linkingfarmerstohigh-valuemarketsaswellasofferinglogisticalsupport• Orientingpolicytowardsneglectedandunderutilizedspecies(trainingand

extension,pro-poormarketingpolicies,etc.)• Developmentofmarketinfrastructureforthoseintheopenmarkets• Ruralsupportservicesincludinginfra-structure,accesstocredit,etc.

60


Learning resources

HornaD,TimpoSandGruèreG.2007.Marketingunderutilizedcrops:Thecaseof African garden egg (Solanum aethiopicum) in Ghana. International FoodPolicyResearchInstitute(IFPRI)andGlobalFacilitationUnitforUnderutilizedSpecies(GFU),WashingtonDC.

Irungu C, Mburu J, Maundu P, Grum M, Hoeschle-Zeledon I. 2007. Analysisof markets for African leafy vegetables within Nairobi and its environs andimplications foron-farmconservationofbiodiversity.GlobalFacilitationUnitforUnderutilizedSpecies(GFU),WashingtonDC.

Volvey B, Fearne A, Ray D. editors. 2007. Regoverning markets: A place forsmallscaleproducers inmodernagrifoodchains.GowerPublishingLimitedandershot,Burlington.

Recommended reading

Key referencesGruèreG,GiulianiA,SmaleM.2006.Marketingunderutilizedplantspecies for

thebenefitofthepoor:Aconceptualframework.EPTDiscussionPaper154.InternationalFoodPolicyResearchInstitute(IFPRI),WashingtonDC.

KaplinskyR,MorrisM.2002.Handbookforvaluemarketchainresearch.InstituteforDevelopmentStudies(IDS),Sussex.http://oro.open.ac.uk/5861/

TolleyGS,WongCM,ThomasV.1995.Agriculturalpricepoliciesandthedevelopingcountries.JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,Baltimore.

Further referencesAgricultureandFoodCouncilofAlbertaValueChainInitiative.2004.ValueChain

Guidebook.AProcessforValueChainDevelopment.Nisku,Alberta.CampsT,SchippersA,HendrikseG.editors.2004.Theemergingworldofchains

and networks: building theory and practice. Reeds Business Information,Gravenhage.

Chweya JA, Eyzaguirre PB. editors. 1999. Biodiversity of Traditional LeafyVegetables.InternationalPlantGeneticResourcesInstitute,Rome.

Ferris JN. 2005. Agricultural Prices and Commodity Market Analysis. MichiganStateUniversityPress,Michigan.

Padberg DI, Ritson C, Albisu LM. editors. 1997. Agro-Food Marketing. CABInternational,NewYork.

Useful websites

www.ids.ac.uk/www.underutilized-species.org

http://oro.open.ac.uk/5861/

http://www.ids.ac.uk/

http://www.underutilized-species.org

61


Ecosystems services in mosaic landscapesBrent SwallowASB Partnership for the Tropical Forest Margins, World Agroforestry Centre, Nairobi, KenyaPresent address: Department of Rural Economy, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada

Learning points

• Ecosystemservicesasanintegratingconcept/framework• Overalltrendsandtradeoffsbetweenecosystemservices• Highprevalenceofmosaiclandscapesacrossmostofthedevelopingworld• Importance of scale and stake in the ecosystem services generated by

mosaiclandscapes• Potentialforsynergiesandtradeoffsamongecosystemservicesinmosaic

landscapes• Limits on the effectiveness of regulations for safeguarding ecosystem

servicesandgrowinginterestinrecognition,rightsandrewards.

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment findings

The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) was initiated in 2001, bringingtogether over 1200 scientists under the auspices of the United NationsEnvironmentProgram.Itsobjectivewasto:

‘to assess the consequences of ecosystem change for humanwell-being and to establish the scientific basis for actions needed toenhance the conservation and sustainable use of ecosystems and theircontributionstohumanwell-being’.

TheMAframeditsworkaroundtheconceptofecosystemservices–thebenefitsthatpeopleobtainfromecosystems.TheMAcategorizesecosystemservicesinto:

• provisioningservicessuchasfood,water,timberandfibre• regulatingservicesthataffectclimate,floods,disease,wastesandwater

quality• cultural servicesthatproviderecreational,aestheticandspiritualbenefits• supporting services such as soil formation, photosynthesis and nutrient

cycling.Changesinecosystemsservicesinfluencethemultipleconstitutesofhuman

well-being:• Basic material for a good life, such as adequate livelihoods, sufficient

nutritiousfood,shelterandaccesstogoods• Health, includingfeelingwellandhavingahealthyphysicalenvironment,

suchascleanairandaccesstocleanwater

62


• Security, personal safety, secure access to natural and other resourcesandsecurityfromdisasters

• Good social relations, includingsocialcohesion,mutual respectand theabilitytohelpothers

• Freedom of choice and action and opportunity to achieve what anindividualvaluesdoingandbeing.

Source:MillenniumEcosystemAssessment, 2005.EcosystemsandHumanWell-being:Synthesis.IslandPress,Washington,DC.

Status of services

Inthelastdecades,therehasbeenunprecedentedchangeinstructureandfunctionofecosystems.Morelandwasconvertedtocroplandinthe30yearsafter1950thaninthe150yearsbetween1700and1850.Accordingly, thestatusofprovisioningandregulatoryandculturalserviceshasinmanycasesdeclined(Tables1and2).

Table 1. Status of provisioning services

Service Status

Food crops élivestock écapturefisheries aquaculture éwildfoods

Fibre timber +/–cotton,silk +/–woodfuel

Geneticresources Biochemicals,medicines Freshwater

Table 2. Status of regulating and cultural services

Regulating services Status

Airqualityregulation Climateregulation–global éClimateregulation–regionalandlocal Waterregulation +/–Erosionregulation Waterpurificationandwastetreatment Diseaseregulation +/–Pestregulation Pollination Naturalhazardregulation Cultural servicesSpiritualandreligiousvalues Aestheticvalues Recreationandecotourism +/–

63


Degradationofecosystemservicesoftencausessignificantharm tohumanwell-being.Thetotaleconomicvalueassociatedwithmanagingecosystemsmoresustainablyisoftenhigherthanthevalueassociatedwithconversion.Conversionmay still occur because private economic benefits are often greater for theconvertedsystem

Level of poverty remains high and inequities are growing

Economics and human development• 1.1 billion people are surviving on less than $1 per day of income.

70%liveinruralareaswheretheyarehighlydependentonecosystemservices

• Inequality has increased over the past decade. During the 1990s,21 countries experienced declines in their rankings in the HumanDevelopmentIndex.

Access to ecosystem services• Anestimated852millionpeoplewereundernourishedin2000–02,up37

millionfromtheperiod1997–99• PercapitafoodproductionhasdeclinedinSub-SaharanAfrica• Some 1.1 billion people still lack access to improved water supply and

morethan2.6billionlackaccesstoimprovedsanitation• Waterscarcityaffects1–2billionpeopleworldwide.Industries based on ecosystem services are still the mainstay of many

economies. The agricultural labour force accounts for 22% of the world’spopulationandhalftheworld’stotallabourforce.Agricultureaccountsfor24%ofGDPinlowincomedevelopingcountries.Themarketvalueofecosystem-serviceindustrieshasbeenestimatedtobe:

• Foodproduction:$980billionperyear• Timberindustry:$400billionperyear• Marinefisheries:$80billionperyear• Marineaquaculture:$57billionperyear• Recreationalhuntingandfishing:>$75billionperyearintheUnitedStates

alone.Mostdirectdriversofdegradationinecosystemservicesremainconstantor

aregrowinginintensityinmostecosystems.

Multiple land use types in mosaics & forest margin areas

Thesechangeinecosystemsservicesleadtoincreasingimportanceofmultipleland use types in mosaic landscapes and forest margin areas. Such systemshavebeenstudiedbygroupssuchastheWorldBank(e.g.Chomitz,2007)andthe Alternatives to Slash-and-Burn Programme (ASB, www.asb.cgiar.org). A

64


fewofthefindingsarereportedhere.AsummaryoftheglobalevidenceonthebiodiversityvalueofagriculturalandmosaiclandscapesisprovidedbyMcNeelyandScherr(2002).

ASB is well-known for its research on the tradeoffs associated withalternative land uses in benchmark sites located across the tropical forestmargins of Asia, Latin America and Southeast Asia. A number of meta landuses were identified that span across the sites, with specific land usesdiffering somewhat across the sites. The meta land uses and specific landusesarelistedinTable3.Specialattentionwaspaidtointermediatelandusesthatcombinetreesandagriculture.

Indicators of farm-level returns, contributions to the national economy,agronomicsustainability,carbonstocksandbiodiversityweremeasuredineachof thesites.Findings forbiodiversity, forexample,show that intermediate landusessuchasjunglerubberarenearlyasrichin(functional)biodiversityasnearbyforests.Figure1showsthespeciesrichnessandtreedensityofnaturalforests,old rubber agroforests and productive rubber agroforests in the Jambi area ofIndonesia.

Figure 1.BiodiversityplotmeasurementsinBungoDistrict,JambiSource:SaidaandGregoirVincent(inpreparation).

Num

ber

of

Tree

Sp

ecie

s

Total number of trees > 15 cm DBH encountered

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

00 100 200 300 400 500

65


Table 3. ASB meta land use systems and representative systems at the study sites

Indonesia Peru CameroonASBmetalanduse

Jambi Lampung EastKalimantan Ucayali ASBbenchmarksite

Forest Undisturbedforest

Loggedoverforest-highdensity

Loggedoverforest-lowdensity

Loggedovermangrove

Undisturbedswampforest

Naturalregrowth-shrub

Undisturbedforest



Loggedovermangrove

Loggedoverswampforest


Undisturbedforest



Loggedovermangrove

Loggedoverswampforest


Residualforest:

PreviouslyloggedwithsomeselectiveloggingcontinuingandNTFPextraction

Treecanopiesof95,80,65,50%

Highforest-relativelyintactwithsomeselectivelogginginthepast.SomehuntingandthegatheringofNTFPs

Secondaryforest-alsoimportantforcollectionofNTFPs

Tree-cropsystems

Homegarden

Coconut

Rubberagroforest

Cinnamonagroforest

Coffeeagroforest

Rubber

Oilpalm

Teaplantation

Homegarden

Coconut

Rubberagroforest

Cinnamonagroforest

Coffeeagroforest

Rubber

Oilpalm

Damaragroforest

Fruit-basedagroforest

Coffee

Agroforest

Rubberagroforest

Cinnamonagroforest

Coffeeagroforest

Rubber

Small-scaleoilpalm

Large-scaleoilpalm

Plantation

Oilpalm Extensivecacao-lowproductivitywithlimiteduseoffungicides(Akokonly)

Extensivecacaowithfruit-sameasaboveexceptfruitsurplusesaremarketed(Awaeonly)

Intensivecacaowithfruit-moreintensiveuseoffungicidesandlabourresultinhigheryield(500kg/ha)(Awaeonly)

Crop/Fallowsystems

Agriculture

Ricefield

Agriculture

Ricefield

Sugarcane

Agriculture

Ricefield

Shiftingcultivationmosaic-combinationofforestpatches,pastureandannualcrops

Shortfallow-secondaryforestconvertedto3yearsofannualcrops(rice,maize,cassava,plantain,bean)followedby2-6yearsoffallow

Mixedfoodcrop/shortfallowrotation-groundnuts,cassava,plantain,okra,cocoyams,maize,leafyvegetables

Longfallowrotation-melonseed/plantain/longrotationfallow

Other Settlement

Grass

Openpeat

Clearedland

Settlement

Grass

Openpeat

Clearedland

Settlement

Grass

Openpeat

Clearedland

NativegrassesorBrachiaria

66


Overall,ASBresults fromacross thehumid tropicsshowtradeoffsbetweenbiodiversityconservationandcontribution tohuman livelihoods,although therearewaystomitigatethetradeoffs.Forexample,theupperlineinFigure2showsmorecomplementaritythanthelowerlines.Thenextquestionis:whereandhowcanweachievetradeoffscenariosasdepictedintheupperlineandavoidtradeoffscenariosasdepictedinthelowerline.

Figure 2. Shifting paradigms of tradeoff/complementarity between biodiversityandlivelihoodoutcomes.Source:ASB.

Responses

Humansocietieshavedevisedanumberofresponsestomanagethetradeoffsbetween ecosystem goods and services. The most common response isregulation, the imposition of rules and regulations on human interaction withthe ecosystem. Inappropriate rules and weak enforcement of those ruleslimit the effectiveness of this approach. While thus often insufficient on theirown, experience has shown that regulations are usually necessary and cancomplementotherapproaches.

Social responsesgivenmoreemphasis in recentyearsare recognition, rightsandrewards.Recognitionandrightsgohandinhand.Recognitionisthefirststep.That is, little can be done to effectively manage human impacts on ecosystemservicesunlessthoseimpactsarerecognizedandthestakeholdersandmotivationsbehindthoseimpactsarerecognized.Socialrecognitionofstakeholderswilloften

SHIFTING PARADIGMS:WHERE AND UNDER WHAT CIRCUMSTANCES?

High

Low

HighLow

Where, how?

Livelihood/Poverty emphasis

Where, how?

Bio

div

ersi

ty c

ons

erva

tio

n

67


conclude that some stakeholders have more legitimate claims on ecosystemservices thanothers.Thenextstep involves thecodificationandenforcementoftherightsofthosewithlegitimateclaims,aswellasthedutiesofothermembersofsocietytorespectthoserights.Researchconductedoverthelast30yearshasshowntheadvantagesandlimitationsofpublicpropertyrights(heldbythestateonbehalfofthecitizensofalocality),commonpropertyrights(inwhichpeoplehaverightsthroughmembershipinagroup)andprivatepropertyrights.

Apublicresponsethathasgainedincreasedattentioninrecentyearsinvolvesrewards for ecosystem services. That is, individuals or groups are given amonetaryornon-monetaryrewardforstewardshipofanecosystemthatprovidesvaluable ecosystem services to other people (FAO, 2007). Over the last tento fifteen years, the ASB program has shifted its emphasis from regulation, torecognitionandrights,torewards(e.g.Tomichet al.2004).

• Recognition:necessary,problematic• Regulation:necessary,rarelysufficient• Rights:necessary,butquestionsaboutallocationtotherightpeople• Rewards:notnecessary,butoftenuseful.

