Learning Mode1

8/6/2019 Learning Mode1

1/17


2/17

INTRODUCTION

A theory provides a general explanation for observations made over time. It explains and

predicts behaviour and may be modified. Sometimes a theory may be widely accepted for a

long time and later disproved. A model is a mental picture that helps us understand something

we cannot see or experience. (Brenda Mergel, 1998)

Learning occurs all around us through different means. A persons learning starts the day he

is born and ends when that person dies. Thus its important to study and research on this topic

that how learning process takes place. Different researchers came up with their own theories

and learning models. Thus a lot of learning models can be observed. After reading all those

theories I came up with my own model.

This learning model tells that how a person does keep on learning from childhood till adult

hood. They observes their environment, learns from the situation and research on the topics.

As they grow up they interact with the people, get education, learn from their culture and

values taught to them and last but not least learn from their experiences.

Learning is defined as:

a relatively permanent change in behaviour due to past experience .(Coon, 1983)

a relatively permanent change in behavioural potential which accompanies experience

but which is not the result of simple growth factors or of reversible influences such as fatigue

or hunger.(Kimble, 1961)

a biological device that functions to protect the human individual and to extend his

capacities.(Howe, 1980)

Learning is a process of acquiring new knowledge, understanding and skills which can be

used in our daily lives. Learning involves our emotions as well as our intellectual processessuch as intelligence, perception and memory. New knowledge may be stored in our memories

but it can also help us to adapt and survive in our social and cultural environments. This may

be evident in behavior, which can be observed and assessed.


3/17

Learning occurs when there is a more or less permanent change in behaviour or behavioural

potential that results from experience. However, ideally the change in behaviour should be

long lasting and stable. It can be a change in behaviour or potential behaviour. (Howe Fine)

Learning involves multi-level interaction between individuals, groups and organisations, butit is important to accept the wider innovation process that occurs for networks beyond one

individual organisation. (Anthony R. Zito and Adriaan Schout)

Over the previous one hundred years, psychologists have developed many theories of

learning each of which has adapted and evolved through application and research. This is a

dynamic area but to gain a general understanding of learning theories, it is useful to group

them into 3 broad areas.

Behaviourism: this is based on observable changes in behaviour. It focuses on a new

behavioural pattern being repeated until it becomes automatic.

Cognitive: It is based on the thought process behind the behaviour. Changes in behaviour are

observed, and used as indicators as to what is happening inside the learner's mind.

Constructivism: it is based on the premise that we all construct our own perspective of the

world, through individual experiences. Constructivism focuses on preparing the learner to

problem solve in ambiguous situations. (Brenda Mergel, 1998)

These are further discussed as follows:

Behaviourism

Behaviourism, as a learning theory, can be traced back to Aristotle. The theory of

behaviourism concentrates on the study of overt behaviours that can be observed and

measured (Good & Brophy, 1990). Some key players in the development of the behaviourist

theory were Pavlov, Watson, Thorndike and Skinner.

This theory states that:

y Experience is the basis of all learning. We are able to deal with infinite varieties ofinfluences by associating aspects that regularly occur together.


4/17

y Interaction between behaviour & environment is the basis of learning as individualsdevelop behaviors to cope with their environment.

y Differential reinforcement can be used to shape behaviour through using rewards andpunishment. The individual eventually selects successful behaviour patterns for the

rewards available.

y Learning outcomes are predictable through a cause and effect relationship. Learningfor all who participate should be the same. Any differences in student learning will

result from different ability levels.

Critique of Behaviorism

Learning is seen as a response to a stimulus and the formation of habits rather than as an

intellectual process for understanding and knowledge development. This theory is moreconcerned with learning that is observable through behaviour, than with new knowledge that

remains in the memory. It abstracts isolated events from their total context. An example could

be at the start of learning to drive a car when this is a dominant form of learning. However as

the learner becomes more competent in operating the vehicle, this learning becomes

automatic and the driver becomes less aware of changing gear or braking and accelerating.

The learner then needs to learn to read the road and drive safely anticipating other traffic

and pedestrian behaviors. This needs a constructivist approach that combines knowledge,

understanding and skill to become a proficient driver. It de-humanizes learning by almost

seeing the learner as a robot. This has manipulative undertones but it has been successful in

behaviour modification programs. Such learning has very little lasting value without

reinforcement and periodic reward. However, it has been successful in cognitive behaviour

therapy. (Brenda Mergel, 1998)

The Basics of Cognitive

Cognitive theorists recognize that much learning involves associations established through

contiguity and repetition. They also acknowledge the importance of reinforcement, although

they stress its role in providing feedback about the correctness of responses over its role as a

motivator. However, even while accepting such behaviouristic concepts, cognitive theorists

view learning as involving the acquisition or reorganization of the cognitive structures

through which humans process and store information." (Good and Brophy, 1990)


5/17

The cognitive view of learning, like the behaviourist view, sees knowledge as given and

absolute. Many of the information processing models of teaching and learning are based on

the cognitive view of learning. Also note that some of the theorists discussed so far can be

classified as either behaviourist or cognitive. This is so because of the close relationship

between certain of the ideas connected to memorisation.