Questions/issuesraisedinconsultations:• Whatbiodiversitygoalsdo‘we’wanttoachieve?• Doagro-ecosystemsreallyhavelowbiodiversityvalue?• Ecosystemservicesgeneratedbybiodiversitycanindeedbeimportantfor

localpeople• Integratedconservationanddevelopmentprojectshavehadmixedresults.

Learning resources and websites

MilleniumEcosystemAssessment:www.millenniumassessment.org/en/index.aspxASB:www.asb.cgiar.orgEcoagriculturePartnerslandscapemeasurestools:www.landscapemeasures.orgICRAF:www.worldagroforestry.org/TULSEA:www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/RUPES:www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/networks/rupesPRESA:www.presa.worldagroforestry.org

Recommended reading

Millennium Ecosystems Assessment (MA) reports: www.millenniumassessment.org/en/index.aspx

EcologyandSociety:www.ecologyandsociety.orgFAO, 2007. Farming farmers to protect the environment? State of the World’s

FoodandAgricultureFAO,Rome,Italy.McNeelyJ,ScherrS.2002.Strategiestofeedtheworldandsavewildbiodiversity.

IslandPress,WashingtonDC.

68


ChomitzK.2007.Atloggerheads?Agriculturalexpansion,povertyreductionandenvironmentinthetropicalforests.WorldBank,WashingtonDC.

Tomich, TP, Thomas, DE, van Noordwijk, M. 2004. Environmental services andlandusechangeinSoutheastAsia:fromrecognitiontoregulationorreward?Agric. Ecosyst. Environ.104(1):229-244.

69


PollinationIan Gordon¹ and Barbara Herren² ¹ ICIPE, Nairobi and ² FAO Rome

Learning points

• Pollinationisafrequentlyforgottenecosystemservicedespiteacurrentlyestimatedglobalvaluetoagricultureof153billionEuros

• Pollination services have been available for free from nature but areincreasingly threatened by climate change, local extinctions, pollinatorscarcity,habitatdestruction,insecticidesandbeediseases

• Anunderstandingofpollinationmust startwith thebasicsofpollinationmechanismsandoffloralandpollinatormorphologyandbehaviour:notallfloralvisitorsareeffectivepollinators

• Various simple techniquesareavailable for thepractical investigationofpollination

• Indigenous practices do exist that favour effective pollination, but thereremainsgreatscope for improvedpollinatormanagementonbothsmallandlargescalefarms

• Agreaterawarenessoftheimportanceofpollinationcanbefosteredbyitsinclusionineducationalcurriculaatalllevels.


According to Klein et al. (2007), 87 (70%) out of 124 major crops in the worlddependpartlyorwhollyonpollinatorsforsustainedproduction.Evencropssuchascoffeethatwerepreviouslyregardedaslargelyself-pollinatedbenefitfrominsectpollinators,notonlythrougheffectsonyieldsbutalsoonberryquality(Klein,2003).Bytakingintoaccountthelevelofdependenceonpollinationfor100cropslistedbyFAOasdirectcontributorstohumannutrition,Gallaiet al. (2009)estimatetheglobalvalueofthisecosystemservicetobe153billionEurosayear.

Pollinationisgenerallyanecosystemservicethatisnatureprovidesforfree,although inmanycountries (includingSouthAfricaand in thepast,Zimbabwe)it is deliberately augmented through the management, purchase and/or rentalof honeybees, bumblebees and other bee species. Honeybee colonies aremoved over hundreds of kilometres on large trucks to pollinate crops rangingfromsunflowerstoalfalfaandfruittrees.Ona landscapeandmorelocalscale,pollinationmaybeencouragedby theprovisionofbreeding siteson farms forinsectpollinatorssuchasstinglessorsolitarybees,byreducingtheapplicationof pesticides and other agricultural chemicals that may be deleterious and byprovidingalternativeforageplantsthatencouragepollinatorstopersist inagro-ecosystemsoutsideofcropfloweringperiods.

Thesuccessoflargescalepollinatormanagementovermanydecadesindicatesthatnaturalpollinatorservicesmaysufferinintensivelymanagedagro-ecosystems.In recentyears thispollinatordeficithasworsenedasa resultofglobaldeclines

70


inpollinatorabundanceanddiversity.Themaindriverofthesedeclineshasbeenthedestructionofthenaturalhabitatsonwhichpollinatorsdepend,buttherearealsospecies-specificdriverssuchasthecolonycollapsedisorderthatdecimatedhoneybeecoloniesintheUSinthewinterof2006-2007.Otherfactorsincludetheuse of insecticides and the emerging and poorly understood impacts of climatechange.Climatechangemayaffectpollinationservicesthroughdifferentialshiftsinthedistributionsandphenologiesofpollinatorsandtheirdependentplants,leadingto trophic and reproductive decoupling. On the other hand the reintroduction ofbiodiversity,evenintointensivesystems,maysustainpollinationservices.

Thecombinationofpollinatordeclines,increasingintensificationofagricultureandourenhancedscientificappreciationoftheeconomicvalueofpollinationmakestheinclusionofpollinationineducationalcurriculatimelyandessential.Anunderstandingofpollinationmuststartwiththefundamentalsoffloralstructure,modesofpollinationandthemeansofpollination.Floralstructureiscoveredinmostbasicbiologycoursesbutwillneedtoberevisitedasastartingpointinthecontextofapollinationcurriculum.Modesofpollination(selfandcrosspollination)needtobeexplainedinselffertile,selfsterile,monoeciousanddioeciousplants. It alsoneeds tobeexplained thatsomecrops (phenocarpiccrops)develop fruitwithoutany formofpollinationwhatsoeverandarepartiallyorcompletelyseedless.Themeansofpollinationarevarious(wind,gravity,water,birds,batsand insects)andneedtobeexplained inrelationtofloralstructure.Buildingonthisbasicunderstanding,majorpollinatorsshouldbeidentified,andtheirtaxonomy,behaviourandecologydescribed.Theimportanceofpollinationasanecosystemservicetoagriculture(includingestimatesofitseconomicvalue,)andthreatstopollinatorsandtheglobaldeclineinpollinatorservices,shouldbecovered.The importanceofnaturalhabitatsand landscapeecology, togetherwithpollinatorfriendlymanagementtechniquesareessentialcomponents.

A purely theoretical understanding of any topic has limited value and thecurriculum needs to include practical exercises. Again these should start withfloral dissections, relating the floral structures to pollinator morphology andbehaviour in a way that makes clear that not all floral visitors are effectivepollinators.Thebasictaxonomyof importantpollinatorgroups(especiallybees)shouldbecoveredusingkeysandspecimens.Simpletechniquesforinvestigatingpollination (e.g. direct observation and recording of floral visitors, pollinatorexclusion,handpollination)shouldbedemonstrated.Farmsshouldbevisitedandassessedfromtheperspectiveofthedegreetowhichtheyarepollinatorfriendly(presenceofnatural habitats, field sizes,monocultures, etc).Breedingsites forpollinatorsshouldbeidentifiedinthefield.

Key issues for further research include the effectiveness of indigenouspollinator-friendly practices, pollinator taxonomy, ecology and behaviour, theinfluenceofnaturalhabitatsandrefinementofeconomicvaluations.

Learning resources

EardleyC,RothD,ClarkeJ,BuchmannS,GemmilB.editors.2006.Pollinatorsand Pollination: A resource book for policy and practice. African PollinatorInitiative,ARC,SouthAfrica.

71


FAO 2008. Rapid assessment of pollinators’ status: a contribution to theinternationalinitiativefortheconservationandsustainableuseofpollinators.Globalactiononpollinationservicesforsustainableagriculture.FAO,Rome.www.fao.org/uploads/media/raps_2.pdf

Pollination management training curricula study sheets: Available from GlobalActiononPollinationServicesForSustainableAgriculture,FAORome,

VaughanM,SheppardM,KremenCandHofmanBlackC(eds).2007.Farmingfor bees: Guidelines for providing native habitats on farms. Xerces Society,PortlandOregon.

Bees, Pollination and Climate Change: A Guide to Selected Resources. ScienceReferenceSection,Science,Technology&BusinessDivision,LibraryofCongress.www.loc.gov/rr/scitech/SciRefGuides/bees.html

Recommended reading

Delaplane KS Mayer DF. 2000. Crop pollination by bee. CABI Publishing, CABInternational,Wallingford.

KleinAM,VaissièreeBE,CaneJH,Steffan-DewenterI,CunninghamSA,KremenC,TscharnktkeT.2007.Importanceofpollinatorsinchanginglandscapesforworldcrops.2007.Proc. R. Soc. Biol. Sci. 274:303-313.

GallaiaN,SallescJM,SetteledJ,VaissièreaBE.2008.Economicvaluationofthevulnerabilityofworldagricultureconfrontedwithpollinatordecline.EcologicalEconomics2009Vol.68No.3pp.810-821(availableatwww.sciencedirect.com).

Useful websites

Global Action on Pollination Services For Sustainable Agriculture. fao.org/agriculture/crops/core-themes/theme/biodiversity/pollination/en/

Bees and Pollination: a collection of links from Ohio State University’s OhioAgriculturalResearchService(ARS)www.oardc.ohio-state.edu/agnic/bee/

HoneyBeeNet,NASAGoddardSpaceFlightCenterWayneEsaias’site for learningabout theeffectsofclimatechangeonbeesand

ecosystemshoneybeenet.gsfc.nasa.gov/Mid-AtlanticApiculture:aregionalgroupfocusedonpestmanagementcrisis in

beekeepingindustry.maarec.cas.psu.edu/ThePollinatorPartnership: learnmoreandget involved inpollinatorprotection.

www.pollinator.org/ProjectBudburst:anationalphenologynetworkfieldcampaignforcitizenscientists.

www.windows.ucar.edu/citizen_science/budburst/StatusofPollinatorsinNorthAmerica,apublicationfromtheCommitteeonthe

StatusofPollinatorsinNorthAmerica,NationalResearchCouncil.www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=11761

http://www.sciencedirect.com

http://www.sciencedirect.com

http://www.oardc.ohio-state.edu/agnic/bee/

http://honeybeenet.gsfc.nasa.gov/

http://maarec.cas.psu.edu/

http://www.pollinator.org/

http://www.windows.ucar.edu/citizen_science/budburst/

http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=11761

http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=11761

72


Genetic resources policy and intellectual propertyRobert J. Lewis-LettingtonNairobi, Kenya

Outline

Summarizing issues surrounding genetic resources and intellectual propertyrights in the African context represents a significant challenge, because of thecomplexityofthesituationandtheoftenconfusingorweakregulatorysystems.Thispresentationoutlinesthebasicframeworkwithinwhichtheconservationandutilizationofgenetic resources takesplace,andwhich formsthebasisofmostnationalapproaches.Itisdividedintofourmainsections:

• Ownershipandcontrolofgeneticresources• Movementofgeneticresources• Intellectualpropertyrights• AfricanUnion.

Ownership and control of genetic resources

Ownershipofandtherighttocontrol,geneticresourcesarethestartingpointforanyconsiderationofconservationanduse.

What is the relevant law?The Convention on Biological Diversity www.cbd.int applies to most geneticresources and is the default framework for almost all matters relating to theirconservationanduse.ItisimportanttoconsiderseveralpointswhenexamininggeneticresourcesintheCBDcontext:

• Countryoforigin isakeyconcept inaccess.Thecountryoforiginofageneticresourceiswhereitisfoundinin situconditionsor,inthecaseofcultivatedspecies,wheretheparticularvarietiesdevelopedtheirdistinctivecharacteristics.Thereisnodefinitionofdistinctivecharacteristics.Whereoneisdealingwithnon-cultivatedspeciesthesituationcanbecomplicatedbymultiplepointsoforigin,although theactualcountryoforiginwillbethe jurisdiction where it is collected, regardless of wherever else it maybe found. While, to the best knowledge of the author, it has not beensignificantlyactedupontodate, theprovisionontheoriginofcultivatedspeciescouldbecomeextremelycomplex

• TheprovisionsoftheCBDarenotdirectlyapplicableinnationallaw,althoughtheyareseenasaframeworkforgoodconduct.Theremustbecorrespondingnationallawforthemtobedirectlybindinguponotherthanstates

• Indevelopingcountries,thegeneticresourcerelatedprovisionsoftheCBDareusuallyreflected innational lawthroughaccesstogeneticresourcesregulations.Someprovisions,particularly those relating toconservation,areusuallyfoundingeneralbiodiversityorenvironmentallegislation.

73


TheInternationalTreatyonPlantGeneticResourcesforFoodandAgriculturewww.planttreaty.orgwasdevelopedinharmonywiththeCBD.Ithastheintentionof providing a framework for the conservation and sustainable use of plantgenetic resources for foodandagriculture. Italsoseeks toprovideaclearandpredictablesystemforaccessandbenefitsharingrelatingtoplantspeciesofkeyimportancetofoodsecurityandforwhichcountriesareinterdependentintermsofaccessforplantmaterial forresearch,trainingandbreedingto improvefoodandfeedproduction.TheMultilateralSystemofAccessandBenefitSharingcanberegardedasameansofimplementingtheframeworkprovisionsofArticle15oftheCBD,althoughthefollowingpointsmustbeconsidered:

• The Multilateral System of access and benefit sharing only applies tomaterial of species listed in Annex I and under the management andcontrolofthestateandinthepublicdomainandmaterialininternationalandothercollectionsplacedintheTreatyframework

• Todate,theMultilateralSystemismostlyreflectedinnationallawthroughadministrativepractice(rules,contractsetc)butthismaychange.

InadditiontotheCBDandtheInternationalTreaty,severalotherinitiativesthatmayhavesignificantimpactupontheconservationandsustainableuseofgeneticresourcesareatvariousstagesofdevelopment,including:

• A more detailed framework for access and benefit sharing is beingdeveloped under the CBD. This is expected to be binding in nature,although this has not yet been agreed upon and is currently known asthe International Regime. Negotiations are scheduled to be concludedatthemeetingoftheConferenceoftheParties in2010butthisremainsachallengeandanyagreedbinding instrumentwould remainsubject tosomeformofaccessionbystates

• With theadoptionof theGlobalPlanofAction for theConservationandSustainable Use of Animal Genetic Resources in 2008, discussions onaccessandbenefitsharingaredevelopinginthisarea,althoughit isnotclearwhetherthiswillultimatelyleadtoanyinstrument.Asthingsevolve,it appears likely that discussions will probably be confined to domesticlivestockbuttheycouldalsoincludewildrelatives

• The roleofmicrobial genetic resources in agriculture isbeginning tobediscussedintermsofaccessandbenefitsharingframeworks.