Cognitive learning theory focuses on the processes of:

y Thinkingy Concept formationy Reasoningy Problem-solving

Constructivism

This theory states that:

y Learning is continuous. It is a function of the natural and continual variability in theworld and our actions upon it

y Learning involves constructing cognitive representations (abstract models) to reflectvariable experiences

y Learning involves verifiable mental operations that reflect these abstractions. Theseevolve and change over time to incorporate new knowledge

y Motivation to learn is an intrinsic desire, which is not only dependent on reward buton other factors such as a desire for knowledge and self improvement

y New experiences are continuously assimilated into existing schemata, which arealways changing to accommodate new experiences in a continual, dynamic process of

consolidation & growth.


6/17

Critique of Constructivism

Constructivism places emphasis on activities in the brain which cannot be measured as easily

as stimulus /response Learning. It claims that some learning cannot be measured in this way.

Grades and other formal assessment methods should be eliminated in favor of students ownforms of assessment. This would be difficult for the purposes of comparison within and

between groups and ages of pupils. It is difficult to know when the infant or child develops a

concept. Children develop at different stages over time so how helpful is it to generalize to

developmental stages.

Constructivist approaches seem to be based on common sense learning & understanding,

we need to understand the basics before we develop our understanding of more complex

knowledge. However, this is a useful approach to all learning but is criticized by some as

being too vague and liberal. It is useful where class members are at different stages of

learning (mixed ability) but can be criticized for holding back more able pupils. This type

of learning may initially take longer to establish new knowledge but it can prove more

effective over time. Constructivism is especially relevant to IL skills sessions where the

trainer needs to engage the students and build upon what they already understand. The new

learning needs to have relevance to their needs.

LITERATURE REVIEW

This paper discuss about the present research develops and tests a new theoretical model of

the observational learning processes by which modelling-based training interventions

influence computer task performance. (Mun Y.Y i, Fred D.Davis, 2003)

The social learning theory is the behaviour theory most relevant to criminology. Albert

Bandura believed that aggression is learned through a process called behaviour modelling. He

believed that individuals do not actually inherit violent tendencies. Albert Bandura argued

that aggression in children is influenced by the reinforcement of family members, the media,

and the environment. (Margaret Delores Isom, 1998)

This paper discuss about the criminals. They need to learn a set of values and attitudes that

support offending, and they need to learn specific behaviours for committing crimes. These

are all learned within the family and peer group. The people that surround a developing child


7/17

will demonstrate a range of attitudes towards the law and crime, some favourable and some

unfavourable. (Aidan Sammons)

The paper discusses how Piaget and Vygotsky commented on each others work. Then the

paper continues with a discussion of constructivism and activity theory. (Bettina Dahl, 2002)

The Mtis Holistic Lifelong Learning Model represents the link between Mtis lifelong

learning and community well-being. It can be used as a framework for measuring success in

lifelong learning. (Draft, 2007)

This article introduces this special issue by contextualising learning theory within European

integration studies. There are important empirical and theoretical gaps in the study of

European integration which necessitate a greater attention to learning theory. This article

deploys a number of conceptual distinctions about learning and non-learning processes,

drawing from political science, international relations, public administration and

sociological/organisational studies. (Anthony R. Zito and Adriaan Schout)

There are many different theories of how people learn. This paper tells their application that

how students can learn and also how one can teach in educational programmes. (Lee Dunn,

2002)

The paper consists of five learning modules. Each module describes a learning theory and

how that learning theory can be applied to improving online teaching and training materials

(Peter J. Patsula, 1999)

This article discuss about the associationist, rational planning, social conditioning,

behaviourist, cognitive, holistic or gestalt views. (John Schostak and Katie Birch)

Key theories on learning have been discussed in this article like Kolbs theory, Blooms

taxonomy etc (Judy McKimm, 2002)

A framework for theorising about mobile learning, to complement theories of infant,

classroom, workplace and informal learning has been offered in this paper. (Mike Sharples,

Josie Taylor, Giasemi Vavoula, 2005)


8/17

It discuss about the learning theories and the meaning of learning. (Howie Fine)

DISCUSSION

Learning theories form a distinct part of theoretical psychology. In recent years, many

psychologists have been dedicated to a study of learning theories. The interest shown by

psychologists in this area is partially as a result of the interesting but complex nature of the

concept of learning.

According to Wakefield, learning can be described as a relatively permanent change in the

behaviour of an individual based on his/her experiences or discoveries. Thus the processes of

experience and discovery lead to a new understanding of the world and ourselves, and enable

us to apply the acquired knowledge in new situations. Knowledge acquisition, then, involves

processes that transform data from experience into organised information.