What is your source of material?The source of material can have significant impacts upon issues of ownershipandcontrol.Therearetwobasicsourcesofmaterial,althougheachofthesecanobviouslybebrokendownalmostinfinitely.

A.Wildmaterial.Inconsideringwildmaterial,thekeydeterminingfactorsare:• What is the location of the collection? Land tenure or governance,

sometimes including customary law and practice, can significantlyinfluenceaccessprocedures

• Doyouhavenationalaccesstogeneticresourcesregulations?Regulationsarelikelytogovernaccesstowildmaterialsregardlessofwheretheyarefound

74


• Is the sample native or an alien species? This can have implicationsfor country of origin rights, although even alien species found in in situ conditionshave,thusfar,tendedtobemanagedbythestateswheretheyarefound.

B. Ex situ collection. Ex situ collections tend to be more predictable thanothersourcesofmaterialandmanyareawareofthevariousinternationalandnational regulatory issues and have taken administrative steps to recognizethem.Intheeventthatthereisanyuncertainty,severalbasicquestionsshouldbeconsidered:

• Was the material in question collected pre or post-1992? Materialcollected pre-1992 is expressly excluded from the scope of the CBDby the Nairobi Declaration that accompanied the adoption of theConvention’stext.

• Who holds the collection and what species are you accessing? SomespeciesarecoveredbytheInternationalTreatyonPGRFA,providedtheyareunderthemanagementandcontrolofthestateorhavebeenplacedwithintheTreatyframework.

• What country are you accessing material from? Not all countries arepartiestothe InternationalTreatyonPGRFA,althoughmostarepartytotheCBDandthecountrywhereyouareaccessingthematerialmaynotbethecountryoforigin.

Movement of genetic resources: sanitary and phytosanitary standards

Apartfromspecificmeasuresforaccessandbenefitsharing,mostmovementsofgenetic resourceshavetocomplywithsanitaryorphytosanitarystandardsandprocedures,whicharebasicallyaboutplant,animalandmore recently,generalenvironmentalhealth.Theprimaryumbrellaagreement lending force tospecificsectoral technical agreements is the World Trade Organisation’s Sanitary andPhytosanitaryStandards(SPS)Agreement.MoreinformationcanbefoundattheInternational Phytosanitary Portal www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/sps_e/sps_e.htm, but a summary of the scope of the three sectoral technical agreements,knownasthe‘threesisters’isasfollows:

A. CodexAlimentariusCommission(CAC)• Foodstuffs• Includesmeansofproduction,preparation,storage,etc.

B. InternationalPlantProtectionConvention(IPPC)• Regulates plant pests; secures action to prevent the spread and

introduction of pests of plants and plant products; and promotesappropriatemeasuresfortheircontrol

• Moreinfo:www.ippc.int/IPP/En/default.jspC. WorldOrganizationforAnimalHealth(OIE)

• TechnicalmandatesimilartothatofIPPCbutanimalsratherthanplants• Moreinfo:www.oie.int/

75


In addition to the three sisters, there is the Cartagena Protocol to theCBD, which considers the risk to general environmental health from themovement of living modified organisms. The Cartagena Protocol is not aswidelyacceptedorestablishedasthethreesisters.Itsbasiccharacteristicsareasfollows:

• Biosafety: The need to protect human health and environment from thepossibleadverseeffectsoftheproductsofmodernbiotechnology

• Protocol objective: Adequate protection in the safe transfer, handlingand use of living modified organisms (LMOs) resulting from modernbiotechnologythatmayhaveadverseeffectsontheenvironment&humanhealth

• Scope: Trans-boundary movement, transit, handling and use ofLMOs (Article 4) that can affect sustainable use of biological diversity.Pharmaceuticalsareexcluded.

• Adoptsaprecautionaryapproach.

Intellectual property rights

Intellectual property rights often control many aspects of the ownership andcontrol of genetic resources but are a complex and diverse field at both thenational and international levels. However, the key indicative instruments forgeneticresourcesissuesaretheWorldTradeOrganization’sAgreementonTradeRelated IntellectualPropertyRights (TRIPs),particularlyArticle27.3(b)and theUnionfortheProtectionofNewPlantVarieties(UPOV)Convention.UnderArticle27.3(b)ofTRIPs:

• Membersmayexcludeplantsandanimalsfrompatentability• Membersmustprotectmicroorganisms• Members shall provide for the protection of plant varieties either by

patents or by an effective sui generis system or by any combinationthereof

• OtherpossiblyrelevantareasoftheTRIPsAgreementinclude:- Protectionofundisclosedinformation(e.g.,hybrids)- Trademarks(associatedwithseeds’genericdenomination)- Geographicalindications.

TheUPOVConventionisgenerallyconsideredaslinkingwithArticle27.3(b)ofTRIPsbyprovidingasui generisformofintellectualpropertyrightforanykindofplantvariety.UPOV’sbasicprinciplesinclude:

• Commercialnovelty• Distinctness• Uniformity• Stability• Broadexceptionsforresearchandbreeding• Limited,optional,exceptionsforsmallholderuse.Thisreferstothe1991textbut,indevelopinganationallaw,acountrycould

useearliertexts.

76


Patents vs. Plant Variety Protection (PVP)

Patents Plant Variety Protection

Genes,cells,plants,varieties Plantvarieties

Novelty,inventivestep,industrialapplicability

Novelty,distinctness,uniformity,stability

Exclusiverightsoveruse,researchandbreeding

Farmers’privilegeBreeders’rights

Various actors, particularly developing countries and NGOs, have raised anumber of concerns about intellectual property rights over genetic resources,including:

• Howdointellectualpropertyrights,allowingforprivatemonopolies,linkwithsovereignrightsandastate’spowertoregulate,overgeneticresources?

• Third parties can be prevented from producing or selling goods orservicesusingprotectedinformationormaterialwithoutthetitle-holder'sauthorization,e.g.acommonissueincutflowerexportstoEurope

• Another issue that has generated concern is the impact that theappropriationofgeneticmaterialsunderIPRsmayhaveontheaccesstosuchmaterialsforfurtherresearchanddevelopment

• Thegrantingofplantbreeders’rights(PBRs)doesnotlimittheuseoftheprotectedmaterialasasourceforfurtherresearchandbreeding,becauseofthegenerallyaccepted‘breeders’exemption’

• ThetreatmentoftraditionalknowledgeinIPRregimeshasbeenseenasallowingfortheappropriationofdevelopmentsbasedonsuchknowledgewithoutrecognizingrightstotheknowledgeitself.

African Union

The African Union has promoted the use of two model instruments relating togeneticresourcesissues,namely:

• The African Model Law for the Protection of the Rights of LocalCommunities,FarmersandBreedersandfortheRegulationofAccesstoBiologicalResources

• DraftModelNationalLegislationonSafetyinBiotechnology.

Thebasiccharactersofeachofthesemodelsareverysimilar:• Not binding – advisory documents adopted by Organization of African

Unity/AfricanUnionministerialconferences• Veryusefulforidentifyingprinciplesandkeyconcerns• Do not replace the need for work at the national level – difficult to

implementina’cutandpaste’approach.InthespecificcaseoftheAfricanModelLawfortheProtectionoftheRights

ofLocalCommunities,FarmersandBreedersandfortheRegulationofAccesstoBiologicalResources,oneshouldalsoconsiderthefollowing:

77


• Where UPOV focuses on rights of downstream users of biologicalmaterials,i.e.researchersandbreeders,Modelfocusesmoreonrightsofmaterialproviders

• Seekstoestablish/maintainrightstofarmers’varietiesandotherinformallydevelopedorusedmaterial

• Balancebetweenroleandrightsofindividuals,communities,governmentand the private sector can be difficult to achieve and probably needsfurtheranalysisatthenationallevel.

Concluding comments: what should a university teach its students?

Whileuniversitiescouldseek todevelopdetailedcoursesongenetic resourceslaw and policy as part of legal or science and innovation policy training, theymayalsoneedtoconsiderseveralareasforincorporationintocoursesrelatingtobiologicalandchemicalsciencesandintotheadministrationoftechnologyandinnovation,inparticular:

• Howtoresponsiblyandfairlycollectandusematerial• Howtoprotecttherightsofresearchersandthoseoftheirinstitutions,as

wellasthoseofothers• Focusonpromotingresearchandpre-emptingproblems• Universities will need to engage their respective national authorities in

policydevelopment.

78


Threats to agrobiodiversityMikkel Grum, Sibonginkosi Khumalo and Julia Ndungu-SkiltonBioversity International

Learning points

• Themainthreatstoagrobiodiversity• Differencesandsimilaritiesbetweenthreatstobiodiversityingeneraland

threatstoagrobiodiversity• Bridgingbetweenthe‘conservation’and‘agricultural’worldsandexperience• Creating the right organizational and institutional context for creative

interactionbetweenscientificandindigenousknowledge• Multidisciplinary nature of agrobiodiversity research and practice. Most

projectsandprogrammesofworkarecomponentspecific,i.e.theyfocusspecificallyoncrops,animals,pestsandpathogensofindividualspecies,pollinatorsorsoilbiota,etc.(thewaycomponentslinkandinteractisnotalwaysveryclear)

• Becauseagrobiodiversityislargelymanaged,thereiscloseinteractionofthebiophysicalscienceswiththesocio-economicandculturaldisciplines.How we effectively adopt partnerships and participatory approachesamongresearchers,farmersandotherstakeholderstointegrateecologicaland socioeconomic research, which are instrumental in understandingecosystemservicesandthetradeoffsofdifferentmanagementscenarios

• Manyoftheunmanagedcomponents,e.g.wildrelativesofcrops,habitatsfor pollinators, pests and diseases, are important factors in the choicesthatpeoplemake.Thereiscurrentlyalackofscientificknowledgeonthetotalityofecosystemservicesprovidedbyagrobiodiversity

• Strengthened capacity among partners to incorporate agriculturalbiodiversitycomponents in theirworkand tomanagework inways thatreflectagriculturalbiodiversityneeds.


Agrobiodiversityhasdevelopedand isnurturedwithinsystemsmanipulatedbypeople. Therefore, it is the choices that people make that drive the continuedexistence,orextinction,ofagrobiodiversity.Theinitialresulthasbeenthatthereistodaymanytimesmoreagrobiodiversitythanexisted10000yearsago.Thesehard-wongainsforhumanityarenowthreatenedbyavarietyoffactors.

The threats generally arise when there are gaps between the private valueand public value of changes to production systems. The private and publicvaluesof farmingactivitiesareveryoftencloselyalignedwith thedevelopmentandnurturingofagrobiodiversity.This ishowmostdevelopmentofagriculturalbiodiversityhasbeendriven,intheinterestofboththeindividualandthegeneralpublic.Yettherearesignsthatthisalignmentisinpartbreakingdown.

79


Agrobiodiversitylossoccursatarangeofscalesfromindividualfieldstothetotallossofspeciesorvarietiesfromtheearth.Thelosscanbeviewedfromtheperspectiveofthe lossofproductsorecosystemservices inspecific locations,or the loss of options for humanity as a whole. Under a broad definition ofagrobiodiversitythatincludescropwildrelativesandgatheredplantsandanimals,its loss occurs in wild habitats as well as in agricultural production systems.However,thispresentationwillfocusonthelosseswithinproductionecosystemstohighlightthedistinctiveelementsofthreatstoagrobiodiversity.Marketsdrivemostofthesechanges.

At one extreme, climate change is probably the biggest future threat toagrobiodiversityandrepresentstheconsequencesofchoicesmadebysocietiesbothwithinandmoreimportantly,beyondagriculturalproductionsystems.Withclimate change, the trees, crops and varieties that they grow and the animalsthattheykeepwillneedtoalterinwholeregions.Thiswillhappenatapacethatmakesitveryunlikelythattheywillfullymastertheintricaciesoftheopportunitiesoffered,ortheconstraintsenforced,byclimatechange.Sinceagrobiodiversitywillneedtobemovedaroundveryconsciously,itisoverwhelminglylikelythatmuchofthediversitywillbelost.

Inaparalleltohabitatchangefornaturalbiodiversity,enterprisechangeisthemostdramaticthreattoagriculturalbiodiversity.Whenfarmersreplaceoneplantoranimalspecieswithanother,ordropspecies,varietiesorracesbecausetheyfocusonfewerenterpriseswithinthefarm,theresultisareductioninagrobiodiversity.Onalargerscale,losscanalsooccurwhenfarmersadoptthesamevarietiesacrossfarms,withoutnecessarilyresultinginareductionindiversityontheindividualfarm.Onaglobalscaletheincreasingdemandforwheat,maizeandriceishappeningattheexpenseofdiversityofmanyothercrops.

Examples can still be found where taking on new enterprises can increaseon-farmdiversity,suchaswhenfarmersbegincultivatingtreesorcropsthattheyhadpreviouslygathered.The recent introductionofmany leafyvegetables intocultivationisoneexample.

Closelyrelatedtoenterprisechangeisindustrializationoffarming,whichoftendemandssignificantsimplificationofproductionecosystemsandthereductionofdiversity. Mechanization is one aspect that encourages the production of fewercropsandvarieties. Theuseof fertilizers,pesticidesandmedicinesall influenceproduction in ways that reduce diversity within the ecosystem through mono-cropping and reduced crop rotations and animal movements. There are alsounintendedside-effectsonotheragrobiodiversityby,forexample,killingpollinators.

Plantbreeding,orevensimplyselectionofonevarietyoveranother, resultsin the loss of large amounts of agrobiodiversity. The replacement of traditionalvarietiesbynewvarietiesisthemosttalkedabouteffect,butthebreedingofonecrop,ratherthananother,favoursthatcroprelativetoothers.

Weeds,pestsanddiseasesalsoexerttheirinfluence.Someofthemaddtothediversityoftheproductionsystembysupplyingproductsthatpeoplemakeuseof,suchastheweedsconsumedasleafyvegetables,grass-cuttersandpigeonswhichprovidemeat,etc.Pestsanddiseaseshavealsobeenprimarydriversofthediversificationofplantsandanimalsthroughoutthehistoryofagriculture.

80


Thereiscurrentlymuchtalkof‘peakoil’,theideathatwehavenowreachedaturningpointwithrespecttotheavailabilityofoilandthatfuturesupplieswillcomeatahighercostandatslowerratesthanpreviously.Isthesamehappeningwiththeplantsandanimalsinourproductionsystems?Havewereached‘peakagrobiodiversity’? And if so, how does this prepare us for the challenge ofadaptingtoclimatechangeandotherfuturescenarios?

Recommended reading

BalterM.2007.Seekingagriculture’sancientroots.Science.316:1830-1835.Brooks N. 2006. Climate change, drought and pastoralism in the Sahel –

DiscussionnotefortheWorldInitiativeonSustainablePastoralism.WISP.BrownO.andCrawfordA.2008.Assessingthesecurity implicationsofclimate

changeforWestAfrica:CountrycasestudiesofGhanaandBurkinaFaso,pp.51.IISD,Winnipeg,Canada.

Ho, M-W. and Ching LL. 2008. Greening the desert: how farmers in Sahelconfoundscientists.InstituteofScienceinSociety,London.

PielkeR,PrinsG,RaynerS.andSarewitzD.2007.Liftingthetabooonadaptation:renewedattentiontopoliciesforadaptingtoclimatechangecannotcometoosoon.inNature,Vol.445,8February2007:pp.597.

Useful websites

PlatformforAgrobiodiversityResearch,www.agrobiodiversityplatform.org

81


Session5–Innovationinhigheragriculturaleducation

Chair: Judith C.N. Lungu

Findings from surveys on PGR and agrobiodiversity education in Africa and Latin AmericaBoudy Van SchagenBioversity International

Introduction

Untilrecently,therehasbeenacritical lackofinformationonhowplantgeneticresources(PGR)andagriculturalbiodiversityarebeingtaughtathighereducationinstitutions in the developing world. To redress this, Bioversity InternationalrecentlycommissionedregionaluniversitysurveysineasternandsouthernAfricaandinLatinAmerica.ThefocusofthispresentationisontheAfricansurvey,withabriefcomparisonwiththeLatinAmericansurveyresults.

Rationale for an African survey on agrobiodiversity/PGR education

A2007meetingwiththeUganda-basedRegionalUniversitiesForumforCapacityBuilding inAgriculture (RUFORUM)andBioversityconcludedthat therewasan‘urgentneedforcapacitystrengtheninginagrobiodiversityeducation’.Untilthistimelittlewasknownabouthowagrobiodiversitywasbeingtaughtinuniversities,ortheopportunitiesandconstraintstodeliveringthistraining.

Methodology

Bioversity commissioned an external consultant to develop and conduct thesurvey.Theconsultantvisitednineregionaluniversities ineasternandsouthernAfricatogatherin-depthinformation.Inaddition,aquestionnairewascirculatedby email to 50 universities, members of the African Network for Agriculture,AgroforestryandNaturalResourcesEducation(ANAFE).

The survey addressed all levels of university education, from diploma-levelthroughBachelorsandMasterstoPhDtraining.Itlookedatwhatwasofferedattheprogrammeand the individualcourse level,butdidnot request informationonwhichtopicswerecoveredwithincourses.Importantly,thestudyassumedacommonunderstandingof theconceptsandapproachesdefiningplantgeneticresourcesandagrobiodiversity.

82


Results

Ofthe50emailquestionnairesdistributed,onlysixwerereturned,fiveofwhichwere fromuniversitiesalsovisitedby theconsultant.This yieldeda totalof 10universitiessurveyed.Therewasalsoaratherheavyandunintendednationalbiastotheresults–halfoftherespondinguniversitiesarelocatedinKenya.

In terms of PGR education, the results can largely be organized into fourdomains: crop science and plant breeding; seed science; biotechnology and;horticulture(Table1).

Thesurveyrevealedthatthereiscurrentlynocomprehensiveprogrammeonagrobiodiversity offered at any level in any of the responding universities. Noris there any dedicated course on agrobiodiversity in the surveyed universities.Nonetheless,someagrobiodiversitycontent isdeliveredwithin thecontextofafewprogrammesandcourses(Table2).

Table 1. Programmes of relevance to PGR

Domain Programme UniversityCropScienceandPlantBreeding

MScPlantbreeding UniversityofNairobi

MScPlantbreeding UniversityofMalawi

MPhil/PhDPlantbreeding MoiUniversity

BScCropimprovement&protection KenyattaUniversity

MScPlantbreeding UniversityofZambi

MScCropscience(plantbreedingoption) UniversityofZimbabwe

MScCropscience(PGR+plantbreedingoptions) MakerereUniversity

SeedScience BScandMPhilSeedscience MoiUniversity

MScSeedscienceandtrade MakerereUniversity

Biotechnology BScandMScBiotechnology KenyattaUniversity

BScandMScBiotechnology JomoKenyattaUniversityofAgricultureandTechnology

MScCropscience(biotechnologyoption) MakerereUniversity

Horticulture MSHorticulture(somealsoBScandPhD) FourKenyanUniversities

MScHorticulture UniversityofMalawi

Table 2. Programmes and courses agrobiodiversity content

Programme with agrobiodiversity content University

MScinEthnobotany KenyattaUniversity

BScAgro-ecosystemsandEnvironment UniversityofNairobi

CourseonbiodiversityconservationinitsBScAgroforestryprogramme CopperbeltUniversity,Zambia

EthnobotanycourseinitsBScBotanyprogramme JomoKenyattaUniversityofAgricultureandTechnology

CourseontraditionalvegetablesproductionwiththeBScHorticultureprogramme

EgertonUniversity

83


An important observation is that PGR- and agrobiodiversity-relatedprogrammesareoftenorientedtowardsspecific(andoftentechnical)disciplines,such as seed science, crop protection, agricultural economics, horticulture,microbiologyandagronomy.Thissuggestsareducedscopeforteachingmore‘holistically’withemphasisonthemultidisciplinaryelementsofagrobiodiversity,includingthesocialsciences.

Somewhat surprisingly, there was widespread dissatisfaction with thewayplantgenetic resources iscurrentlybeing taught,with responsesrangingfrom ‘inadequate’ to ‘grossly inadequate’. Only the University of Zambia andMakerere University were comparatively more satisfied with their quality oftraining.

Job prospects and institutional partnerships

Government ministries (particularly the Ministry of Agriculture) and otherpublic sector institutions (including genebanks, national agricultural researchorganizations,etc.)areseenasprovidingthemostimportantcareeropportunitiesfor graduates. Private sector companies are seen as less enticing, with self-employmentandengaging inentrepreneurialactivitiesbeing the least-favouredcareerpathway.

Respondents were also asked to give examples of kinds of partnership,collaboration and other forms of external linkages they had established. Theresponsescanbebroadlycategorizedinto3types:

• Partnershipwithcomplimentaryorganizations• Linkageswithgenebanks• Participationinthematicnetworks.

Nearly all universities felt that external partners made significantcontributionstowardsthedevelopmentandsustenanceoftheirprogrammes.Theyalsoconfirmedthatpartnershipcollectivelybuildscapacity,helpsrealizecommonobjectivesandthat ithelps inmanagingandsupportingreviewsofcurricula.

Challenges to teaching and learning agrobiodiversity and PGR

Respondents were asked to identify some of the problems and obstacles inteachingagrobiodiversityandPGR.Theircommentswerethat:

• Teachingandlearningisusuallynotproblem-based• Thestudent/teacherratioishigh• Excessiveemphasisontheory• Thereisnoe-learningmodeofdelivery• Alackofteachingaids,audio-visualequipment,computersetc.• Thesystemdoesnotexposestudentstobecriticalthinkers(thereisrote

learning).

84


Some comparisons with Latin America

A similar survey conducted in 2006-2007 in several Latin American countriesexamined post-graduate level agrobiodiversity/PGR education (undergraduateeducationwasnotcovered).Thataside,thesurveyrevealedthat–justasineasternand southern Africa, no university presently offers an integrated programmeon agricultural biodiversity, nor a specific course entitled agrobiodiversity.Programmesandcoursesarerooted indisciplinesofbiologyand/oragronomy.ThesurveyidentifiedthecoverageofsometopicsthatwerenotpickedupintheAfricansurvey,suchasbio-safety,intellectualpropertyandbiodiversityvalue.

Asingleextract fromtheLatinAmericasurveyreportdeftlysummarizesthesimilarityoftheproblemsandopportunitiesidentifiedinbothregions.

The biggest challenge for the future has to do with the relevance of thecontenttothelabourmarket,notonlythenationalbutalsotheregionalmarket;toharnessingopportunitiesforcollaborativeworkwithotherorganizationsand;toachievegreaterinter-disciplinaritywithinthesameuniversity’.

85


Innovation systems approach: Implications for agricultural education and researchJudith Ann FrancisS&T Strategies, CTA

Learning objectives

• Thenatureofinnovationincludinginnovationtriggersandhindrances• Knowledge,learningandscience,technologyandinnovationpolicy• Thesystemofinnovationanditsrelevancetoagriculture• The innovationsystemapproachand its implications foragricultureand

agrobiodiversityeducationandresearch.

Content

• Knowledge, learning theories, linkages, institutions, organizations andinnovationdefinitionsandconcepts

• Definitionofsystemsofinnovationandinnovationsystemsapproach• Application of the innovation systems approach to agriculture and

agrobiodiversityeducationandresearch.

Session plan

Thismoduleshouldcompriseclassroomlecturestointroducethekeyconcepts;a reading assignment on innovation, innovation system, innovation systemapproach, knowledge and learning; a group assignment in which studentscompareagriculturalinnovationsystemandinnovationsysteminmanufacturingsector, e.g. the car industry to identify synergies and differences and presenttheir results orally and; an individual paper identifying and categorizing anyinnovation(s)forachosencommodity,thesourceoftheknowledgeunderpinningtheinnovation,theinnovationtriggersandanassessmentoftheperformance.

Background

Technological innovations have been associated with productivity growth andincreased material welfare for centuries. Yet, countries in Sub-Saharan Africa(SSA)continuetobechallengedinadoptingtechnologiestoincreaseagriculturalproductivityandcompetitiveness.Thetermsinnovation,inventionandtechnologydevelopmentareoftenusedinterchangeablybut,theyarenotthesame.Innovationistheapplicationofknowledge(includingscientificandindigenousknowledge),whetherneworoldbutnewinagivencontextorappliedinnewways,tobringnewproducts,processesandservicesintosocialandeconomicuse.Innovation

86


asdefinedinthiswidestsenseisaninteractive,cumulative,evolutionaryprocessthat is embedded in the political, social, economic, organizational, institutionaland cultural context and is driven by science, technology, learning, the policyenvironment,opportunityanddemand.Innovationcanalsobesocial,politicalandorganizational.AgricultureinSSAneedsinnovation.

Scientific discoveries, inventions and technological innovations are notthe only factors that underpin socio-economic development. The enablingenvironmentincludingthepolicyandlegislativeframework,thefinancialsystem,thephysical infrastructure including thecommunicationnetwork, the traditionalhabits,behaviourandpracticesand theknowledgeand learningcompetenciesof theactorsarealso important. Institutions,definedas the rulesof thegame,

for example Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) legislation and organizations,definedasthestructurescreatedtotakeadvantageofopportunitiesprovidedbyinstitutions, for exampleuniversities, research institutesandextensionservicesfacilitate access to information and knowledge. Collaboration, networking andthe information and knowledge flows among key stakeholders and their abilityto learn and apply knowledge (codified and tacit; indigenous and scientific;knowledge embedded in technologies etc) within an enabling environment arecritical.

The innovation systems approach is a framework that can be used forevaluating and comparing innovation performance within and across sectorsand countries. It is conceptually diffuse and is used to describe, understandand explain innovation determinants and processes and the results are usedto guide innovation policy. It is holistic and inter-disciplinary in nature andprovidesahistoricalperspective.ISAcanbeappliedatvariouslevelsandscales(international,nationalorsectoral)ortoaparticulartechnology.Theboundariesofthesystemaregenerallydefinedbytheaspectstobestudied. Indevelopedeconomies, the approach is used to understand the differences in innovationperformanceandtoexplain trends ineconomicdevelopment. Itsapplicationtounderstandingagriculturaldevelopment indevelopingcountries is limitedbut isacknowledgedtobeimportant.

A system of innovation consists of a network of actors who, together withthe institutions that influence their innovative behaviour, create, diffuse anduseknowledgewithinaneconomic framework.Thesystemactors include: theenterprises, commodity and industry associations, innovation and productivitycentres, standard setting bodies, research and development organizations,universities, education and vocational training centres and information andfinancialservicesamongothers.Endogenousscience,technologyandinnovationcapacityisimportantforeffectiveperformanceofinnovationsystems.Theactorsshouldbeabletoproduce(e.g.throughresearch)oracquire,diffuse,absorbandusescientificandtechnicalknowledgeaswellasvaluetraditionalknowledge.

The role and functions of agriculture have changed over the centuries.Agricultureisacomplexinter-relatedactivitywithstrongforwardandbackwardlinkages between producers, intermediaries and markets (highly structured insomecountries)andnotonlyprovidesfood(forsustenance,nutritionandhealth),feed, fibre and fuel but also recreational and eco-system services including

87


conserving agrobiodiversity and safeguarding the environment. This suggeststheneedfornewinnovationpatternswhichrelyoncollaborationandnetworkingamong scientists of several related disciplines and between them and otheractors including policy-makers and entrepreneurs. Such system would takeadvantageofknowledgeasneededandcreateandexpandmarketopportunitiesfor products and services. The emphasis must be on building capacity of thesystem actors to learn and creating the institutions and organizations that cansupport the enterprises to continuously innovate. All actors must be able toharness and add value to the rich agrobiodiversity that exists in sub-SaharanAfricaforfoodandwealthcreation.

Recommended reading

Edquist C. editor. 1997. Systems of Innovation: Technologies, Institutions andOrganizations.PinterCassell,London.

World Bank. 2007. Enhancing agricultural innovation: how to go beyond thestrengtheningofresearchsystems.WorldBank,WashingtonDC.

Rajalahti R, Janssen W, Pehu E. 2008. Agricultural innovation systems: fromdiagnosis toward operational practices. Agriculture and Rural DevelopmentDiscussionpaper38.WorldBank,WashingtonDC.

88


ANAFE’s experience with curriculum reviewsJohn Saka¹, Aissetou Yaye², Sebastian Chakeredza³ and August Temu 4¹ NAREC, Faculty of Science, Chancellor College, University of Malawi² ANAFE Secretariat, ICRAF, Kenya³ SA-RAFT, ICRAF, Lilongwe, Malawi4 Partnerships Directorate, World Agroforestry Centre, Nairobi, Kenya

Summary

One of the major activities of the African Network for Agriculture, AgroforestryandNaturalResourcesEducation (ANAFE)hasbeenoncurriculum reviewanddevelopment.Emphasishasbeenonagroforestrycurriculumreview.ThemethodofchoiceforconductingthecurriculumreviewhasbeentheparticipatoryDACUM(DevelopingaCurriculum)process.

Theprocessconsistsofthreedistinctstages:• AcarefullychosengroupofexpertworkersformtheDACUMcommittee,

representingbusiness,industryandtheprofessionofthecurriculumunderreview

• Thejobisthendefinedintermsoftasksthatsuccessfulworkersinthatjobwouldperform;theresultisputtogetherina‘competencyprofile’

• Theknowledge,skillsandattitudesrequiredforstudentsundertakingthecoursearethenclearlylaidout.

AfacilitatorcarefullyguidesthedifferentstagesintheDACUMprocess.ANAFEtodatehasreviewed67curriculacoveringcertificate,diploma,firstdegreeandpostgraduateagroforestrycourses.Resourcepersonshavebeen largelydrawnfromANAFEmemberinstitutions.Stakeholdershaveincludedfarmers,students,researchers, policy-makers, local leaders, NGOs and educators. From ANAFEexperiencewith the reviewofagroforestrycurricula, seven requirements foranagroforestrycurriculumhavebeenidentified:

• Analysisoftrainingneeds• Takingintoaccountdevelopmentandenvironmentalneeds• Assessmentofinstitutionallearning• Estimatingtheresourcerequirements• Focusingoncompetenciestobedeveloped• Stakeholderparticipation• Capturingmultidisciplinaryopportunities.Participants on the past DACUM committees have found the activity to be

a professionally stimulating and rewarding experience. The DACUM processhasnotbeenaone-off exerciseandANAFE recommends that theprocessberepeatedaftertwoorthreestudentintakes.ThereisalsoaneedfortheDACUMprocesstobecarriedoutmorebroadlyinvarioussubjectsincludingagricultureand natural resource management courses in tertiary institutions. A significantamountof literaturedevelopedbyANAFE isnowavailableboth inprintandontheWeb,tocontributetothegrowingfieldofcurriculumreview.

89


Introduction

ANAFEwaslaunchedinApril1993.ANAFEisoneofthelargestAfricannetworksofeducationalinstitutionsandcomprises131memberuniversitiesandcollegesin35Africancountries.ThenetworkishostedattheheadquartersoftheWorldAgroforestryCentre(ICRAF)inNairobi,Kenya.

TheinitialobjectivesofANAFEwereto:• strengthen the capacity of institutions that have interest in advancing

agroforestryeducation• provideforafortheexchangeofinformationandexperiences,especiallyin

thecontextofsouth-southcollaboration.Over the years, the ANAFE mandate has been expanded to also include

agriculture and natural resources education. ANAFE was registered as aninternationalNGOinJune2007.ThemissionofANAFEespousedinits2008–2012strategy is ‘To improve agricultural education for impact on development’. Themajor activities carried out include: policy advocacy, institutional reforms to linkeducationtodevelopment,reviewofcurricula,developmentoflearningresources,facilitating knowledge sharing, promoting women and youth in agriculture, HIV/AIDS mitigation, sound environmental practices, mitigation and adaptation toclimatechange,qualityeducationassuranceandriskmanagementinagriculture.

ThestructureofANAFEispresentedinFigure1.ANAFEworksthroughfourregional chapters known as Regional Agricultural Fora for Training (RAFTs), ineasternandcentralAfrica,southernAfrica,theSaheliancountriesandtheAfricaHumidTropics.ANAFEalsohasnationalchaptersknownasNationalAgriculturalForaforTraining(NAFTs)in21membercountries.

Figure 1. ANAFEorganizationalstructure.

ANAFE Organization ChartGeneral Meeting

of Members

ANAFE BoardExecutive Secretary

East and Central Africa Regional Agricultural

Forum for Training (RAFT)

Southern Africa RAFT

Sahel RAFT

Africa Humid Tropics RAFT

>20 National Agricultural Forums for Training (NAFTs)

90


Structurally,RAFTsreporttotheANAFEBoard,whichinturnisaccountabletotheGeneralMeetingofMembers.RAFTscoordinatetheworkofNAFTsandaresupportedbytheANAFEExecutiveSecretary,whoisresponsibleforoverallmanagementofthenetwork,liaisonwithdonorsandpartnerorganizations,informationdisseminationandreporting.TheExecutiveSecretary issupportedby fourSeniorEducationFellows,oneineachregion,whoworkdirectlywithRAFTs.ThereisalsoaNetworkManagerwhoworkscloselywiththeExecutiveSecretaryattheSecretariat.

Curriculum review: The process

ThispaperisconcernedwiththecurriculumreviewactivitiesoftheNetworkanddiscusses the review process, offers details on curricula reviewed and lessonslearntintheprocessincludingthewayforward.

RogersandTaylor(1998)defineacurriculumas‘allthelearningthatisplannedand guided by training or teaching organizations’. Temu and Kasolo (2001)definedcurriculumas‘a logicallydevelopedsequenceofteachingand learningactivities(theoreticalandpractical)thatareundertakenbytraineestoachieveaspecifiedlevelofcompetenceinagivenfieldofstudy.’

With regards to curriculum development and review, ANAFE sought outmethods that were inclusive, integrative and affordable (Temu and Kasolo,2001). Inclusive in the sense that all stakeholder groups were represented intheprocess;integrativeinthesensethatcurriculumaspectsofinter-andmulti-disciplinaritycouldbearticulated.Theprocesshadtobewithinthefinancial reachofnationalinstitutions.Thiswasparticularlyimportantespeciallyconsideringthatcurriculaaredynamicandthereviewprocesshadtoberepeated in the future.TheSwedishInternationalDevelopmentCooperationAgencyprovidedresourcesforANAFEtocarryoutcurriculadevelopmentandreviewexercises.

Curriculareview isnecessary foravarietyof reasons.First,newknowledgeonthesubjectareawillbedeveloped.Secondly,wenotethatjobsarenolongeravailable in the civil service – the traditional employer of graduating students;more and more graduating students are being self-employed. Thirdly, with theadvancesininformationandcommunicationtechnology,itisclearthatnewmediafordeliveringeducationareavailable.

Curriculumreviewweighstheeffectivenessofanexistingcurriculumagainstthe developments outside and inside the teaching institution. The objectiveshouldbetoimprovetheknowledge,skillsandattitudesthatcanbeacquiredbystudentsgoingthroughtheprogramme.

ANAFEreviewedanumberofapproaches, includingtheclassicalapproach;faculty initiated/faculty controlled, hidden process and participatory processes.ANAFE settled on the DACUM - Developing a Curriculum - as the methodof choice for curriculum development and review because it incorporates aparticipatoryapproachtocurriculumreview.DACUMisbasedonthreepremises.

• Firstly, expertworkersare inabetterposition todescribe their job thananyoneelse.Acarefullychosengroupof8-12expertworkersfromthejobunder consideration form the DACUM committee. Committee members

91


arerecruiteddirectlyfrombusiness,industryandtheprofession.Modifiedsmall group brainstorming techniques are used to obtain the collectiveexpertiseandconsensusofthecommittee

• Secondly, any job can be effectively described in terms of the tasks thatsuccessful workers in that job perform. The analysis usually results inthe identification of 6-12 duties involving 50-150 tasks that define what asuccessfulworkerinaparticularjob,orclusterofrelatedjobs,mustbeabletodo.TheendproductofaDACUManalysisisacompletecompetencyprofile

• Thirdly, all tasks, in order to be performed correctly, require certainknowledge,skillsandattitudes.WhereastheprimaryfocusofaDACUMprocessisontheperformanceaspectsofajob,theselistsrepresentotheraspects of job analysis; they represent different ways of looking at therequirementsofthejob.

TheDACUMcommitteeiscarefullyguidedbythefacilitatorthrougheachofthefollowingsteps:

• Orientation• Reviewofjobordescription• Identificationofgeneralareasofjobresponsibility• Identificationofspecific tasksperformed ineachof thegeneralareasof

responsibility• Reviewandrefinementoftaskstatements• Identificationofgeneralknowledgeandskillrequirementsoftheoccupation,

tools, equipment, supplies, materials used, desirable worker traits andattitudes

• Developmentofthecurriculumneeded• Otheroptions,asdesired(i.e.identificationofentryleveltasks).A summary of the DACUM process as it relates to the development of

agroforestrycurriculabyANAFEispresentedinTable1.

Table 1: A summary of the DACUM process as adapted for use by ANAFE in the development of an agroforestry curriculum

Activity Key players OutputPlanning Policy-makers

andeducatorsReviewofexistinginformation;Trainingareaanalysis;Workshopfixtures;Identificationofaworkshopfacilitator;Selectionofworkshopparticipants

DACUMworkshop

Facilitator(stakeholders/participants)

KnowledgeableparticipantsontheDACUMprocess;Agreeingonspanofpositions;Identifiedduties(generalcompetencies);Identifiedtasksforeachduty;ArefinedDACUMchart

AnalysisofDACUMchart

Educators Statementsoftrainingbehaviouralobjectivesforeachofthetasks

Coursedevelopment

Educators Sequencedtopics;Developedsyllabi;Timeallocationforthetrainingactivities

Identificationoftrainingresources

Policy-makersAdministratorsEducators

Resourcesforteaching;Amonitoringandevaluationmechanism

Source:TemuandKasolo2001

92


Curricula reviewed and lessons learnt

Thereviewofcurriculaisalengthyprocess.Normallyittakesuptothreeyearstogetachangeapproved.Overa10-yearperiod,1992-2003,ANAFEwasinvolvedin the reviewof a total of 67curricula forCertificate,Diploma,1stdegreeandpostgraduatelevels,asshowninTable2.

All curricula were reviewed on cost sharing arrangements between ANAFEandtheinstitutionsinvolved.Allreviewsandnewprogrammedevelopmentswereinitiatedandmanagedbythecollegesanduniversitiesinvolved.Resourcepersonsfacilitating thecurriculumreviewsweredrawnfromANAFEmember institutionsthat had developed competence in the process. The DACUM approach wasappliedinallcases.Stakeholdersparticipatingintheprocessincludedfarmers,students,researchers,policy-makers,localleaders,NGOsandeducators.

Inthepast3years,ANAFEhasfacilitatedthedevelopmentoffourcurricula:• AHIV/AIDScurriculumforstudentsofagricultureandnaturalsciences• Curriculum for the forestry technician certificate course at the Forestry

TrainingCentre,Kagelu,NewSudan• CurriculumforMScinagroforestryandsoilmanagementattheFacultyof

Agriculture,NationalUniversityofRwanda• Aproposedtreeseededucationcurriculumformultipurposetreesonfarm

landpreparedforagriculturalandforestrytechnicians.From ANAFE’s experience, there are seven requirements for a good and

relevantagroforestrycurriculumdevelopment(Rudebjeret al.,2005):• Analyze training needs: where is the expertise in agroforestry needed?

Whattypeofexpertise?Howmanypeople?• Takeaccountofdevelopmentandenvironmentalneeds:Whatare those

needs? What contribution will the curriculum make to development orenvironmentalmanagement?

• Assess the institutional setting: What adjustments to the curriculumdevelopmentprocessareneededtosuitthespecificsituation?

• Estimate the resource requirements: What resources are necessary todevelopandimplementagoodcurriculum?Whichareactuallyavailable?

• Focusoncompetenciestobedeveloped:Whatcompetenciesneedtobedeveloped?Whichcompetenciesarealreadybeingprovidedbyexisting

Table 2: Total curricula reviewed by ANAFE from 1992-2003

Discipline\Level Certificate Diploma 1st Degree Postgraduate TotalAgriculture 2 4 15 2 23

Forestry 7 8 6 2 23

Other(RuralDevelopment,Horticulture)

1 2 3 0 6

Newagroforestryprograms 0 4 5 6 15

Total 10 18 29 10 67

93


courses or programmes? Can desired competencies be achieved bymodifying thecontentand/ordeliveryofexistingsubjects,or isamajorcurriculumrevisionrequired?

• Consider stakeholder participation: Who should be involved in thecurriculumdevelopmentprocess?How?

• Capture themultidisciplinaryopportunities:Whatbiophysicalandsocio-economicissueswillbeaddressed?Whichdisciplinesneedtobeinvolvedincurriculumdevelopment?

As ANAFE’s mandate has been expanded to incorporate agriculture inaddition to agroforestry and natural resource management, it is important thatcurriculumdevelopmentandreviewreflectsthenewfocus.TheDACUMprocessshouldnowbeusedtoreviewthecurriculaintheseareasaswell.Furthersupportisneededto lookatsuchaspectsasqualityofdelivery,attitudinalchangesforstaffandstudents,aswellasqualityandrelevanceofprogrammes.

Learning resources

Adams RE. 1975. DACUM approach to curriculum: learning and evaluationin occupational training. A Nova Scotia newstart. Department of RegionalEconomicExpansion,Ottawa.

AsareEO,HanssonB.1990.Curriculumdevelopmentforagroforestryeducationatuniversitiesandtechnicalcolleges ineasternandsouthernAfrica.Reportfrom a workshop held 5–15 November 1990, Nairobi, Kenya. Training andEducationreport19.ICRAF,Nairobi.

AsareEO,ZulbertiE.1992.CurriculumdevelopmentforagroforestryeducationatAfricanuniversities.Reportfromaworkshopheld27-30August1990,Kumasi,Ghana.TrainingandEducationReport18.ICRAF,Nairobi.

Asare EO, Zulberti E. editors. 1992. Curriculum development for agroforestryeducationatuniversitiesandtechnicalcollegesineasternandsouthernAfrica.Reportfromaworkshopheld26-30May1990,Nairobi,Kenya.TrainingandEducationreport17.ICRAF,Nairobi.

Blackburn DJ, Pletsch DH. 1989. Needs assessment and evaluation. In: VandenBoret al.editors.South-northpartnershipinstrengtheningeducationinagriculture.Padoc,Wageningen.

Chivinge OA. 2006. Capacity building in agroforestry in Africa and south-eastAsia.In:WorldAgroforestryintotheFuture.GarrityDA,OkonoA,GraysonM,ParrottS.editors.pp135-140.ICRAF,Nairobi.

CurtisRF,CrunkiltonJR.1979.Curriculumdevelopment invocational technicaleducation.pp.114-119.AllynandBaconInc.,Boston.

Rogers A, Taylor P. 1998. Participatory Curriculum Development in AgriculturalEducation.Atrainingguide.FoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations.FAO,Rome.

RudebjerP,TaylorP,DelCastilloRA,editors.2001.Aframeworkfordevelopingagroforestrycurricula inSoutheastAsia.TrainingandEducationReportNo.51.ICRAF,Bogor.

94


Rudebjer PG, Temu AB, Kung’u J. 2005. Developing agroforestry curricula: apracticalguideforinstitutionsinAfricaandAsia.2005.ICRAF,Bogor.

Taylor P. 1999. Through the Grassroots Towards the Trees - ExploringParticipatory Curriculum Development in Forestry Education in Viet Nam.In:RudebjerPG,DelCastilloRA.Editors. The1stGeneralMeetingof theSoutheastAsianNetwork(SEANAFE),HarrarHall,IRRI,LosBaños,Laguna,the Philippines, April 26-28 1999. Training and Education Report No. 49.ICRAF,Bogor.

Taylor P. 1998. Participatory curriculum development in forestry education andtraining: an overview. Paper presented at the National Workshop on LocalKnowledgeandBiodiversityinForestryPracticeandEducation.VisayasStateCollegeofAgriculture.ViSCA,Leyte.

TaylorP.2003.Howtodesignatrainingcourse:Aguidetoparticipatorycurriculumdevelopment.VSO,London.

TemuAB,KasoloW.2001.ReviewingCurricula—RationaleProcessandOutputs:ANAFEexperiencewiththeDACUMmethodinAfrica.FAOExpertConsultationonForestryEducation.

Temu AB, Kasolo W, Rudebjer P. 1995. Approaches to agroforestry curriculumdevelopment.TrainingandEducationReportNo.32.ICRAF,Nairobi.

Temu AB, Chakeredza S, Mogotsi K, Munthali D, Mulinge R. 2004. RebuildingAfrica’sCapacityforAgriculturalDevelopment:theroleoftertiaryeducation.AfricanNetworkforAgricultureAgroforestryandNaturalResourcesEducation(ANAFE)symposiumontertiaryeducationApril2003.ICRAF,Nairobi.

Useful websites

AfricanNetwork forAgriculture,AgroforestryandNaturalResourcesEducation:www.anafeafrica.org

SoutheastAsianNetworkforAgroforestryEducation:www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/seanafe

AgroforestryNet:www.agroforestry.net

95


Higher education in Sub-Saharan Africa: challenges and prospects in agricultureWellington N. EkayaTraining & Quality Assurance, RUFORUM Secretariat, Kampala, Uganda

Learning points

• The increased interest in higher education presents higher educationinstitutions with an opportunity to move Africa towards a knowledgeeconomy

• Continuedcapacitystrengthening for facultyacademicstaff, techniciansandseniormanagementinAfricanuniversitiesiscrucialifhighereducationistosignificantlycontributetoAfrica’sdevelopment

• QualityassuranceandrelevanceofcurriculabeyondnationalaspirationsarecrucialforAfrica’sdevelopmentinaglobalcontext

• The labour market has increasingly accused universities of producingtechnically sound (hard skilled) job seekers rather than competent (softskilled)graduateswithcapacitytocreatejobs

• Higher education institutions face the challenging task of balancingteachingandresearch

• Capacitystrengtheninginhighereducationinstitutionsiscrucialforqualityassurance

• Africa’shighereducationinstitutionscouldformnetworksofexcellenceformaximumimpact

• Africahasinnovativesuccessstoriesinhighereducationthatcaninformnewinitiatives.

Introduction

Highereducationinagricultureandrelatedfieldshasadirectimpactonagriculturalproductivityandontheperformanceofagribusiness.Itstimulatesimplementationof knowledge-driven economic growth and poverty-reduction strategies. Thequalityoftrainingathighereducationinstitutionsiscriticalbecauseitdeterminesthe expertise and competence of scientists, professionals, technicians, civilservice and leaders in all aspects of agribusiness and related industries. Theircapacity to access knowledge and adapt it to prevailing circumstances, togeneratenewknowledgeandimpartitonothersisraised.AccordingtotheAfricaCommission(2009),urgentactionmustbetakentorestorethequalityofgraduateandpostgraduateagriculturaleducationinAfrica.

Despite the increased enrolment and number of institutions in the past 15years, Africa lags behind the rest of the world in investing in its people. Thegreatestchallengetopolicy-makersandmanagersofhighereducationinAfricatodayishowtostrategicallysteerhighereducationinstitutionstobecomeAfrica’sdriversforeconomicdevelopment.

96


Agricultural research has the potential to bring creativity and scientificmethods to bear upon the opportunities and problems facing the agriculturalsector inAfrica.Research leads togenerationandadaptationof technological,sociological and economic innovations for use by actors in the agriculturalsector, leading to, inter alia, increased productivity, incomes and improved,moresustainablelivelihoods,aswellasfoodsecurity. Investment inagriculturalresearch is thereforealso investment ingrowth. In theareasofagricultureandruraldevelopmentthenationalagriculturalresearchsystems(universities,nationalresearchorganizations,etc.)willcontinuetobetheheartoftheresearcheffort.InJune2008, theMDGAfricanSteeringGrouprecommendedthat investments inagriculturalresearchbesignificantlyscaleduptosupportresearchonsustainableagriculturalpracticestomitigatetheanticipatedeffectsofclimatechange.

Capacitytoconceptualize,planandimplementeffectiveresearchisstilllimited.Research proposals received by the Regional Universities Forum for CapacityBuildinginAgriculture(RUFORUM),InternationalFoundationforScienceandothersinthepast10-15yearshighlightthechallenge.Developmentparadigmsarealsochangingandthereisneedtoappropriatelyadjust,whileatthesametimebuilding,acriticalmassofsystemthinkers/researcherstoaddresscritical issuesincludingfood and nutrition insecurity, poverty alleviation in the face of environmentaldegradation,climatevariabilityandchange,highenergyandfoodprices.

Higher education in SSA: Some realities

SSA has the lowest student enrolment rate in the world. Between 1965 and2005forexample,GrossEnrolmentRatioincreasedfrom1%to5%.Inorderforinstitutionsofhighereducation,particularlyuniversities,tounlocktheirpotentialfor turning the development wheel in Africa, key capacity gaps have to beaddressed.These,inter alia,include:

• Curriculumreformanddeliveryforrelevance• Developing approaches and methodologies that enhance university

contributiontonationalgrowthanddevelopment• Advocacyandfundraisingtoincreaseinvestmentinhighereducation• Building managerial and leadership capacity and institutional reform for

credibleandrelevantuniversitytraining• BuildingcapacityforAfrica-basedhighqualitypublications.Nationalpoliticalsystemsand/orlegislationhavehadamajorroleinshaping

institutionsofhighereducationinSSA.Exceptforafewcountriesintheregion,higher education is conspicuously absent from Poverty Reduction StrategyPapers(PRSPs),whichareAfrica’smostrecentapproachtodevelopment.

Renewed emphasis on higher education

Withinthepast10years,Africahasrecordedasignificantshifttowardsemphasisonhighereducation.Anumberofinterventionsarecurrentlybeingimplementedatnationalandregional/continentallevels.

97


National level interventionsAt thenational level, anumberof countriesareactingon their commitment tohighereducationthroughPRSPs.AccordingtoWorldBankstudies,keyexamplesfromAfricaincludeEthiopia,MozambiqueandGhana(Table1).

Table 1. Response of some African countries towards higher education

Country Nature of responseEthiopia Parliament’shighereducationproclamation(2003):

IntroducednewdegreeprogrammesinlinewitheconomicneedsEstablishednationalQualityAssuranceandRelevanceAgencyLaunchedcapacitybuildingofICTsIncreasedshareofeducationbudgetIncreasedallocation(15to23%)ofbudgettohighereducation

Since2000,introducedgraduatetaxtoenablegraduatestopaybackcostofuniversityeducation

Mozambique CreationofMinistryofHigherEducation,ScienceandTechnologyin2000In2000,10regionalconsultationswereheldwithhighereducationinstitutions,students,business,regionalgovernmentsandcivicassociations.TheoutputwasaStrategicPlanforHigherEducationinMozambique2000-10

Ghana WorldBank5-yeareducationsectorprojecttoimprovequalityoftertiaryeducationthroughateachingandlearninginnovationfund.AcademicunitscanaccessfundtointroducenewordifferenthighereducationdeliveryapproachesAffirmativeactionpolicyofloweringadmissioncut-offpointstoachievegenderequity.Femaleenrolmentgrewby6%between1990and1999.SimilaractioninTanzania’sUniversityofDaresSalaamincreasedfemaleenrolmentfrom19.5%to27%between1997and2000

Regional/continental level interventionsIn this section I will highlight some initiatives/interventions by the RegionalUniversities Forum for capacity building in Agriculture (RUFORUM) during thepastlastfouryears.

The Regional Universities Forum for Capacity Building in Agriculture

RUFORUM is a consortium of 25 universities in Eastern and Southern Africaestablished in 2004. Previously (since 1992) it existed as a programme calledForum funded by the Rockefeller Foundation. RUFORUM has a mandate tooverseegraduatetrainingandnetworks of specializationintheCommonMarketforEasternandSouthernAfrica(COMESA)countries.RUFORUMrecognizestheuntappedpotentialofuniversitiesincontributingtothewell-beingofsmall-scalefarmersandeconomicdevelopmentoftheSub-SaharanAfricaregion.

98


RUFORUM derives its agenda largely from the continent-wide policyframeworks especially of the African Union-New Partnership for AfricanDevelopment (NEPAD) Comprehensive African Agricultural DevelopmentProgramme (CAADP); the NEPAD Science and Technology Framework; theAfrican Union Policy Framework on Revitalising Higher Education in Africa;theSub-regionalMulti-CountryAgriculturalProductivityPrograms; thePRSPsof thememberStatesandGovernmentsandconstant reviewofglobal trendsand foresight planning to ensure Africa has the required capacity for globalcompetitiveness.

RUFORUMisinvolvedin:• Masters and doctoral programmes that are responsive to stakeholder

needsandnational,regionalandglobaldevelopmentgoals• Shared research and training facilities and capacities that enhance

economiesofscopeandscale• Mainstreaming operational capacity and approaches for innovative,

quality and impact-oriented agricultural research for development andmanagementinuniversities.

• Policy advocacy, lobbying, coordination and resource mobilization forimprovedtraining,researchandoutreachbyuniversities.

Since2004,RUFORUMhascontributedtohighereducationthroughanumberofinitiatives.Theyincludethefollowing:

RUFORUM Strategic Goals

• TrainacriticalmassofMastersandPhDgraduates,whoareresponsivetostakeholderneedsandnational/regionaldevelopmentgoals

• Develop collaborative research and training facilities that achieveeconomiesofscopeandscale

• Increaseintheparticipationandvoiceofwomeninagriculturalresearch,productionandmarketing

• Improvetheadaptivecapacitiesofuniversitiestoproducehighqualityandinnovativetraining,researchandoutreachactivitiesthatcancontributetopolicyanddevelopmentpractice

• Increase theuse technology tosupporteffective,decentralized learningandthesharingofknowledge

• Mainstreamnewapproacheswithinuniversityteachingandresearchthatemphasizesquality,innovation,impactacrosstheagriculturesector’sfullvaluechain

• Createadynamicregionalplatformforpolicyadvocacy,coordinationandresource mobilization for improved training, research and outreach byuniversities.

99


Regional PhD programmes

In 2004 RUFORUM commissioned a study for purposes of mapping out thecapacitystrengthsandweaknessesofmemberuniversitiesintermsofexpertise,facilities,resourceendowmentandexperience,amongothers.Theoutcomewasa‘comparativeadvantagemap’ofmemberuniversities.

Through stakeholder consultation nationally, regionally and beyond, theconsensuswas forRUFORUM topayparticularattention todeveloping regionalPhDprogrammeswithacourseworkcomponent.Theobjectiveistobuildcapacityforcapacitybuildinginagriculture.Sixregionalprogrammeswereidentified:

• PhD in Dryland Resource Management, hosted by the University ofNairobi,Kenya

• PhD in Plant Breeding and Biotechnology, hosted by the MakerereUniversity,Uganda

• PhDinFisheriesandAquaculture,hostedbytheUniversityofMalawi,Malawi• PhDinAgriculturalandResourceEconomics,hostedbytheUniversityof

Malawi,Malawi• PhD in Food Science and Technology, hosted by the Jomo Kenyatta

UniversityofAgricultureandTechnology,Kenya• PhDinAgriculturalandRuralInnovationStudies,hostedbytheMakerere

University,Uganda.TheDrylandsResourceManagementandPlantBreedingandBiotechnology

programmes started in October/November 2008, with 15 and 20 studentsrespectively.TheprogrammesattheUniversityofMalawiarescheduledtostartinSeptember2009.Therestoftheprogrammesarestillbeingdeveloped.

Theregionaluniversitieshavelinkedupwithotherknowledgecentrestoformnetworks of excellence, within which graduate students receive mentorship/professionaldevelopmentbyattachmenttospecializedinstitutionsand/orseniorscientists.

SUCAPRI

Strengthening of University Capacity for Promoting, Facilitating and TeachingRural Innovation Processes (SUCAPRI) is being implemented as a project byRUFORUM funded by EDULINK - ACP-EU Partnerships in Higher Education.SUCAPRI harnesses south-south and south-north strengths for building bothinstitutionaland individualprofessionalcapacityneededtopromoteagriculturaland rural innovation. The piloting phase consists of a network of teachingand research staff at Makerere Nairobi, Egerton, Kenyatta and Jomo Kenyattauniversities; three national agricultural research organizations are involved, i.e.the Kenya Agricultural Research Institute, the National Agricultural ResearchOrganization inUgandaand the InternationalCentre forDevelopment-OrientedResearch in Agriculture in the Netherlands. The Commonwealth of LearningbringsthestrengthofusingICTtoenhancecommunicationandpartnership.

100


Theprojectactivitiesaimat:• Building rapport with managerial and technical staff as well as non-

universitystakeholders• Establishing a learning platform for network dialogue on joint curricula,

content,deliverymethods,studentsupportandresearch• Building the capacity of network universities by training trainers of core

staffthatwillinturntrainothersandbysensitizinguniversitymanagementfor thepurposeof reviewingpoliciesand institutionalarrangementsandwithotherinstitutions

• Facilitation of participation of multi-stakeholders from the nationalinnovation systems in learning cycles in reflection, planning, action,evaluation cycles of agricultural higher education with focus on needsassessment,prioritysettingforcurriculareorientationandprogrammesaswellasproactivelycreatingalearningenablingenvironment.

Other initiatives include the following, whose details are available at www.ruforum.org:

SCARDA-ECA: Strengthening Capacity for Research and Development inAfrica(SCARDA)isacapacitybuildingprogrammeofFARA,operationalizedfromsub-regionalleveltocontinentallevel.InEastandCentralAfrica,TheprogrammeisbeingimplementedasaprojectoftheAssociationforStrengtheningAgriculturalResearchinEastandCentralAfrica(ASARECA)calledSCARDA-ECA.SCARDAhastwocomponentsofstrengthening:competenciesandcapacityinagriculturalresearchmanagementandcapacityforprofessionaldevelopmentinagriculturalresearchanddevelopment.

PMSS:RUFORUMispilotingthePersonalMasteryandSoftSkillsdevelopmentcourse to enhance quality of training and research in RUFORUM memberuniversities. The objective is to enhance capacity and competencies of theuniversities for better delivery of services to communities. This will result fromenhancing teaching and research competencies of the academic staff, trainingpractical oriented students and having adaptive management to facilitateinnovations.Theactivitiesinvolved:

• Quality Assurance in Graduate Programmes: This project aims atstrengthening capacity of universities in eastern, central and southernAfricatoofferqualitygraduateprogrammes,throughbuildinginstitutionaland human resource capacities. RUFORUM is working closely withAGRINATURAwww.agrinatura.eu/initsimplementation

• Catalyzing Change in African Universities (CCAU): This initiativefocuses on strengthening leadership, management and cross-cuttingprofessionalskillsofeasternandsouthernAfricanuniversities

• Enhancing Research Capacity and Skills in Eastern and SouthernAfrica (ERESA): The goal is to enhance institutional competencies ofinstitutionsofhigher learning ineasternandsouthernAfrica in impact-orientedresearchforstrengtheneddevelopment.

101


Contributing to developmentTo date RUFORUM graduates are employed in different sectors and arecontributing tonationaland regionaldevelopment.Summary resultsofa tracerstudyonRUFORUMgraduatessince1992areindicatedinTable1.

Table. Employment and service delivery profile of RUFORUM graduates

Employment %Research 31

Universities 27

PhDtraining 15

Industry 10

NGO 8

Extension 6

Policy 3

Selected references

AfricaCommission2009.RealizingthepotentialofAfrica’syouth.ReportoftheAfricaCommissionMay2009.

Council for Higher Education South Africa. 2001. Developing African HigherEducation.DraftMay2001.www.nepad.org/2005/files/documents/22.pdf

ChachaNyaigottiChacha2007.PublicUniversity,Privatefunding:TheChallengesinEastAfrica.Inter-UniversityCouncilforEastAfrica.

Materu P. 2007. Higher Education Quality Assurance in Sub-Saharan Africa:Status, Challenges, Opportunities and Promising Practices. World BankWorkingPaperNo.124,WorldBank,WashingtonDC.

BloomD,CanningD,ChanK.2005.HigherEducationandEconomicDevelopmentinAfrica.http://aau.org/wghe/publications/HE&Economic_Growth_in_Africa.pdf

WorldBank.2007.CultivatingtheknowledgeandskillstogrowAfricanagriculture.InternationalReview.AgriculturalandRuralDevelopmentDepartment.WorldBank,WashingtonDC.

Annexes

104


Annex 1. Workshop programme

Regionalworkshopon:LearningAgrobiodiversity:OptionsforUniversitiesinSub-SaharanAfrica.21-23January,2009,ICRAFHouse,Nairobi,Kenya

DAY 1 – Wednesday 21 January, 2009

Step 1: Official opening and setting the scene

Chair: Prof. John Saka, ANAFE Chair person

09.00 Opening address

Prof. John Saka, ANAFE Chair person

Openingremarks

Dr Mikkel Grum, Acting Regional Director, Bioversity International

Dr Dennis Garrity, Director General, World Agroforestry Centre

Judith Ann Francis, Senior Programme Coordinator, S&T Strategies, CTA

Overviewofworkshopobjectives,outputsandprogramme

Aissetou Yayé, Executive Secretary, ANAFE

Introductiontotheworkshopprocessandfacilitationprinciples/values

Dr Paul Kibwika, Facilitator

10.00 Coffee & group photo

Step 2: Creating a common understanding of agrobiodiversity and challenges of teaching agrobiodiversity in universities

Chair: Dr Mikkel Grum, Acting Regional Director, Bioversity International10.30 Introduction of Participants

Keynote presentation: Agrobiodiversity in food systems, ecosystems and education systems

Per Rudebjer, Bioversity International

Keynote presentation: Challenges and approaches to learning and teaching agrobiodiversity

Prof. Lenah Nakhone Wati, Egerton University, Kenya

Short plenary discussionforpurposesofclarification

Identifying gaps in agrobiodiversity educationStep 3: Sharing experiences and perspectives on agrobiodiversity

a) Agrobiodiversity conservation

Chair:OudaraSouvannavong,FAO11.20 Conservation of plant genetic resources, including crop wild relatives

Dr. Zachary Muthamia, Head of the Kenyan GenebankOverview of the state of animal genetic resources

Dr Julie Ojango ILRIForest genetic resources and farmers tree domestication

Ramni Jamnadass, World Agroforestry CentrePlenary and buzz group discussions

13.00 Lunch

Buzz group discussions on:

1) glaring gaps in Agrobiodiversity education

2) conservation of ABD: key issues for teaching and learning

105

Annexes

b) Use of agrobiodiversity for livelihood services

Chair: Dr. Jacob Mwitwa, Dean, School of Natural Resources, Copperbelt University

14.00 Farmer Innovations and Indigenous Knowledge which Promote Agrobiodiversity in Kenya, A Case Study Of Mwingi And Bondo Districts

Professor Ratemo W. Michieka, University of Nairobi and FAO Consultant

The impact of biodiversity and bio fortification on nutrition and health for the majority of the poor, through mainstreaming

Dr Omo Ohiokpehai, CIAT/TSBFPlenary and buzz group discussions

15.30 Coffee

15.50-17.00 Clustering of cards to organize issues identified in buzz group discussions

Dr Paul Kibwika, Facilitator

17.30–19.00 Reception at ICRAF Campus

DAY 2 – Thursday 22 January, 2009

c) Cross-cutting issues: markets, environmental services and policies

Chair: Dr. Gorettie Nabanoga, Dean, Faculty of Forestry and Natural Resources, Makerere University

08.30 Review of Day 1 outputsPaul Kibwika

Adding value to agrobiodiversity: developing the value chain for neglected and underutilized species

Dr. Charity Irungu, Saint Paul University, KenyaEcosystems services in mosaic landscapes

Brent Swallow, ICRAFPollination

Ian Gordon, ICIPE and Barbara HerrenPlenary and buzz group discussions

10.00 Coffee

10.20 Genetic resources policy and intellectual propertyRobert Lettington, (ex-Bioversity International)

Major threats to agrobiodiversityMikkel Grum, Bioversity International

Plenary and buzz group discussions

d) Innovation in higher agricultural educationChair: Dr. Judith C.N. Lungu, Dean, School of Agricultural Sciences, University of Zambia

11.00 Higher Education in Sub-Saharan Africa: Challenges and ProspectsDr Wellington N. Ekaya, RUFORUM Program Officer, Training

Innovation systems approach: Implications for agricultural education and research

Judith Ann Francis, Senior Programme Coordinator, S&T Strategies, CTAFindings from surveys on PGR and agrobiodiversity education in Africa and Latin America

Boudy Van Schagen, Bioversity InternationalPlenary and buzz group discussions

106


12.15 Mega-trends and patterns that justify agrobiodiversity education

Defining the profile and ability of graduates

13.00-14.00 Lunch

14.00 ANAFE’s experience in curriculum reviewsProfessor John Saka, University of Malawi, Malawi

Plenary and buzz group discussions

Step 4: Describing the key elements of agrobiodiversity for mainstreaming into higher agricultural education

Facilitator: Paul Kibwika

14.40–17.00 The clusters will be assigned to small working groupstodescribewhateachofthementails:i.e.thetopicsofundereachmodule

DAY 3 – Friday 23 January, 2009

08.30 Review of Day 2 outputsPaul Kibwika

Step 5: Options for mainstreaming agrobiodiversity in higher agricultural education

Facilitator:PaulKibwika

09.30 Integrating agrobiodiversity at different levels of education: options and justifications

10.30 Coffee

10.50 Strategies for implementation

Workinggroupstoexplorewhatittakestoputeachoptionpractice

Toolsandmaterials

13.00 Lunch

Step 6: Planning way forward

Facilitator:PaulKibwika

14.00 Mechanisms for sharing and learning

Platformforknowledgesharing

Stakeholdersandpartnerships

Mapping the way forward: what do we do next?

Actionplan

Resourcemobilization

Step 7: Workshop evaluation and closure

16.00–17.00 Evaluation

Closure

107

Annexes

Annex 2. Draft agrobiodiversity curriculum framework

ThisdraftAgrobiodiversityCurriculumFrameworkwasdevelopedbyworkshopparticipants.TheTaskForce,establishedattheworkshop,willreviewandexpandthisframeworkwiththeaimofpublishinga‘GuideforDevelopingAgrobiodiversityCurricula’in2010.

1. Agrobiodiversity valuation

Introduction:Needtovalue(inrespecttosociety)agrobiodiversitysoastoobjectivelyprioritizeconservationandfacilitateitsutilization.

Main learning points:• Understandingvaluechaincomponentsandtheirinteractions• Describethevariousprocessesthatleadtofinalproduct• Explainvalue-addingprocesses• Promoteagrobiodiversitypotential.

Contents:1. Conceptsofagrobiodiversity2. Economicvaluation:agrobiodiversityvaluechain

a.Components:rolesandfunctionsb.Interactions

3. Processingofproductsa.Value-adding

4. Marketinga.Searchingfornewmarketsb.Expandingmarketsc.Segmentationofmarkets.

2. Agrobiodiversity threats and mitigation

Introduction:Establishasenseofownershipandprotectionofagrobiodiversity.

Main learning points:• Understandingrelationshipbetweenagrobiodiversityandlivelihood• Identifythreatstoagrobiodiversity• Explaininfluenceofthreatsonagrobiodiversity• Evaluateandapplyappropriatemitigationmeasures.

108


Contents:1. PolicyandIPR2. Communityrights

a.IPRb.Legislationissues

3. Sources,scaleandtrendsofthreatstoagrobiodiversitya.Components:rolesandfunctionsb.Interactions

4. Processingofproducts5. Value-adding6. Marketing

a.Searchingfornewmarketsb.Expandingmarketsc.Segmentationofmarkets

7. Utilization.

3. Agrobiodiversity and livelihood

Introduction:Showhowagrobiodiversitycanhelphumans intheirpursuit for livelihoodsandtheroleofsocio-economicandculturalaspectsinagrobiodiversitymanagement.

Main learning points:• To appreciate the role of culture and indigenous knowledge in the

managementofagrobiodiversity• To be able to detect and harness benefits of agrobiodiversity products

towardsfoodandnutritionalsecurity• Detectandmitigatethreatstoagrobiodiversity• Guideinvalueadditionandsustainableuseofagrobiodiversity• Utilizeindigenousknowledgeinagrobiodiversity• Advocateandcommunicateagrobiodiversityissues• Workwithfarmerandotherstakeholders• Integrateinmultidisciplinary/interdisciplinaryteams• Linkagrobiodiversitytolivelihood• CreatejobsrelatedtoADB• Facilitateinteractionwithallstakeholdersinaninclusiveway.

Contents:1. Linkofagrobiodiversityandlivelihood2. Cultureandindigenousknowledgeinthemanagementofagrobiodiversity3. Cost-benefitanalysisofagrobiodiversity4. Financialanalysisofagrobiodiversity5. Socio-economicandculturalthreatstoagrobiodiversity6. Agrobiodiversityvaluechainsanalysistechniques.

109

Annexes

Methods:1. Participatoryassessmentofagrobiodiversityproductsandservices2. Valuechainanalysis.

4. Agrobiodiversity environmental benefits and services

Introduction:Theroleofagrobiodiversityinmaintainingandsustainingenvironmentalbenefitsandservices.

Main learning points:• Undertakearesponsiveandproactiveplanforconservation,rehabilitation

andrestorationofagrobiodiversity• Enhanceagrobiodiversitycontributionthroughthevaluechain(e.g.African

leafyvegetables)• Detectandharnessenvironmentalbenefitsofagrobiodiversity• Detectandmitigateenvironmentalthreatstoagrobiodiversity• Coordinate environmentally related activities of all stakeholders in

agrobiodiversity• Advocateandcommunicateagrobiodiversityenvironmentalissues• Apply environmental management principles in agrobiodiversity

conservation• Establishcompetencyinenvironmentalaccounting.

Contents:1. Principlesofagrobiodiversityconservationandmanagement2. Cost-benefitanalysisofagrobiodiversity3. Mitigationstrategiesforagrobiodiversitythreats4. Advocacyandcommunicationofagrobiodiversityenvironmentalissues5. Environmentalaccounting.

5. Diversity, domestication and pollination

Introduction:Themodulewillcovertypes,characteristics,valueandimportanceofbiologicaldiversity(includingplantandotherunderutilizedspecies,animal,aquatic);aimsat providing the graduate with knowledge and skills on reproductive biologyforgreaterdiversity;andaimstoequipthestudentswithknowledgeandskillsin improvementanddomesticationofgeneticandspeciesdiversity (includingbreeding and biofortification) leading to sustainable utilization of geneticresources.

110


Main learning points:• Analyzethedifferencesinbiologicaldiversity• To discuss socio, economic, cultural and ecological values of biological

value• Tousediagnostictoolsforidentification• Describethereproductivesystemofbiologicalresources• Analyzereproductivesystemsindifferentbiologicalresources• Toprovideoptionsforimprovement• To compare different strategies for improvement and domestication of

geneticdiversity• Toanalyzedifferentoptionsforsustainableutilization.

Contents:1. Typesandcharacteristicsofbiologicaldiversity a.Plant b.Aquatic c.Animal d.microbial2. Valueandimportanceofbiologicaldiversity a.Ecosystemservice b.Foodandnutrition c.Economice.g.ecotourism d.Socio-culturalvalue3. Phenology4. Matingsystems5. Reproductivesystems6. Dissemination a.Plants b.Animals c.Fish d.Microbes7. Domestication8. Biotechnology9. Breeding.

6. Agrobiodiversity extension and the public-private sector dynamic

Introduction:Awarenessandpromotionofagrobiodiversitypotential,public-privatepartnershipsandoptimizationofprivatesectorinterests.

111

Annexes

Main learning points:• VariousPRAapproaches• Developmentandutilizationofdisseminationtechniques• PRAdesignforstakeholderengagement

7. Agrobiodiversity conservation and management policy

Introduction:Thepurposeofthiscourseistounderstandnational,internationalpoliciesrelatedtoagrobiodiversityconservationandmanagement.Itshouldequipthestudentwithknowledgeonlegalframeworksrelatedtoagrobiodiversityandapplythesame.

Main learning points:• Alltreatiesandconventionsrelatedtoagrobiodiversity• Benefitsandconsequencesof• Enforcetherelevantnationalpolicy/legalframeworksrelatedtoagrobiodiversity• Contributetotheimprovementofagrobiodiversitypolicies.

Contents:1. Internationaltreaties(CBD,ITPGRFA,IPPC,EOAC,CodexAlimentarius)2. Nationalpolicies/regulationsonagrobiodiversity3. Landtenureandmanagementofagrobiodiversity4. Internationalpropertyrightsinrelationtoagrobiodiversity.

8. Principles of agrobiodiversity conservation and management

Introduction:Toimpartskillsforagrobiodiversityconservation.

Main learning points:• Scientificandlocalknowledgeonagrobiodiversityconservation• Therationaleofagrobiodiversityconservationandmanagement• Methodsofagrobiodiversityconservationandmanagement.

Contents:1. Rationaleforagrobiodiversityconservationandmanagement(underutilized

species,etc.)2. Ecosystemfunctions3. Inter-andintra-speciesdiversity4. Conservationstrategies(conventionalandtraditional)5. Conservationthroughuse.

112


9. Agrobiodiversity and traditional knowledge

Introduction:Traditionalknowledgehasbeensidelinedbyscience.Yetforcenturiescommunitieshave managed their agro-ecosystems using traditional knowledge systems.Tradition and culture is therefore an integrated part of agricultural biodiversity.Thiscoursewilldefineandexploretraditionalknowledgeandculturalpracticesassociatedwiththeconservationandmanagementofagrobiodiversity.

Main learning points:• Acknowledge, recognize and appreciate all elements of traditional

knowledgesystems• Exploreandidentifytraditionalknowledgeandpractices• Integratetraditionalandscientificknowledgesystems• Appreciategenderrelationsregardingagrobiodiversityknowledge• Appreciateandsupporttraditionalinnovationrelatedtoagrobiodiversity.

Contents:1. Theoryandconceptsregardingtraditionalknowledge2. Evolutionoftraditionalknowledge3. Traditionalknowledgeinthemodernsociety4. Localconservationstrategies5. Cultureandagriculturalbiodiversity6. Traditionalknowledgevs.modernscience7. Traditionalvaluesystemsonagrobiodiversity8. Traditionalgermplasmmanagementandconservationmethods.9. Impactofmodernagricultureonuseoftraditionalvarieties10. Informalseedsystems11. Casestudies/successstoriesonapplicationoftraditionalknowledgeto

agrobiodiversity conservation12. Policiesandtraditionalknowledge inagrobiodiversityconservationand

management.13. Bio-prospecting/IPRissues14. Strengtheningthemarketchainfortraditionalspecies.

10. Agrobiodiversity conservation

Introduction:Rapid genetic erosion is threatening the future adaptability and evolution ofagriculturalbiodiversity.Thiscoursewilldefineapproachesandmethodologiesforimplementingagrobiodiversityconservationinanintegratedandinterdisciplinaryway,inmosaiclandscapes.

113

Annexes

Main learning points:• Applymethodsforassessingdiversityatecosystems,speciesandwithin-

specieslevel• Designappropriateconservationstrategies,incollaborationwithmultiple

stakeholders• Applyconservationstrategiesacrossmosaiclandscapes.

Contents:1. Structureandfunctionofagro-ecosystems2. Ecosystemsassessmentmethodologies3. Populationgenetics4. Systemsapproaches5. Mosaiclandscapeapproachtoconservation6. Connectivityandgeneflowinmosaiclandscapes7. Speciestraditionallyused8. Conservationthroughuseofneglectedandunderutilizedspecies9. Wildrelativesofdomesticatedspecies10. Assessingstatusofthreats11. Conservationstrategies(exsitu,insitu,onfarm)12. Trade-offsandconflictsovernaturalresources13. Conflictpreventionandmanagementinconservation14. Multi-stakeholderplanning15. Traditionalconservationstrategies16. Informationandcommunicationskills17. Use of GIS and modelling for landscape analysis and conservation

planning.

114


Dr Oscar Eyog-MatigScientist,SAFORGENCoordinator,UMB-BioversityInternationalBioversityInternationalc/oIITA08BP0932CotonouBenin+22921350188/0553/[email protected] Sifanele MachachaHeadofDepartment(CropScience/Agric)BotswanaCollegeofAgriculturePrivateBag0027GaboroneBotswana+2673650139+26771451896+26771451896smachach@bca.bw

Dr Iroume Roger NoelHead,PlantGenetics,BreedingandBiotechnologyLab(BIOTECHLAB),UniversityofDschang,MinistryofScientificResearchandInnovationMontéerueEcoleNormaleSupérieure,P.O.Box1457,[email protected]

Mr Mamo Kebede BeshaworedLecturer,HeadDepartmentofGeneralForestry,HawassaUniversity,WondoGenetCollegeofForestryandNaturalResourcesP.O.Box128,ShashameneEthiopia+251-461-109-900/[email protected]

Dr Abayneh DereroResearchScientistandCoordinatorforPlantationandFarmForestryResearchEthiopianInstituteofAgriculture,ForestryResearchCenterGurd-Sholla,30708,AddisAbabaEthiopia+251-116-456576+251-114-660901,[email protected]@yahoo.com

Prof. Eric C. QuayeProfessorofEcologySchoolofBiologicalSciences,UniversityofCapeCoastDepartmentofEnvironmentalScience,UniversityofCapeCoast,CapeCoast,Ghana(233)-42-31205(233)[email protected]

Annex 3. List of participants

Regionalworkshoponlearningagrobiodiversity:optionsforuniversities inSub-SaharanAfrica,21-23January,2009,ICRAFHouse,Nairobi,Kenya

115

Annexes

Dr Oudara SouvannavongSeniorForestryOfficer(BiologicalDiversityandConservation)ForestManagementDivisionFAO,ForestryDepartment,VialedelleTermediCaracalla,00153RomeItaly+390657054750+390657055137Oudara.Souvannavong@fao.org

Dr Larwanou MahamaneSeniorProgrammeOfficerAfricanForestForum(AFF)C/oWorldAgroforestryCenter(ICRAF),UnitedNationsAvenue,P.O.Box30677,00100,NairobiKenya+254207224000Ext4128+22796973442,[email protected]

Dr George Edward MamatiLecturer,DepartmentofHorticultureJomoKenyattaUniversityofAgriculturalTechnology62000-00200,Juja,ThikaRd,NairobiKenya+254-67552711+254-20-631610+254-724241360egmamati@[email protected]

Prof. Lenah NakhoneAssociateProfessorEgertonUniversityDepartmentOfCrops,HorticultureandSoils,P.O.Box536,Egerton,20115,EgertonKenya+254512217861+2545122161180+254724829000lenahnakhone@[email protected]

Prof. James B. Kung’u (Ph.D)AssociateProfessorandChairmanDepartmentofEnvironmentalSciences,KenyattaUniversity,43844–00100,NairobiKenya+254020811622,[email protected]@ku.ac.ke

Dr Omo OhiokpehaiNutritionSpecialistCIAT/TSBFP.O.Box30677-00100,[email protected]

Dr Bernard KigomoDeputyDirectorKEFRIP.O.Box20412,[email protected]

Dr Aissetou YayéExecutiveSecretary,ANAFEUnitedNationsAvenueP.O.Box30677-00100Nairobi,Kenya Tel:254-20-7224135(Direct)254-20-7224000(Operator)Fax:[email protected]

Boudy van SchagenAssociateExpert,CapacityDevelopmentUnitBioversityInternationalP.O.Box30677-00100,NairobiKenya+254-20-722-4503;+254-20-722-4500;[email protected]

116


Dr Mikkel GrumScientistBioversityInternationalP.O.Box30677-00100,NairobiKenya+254-20-722-4505;+254-20-722-4500;[email protected]

Mr Henry KamauScientist,CapacityDevelopmentUnitBioversityInternationalP.O.Box30677-00100,NairobiKenya+254-20-722-4510;+254-20-722-4500;[email protected]

Dr Mukiri Wa GithenduLecturerKenyattaUniversitySchoolofAgricultureandEnterpriseDevelopment,KenyattaUniversity,POBOX43844-00100,ThikaRoad,[email protected]

Dr Dennis GarrityDirectorGeneralWorldAgroforestryCentreP.O.Box30677-00100,[email protected]

Dr Zachary MuthamiaOfficerinChargeNationalGeneBankP.O.Box30677-00100,[email protected]

Prof. Ratemo MichiekaConsultantUniv.ofNairobi-FAO-KP.O.Box66527-00800,Westlands,[email protected]

Dr Francis MambalaResearcherCentreforPracticalActionSpringValleyRoad,POBox66527-00800,[email protected]

Dr Julie OjangoConsultantInternationalLivestockResearchInstituteP.O.Box30607-00100,[email protected]

Dr Ramni JamnadassGlobalResearchProjectLeaderResearchandDevelopment–GRU,WorldAgroforestryCentreP.O.Box30677-00100,[email protected]

Dr Charity IrunguStPaul’sUniversity,Limuru,[email protected]

Dr Ian GordonHeadofEnvironmentalHealthdivisionICIPEP.O.Box655,00200,NairobiKenya+254-20-8561686/[email protected]

117

Annexes

Dr Brent SwallowGlobalResearchProjectLeaderResearch&Development-EnvironmentalServices,WorldAgroforestryCentreP.O.Box30677-00100,[email protected]

Dr Robert LettingtonPolicyandLegalSpecialistKenyarjl34@alumni.st-andrews.ac.uk

Ms Doris M. LewaProgrammeAssistantBioversityInternationalP.O.Box30677-00100,NairobiKenya+254-20-722-4517;+254-20-722-4500;[email protected]

Mr Randrianavosoa Hasinjatonambolana JaofetraResponsablePhysiologieDesGrainesSiloNationaldesGrainesForestières,BP5091,101-Antananarivo(SAFIRE)Ambatobe,BP509,101,AntananarivoMadagascar

Prof. John K. SakaTeamLeaderNaturalResourcesandEnvironmentalCentre,UniversityofMalawi,ChancellorCollege,BundaCollegeofAgricultureChirungaRoad,PO280,ZOMBAMalawi+2651524222/[email protected][email protected]

Dr Tomás F. ChiconelaSeniorLecturerFacultyofAgronomyandForestry,EduardoMondlaneUniversity257,MaputoMozambique258-21-492177/[email protected]@yahoo.com

Dr Judith Francis [email protected]

Prof. C.E.A. OkezieProfessorUniversityofNigeriaNsukkaNo.2FultonAvenueUniversityofNigeriaNsukka,234,[email protected]

Dr Per RudebjerBioversityInternationalViadeiTreDenari472/a00057Maccarese,[email protected]

Dr Rukazambuga Ntirushwa DanielDean,FacultyofAgricultureNationalUniversityofRwandaButare,P.OBox117,Butare,Butare,HuyeDistrict,SouthernProvinceRwanda+250530228drukazambuga@[email protected]

118


Prof. Paxie W. Chikusie ChirwaAssociateProf.AgroforestryandSocialForestryStellenboschUniversityDepartmentofForest&WoodScience,PrivateBagx1,PaulSauerBuilding,BosmanStreet,7602,StellenboschSouthAfrica+27218083301;[email protected]@hotmail.com

Dr H.P. MsangaDirectorP.O.Box373,MorogoroTanzania

Dr Wellington EkayaProgrammeManager,Training&QualityAssuranceRegionalUniversitiesForumforCapacityBuildinginAgriculture(RUFORUM),Plot151GardenHill,MakerereUniversityMainCampus,P.O.Box7062,Kampala,Uganda+256-414-535939+254-722-278249+254-733-788495ekaya@[email protected]

Dr Gorettie N. NabanogaDean,FacultyofForestryandNaturalResourcesMakerereUniverisityMainCampus,P.O.Box7062,KampalaUganda+256312263816/7/8,[email protected]@[email protected]

Dr Paul KibwikaFacilitator/[email protected]

Dr Jacob MwitwaDean,SchoolofNaturalResourcesCopperbeltUniversityJamboDrive,Riverside,P.OBOX21692,KitweZambia+260212232028;[email protected]@yahoo.com

Dr Judith C.N. LunguDean,SchoolofAgriculturalSciencesUniversityofZambia32379,[email protected]

Dr Mick MwalaHeadCropScienceDepartmentUniversityofZambiaZambia

Mr Peter GondoDeputyDirectorSouthernAllianceforIndigenousResourcesNo.10LawsonAvenue,MiltonPark,Belvedere,P.O.BoxBE398,Belvedere,HarareZimbabwe+263-4-794333,263-4-492926,[email protected]@yahoo.co.uk

c


ISBN978-92-9043-814-4

BioversityInternationalistheoperatingnameoftheInternationalPlantGeneticResourcesInstitute(IPGRI).

SupportedbytheCGIAR.

Documents

Learning agrobiodiversity: options for universities … agrobiodiversity: options for universities in Sub ... Building in Agriculture (RUFORUM). ... Learning agrobiodiversity: options