No theory can be found to be absolutely superior to others. Nevertheless, new discoveries

take our understanding of the process

of learning to a new and refined level.

The model I have developed tells how learning takes place in the life of an individual. This

learning model tells that how a person does keep on learning from childhood till adult hood.

He observes his environment, learns from the situation and research on the topics. As he

grows up he interacts with the people, get education, learns from his culture and values taught

to him and last but not least learns from his experiences.


9/17

Fi The learning model

ach factor contri tes in the learning of an indi idual Learning might be positi e or

negati e depending on the situation. ach ofthese will be discussed separatel .

OB E TION

An indi idual learns by observing things around him. He observes and makes a perception

that whatis right and wrong. Observationallearning is also known as imitation or modelling.

In this process, learning occurs when individuals observes and imitate others behaviour.

There are four component processes influenced by the observers behaviour following

exposure to models. These components include: attention; retention; motor reproduction; and

motivation (Bandura, 1977).

Learning

Observation

Media

Experience

EnvironmentSocial

interaction

Education

CulturalValues,

Traditions


10/17

These four observational learning processes are:

y Attention: People cannot learn from modelled actions unless they are attentive whenobserving them.

y Retention: Actions must be cognitively registered as symbolic representations inmemory in order to regulate future behaviour.

y Production: The retained symbolic memory of actions must be reconverted into overtactions to generate desired responses.

y Motivation: The symbolic memory of actions will weaken unless the perceivedconsequences of performing the actions are sufficiently favourable to cause repeated

performance (Mun Y.Yi & Fred D.Davis, 2003)

This emphasizes the importance of learning from experience through the learner observing

and modeling the behaviours, attitudes and emotional reactions of others. The highest level of

observational learning is achieved by first organizing and rehearsing the modelled behaviour

symbolically and then enacting it overtly. Individuals are more likely to adopt a modelled

behaviour if it results in outcomes they value. They are more likely to adopt it if the model is

similar to the observer and has admired status and the behaviour has functional value. (Peter

J. Patsula, 1999)

When we observe something it depends on a lot of things that whether we will imitate that

behaviour or not. It depends on the observed consequences of their actions. If the model isobserved to be reinforced (and the reinforcement has value for the observer) then imitation

becomes likely. If the model is punished then imitation becomes less likely (although the

behaviour may still have been learned, it is its expression that observed punishment inhibits).

There is a large body of research that shows that children can learn behaviour through

observation and that their willingness to imitate these behaviours is affected by the observed

consequences of a models actions. (Aldon Sammons)

Observational learning occurs when we see the consequences of other peoples behaviour.

Reinforcement or punishment affects the willingness of people to perform behaviours they

learned by watching others. (Howie Fine)

The people who observe stand back, gather data, ponder and analyse, delay reaching

conclusions, listen before speaking and are thoughtful. (Alan Chapman, 2005)


11/17

SOCIAL INTERACTION

Learning also occurs by having social interaction with others. A child learns from his family,

later by his friends and the community. Thus a person learns a lot by other people.

Vygotsky emphasises that one cannot learn without the verbal interaction and activity withothers. (Bettina Dahl, 2002)

In the work environment, each of these people plays a different role. Ideally the manager is a

coach who helps the employee decides what to learn and when to look for improvement. A

mentor takes a special interest in the person and actually monitors an employees progress

against specific goals. Experts typically help out when asked, but they are usually busy doing

their expertise. And peers are always around some of whom teach us the right way to

do something, and some of whom teach us the wrong way. Through all these interactions an

individual can improve their performance, learn new skills, and advance their

careers. (Bersin, 2007)

One of the research papers discussing about the criminal behaviour said that the basic

prediction is that people who become offenders will have been socialized in families and

groups where there are some pro-criminal norms. A certain amount of evidence suggests that

criminal behaviour tends to run in families. (Aldon Sammons)

Learning is the process of creating knowledge that is the result of the transaction betweensocial knowledge and personal knowledge. Children are very likely to model their behaviour

on the observed behaviour of their parents. Learning is therefore dependent on social

interaction.

CULTURE

Lev Vygotsky said that social interaction plays a fundamental role. According to him culture

was a determinant of individual development. Humans are the only species to have cultures,

and every human child develops in the context of a culture. Therefore, human cognitive

development is affected to a larger or lesser extent by the culture in which individuals are

living, including family environments.

According to Vygotsky, culture seems to make two kinds of contributions to childrens

intellectual development. Firstly, children acquire much of the content of their thinking


12/17

(cognition) from it and, secondly, they acquire the processes or means of their thinking from

it. In short, culture teaches children both what to think and how to think.

Knowledge and concepts are not seen as constructions that are created by the single

individual, but it is historical and cultural founded mental artefacts and phenomena, whichthe individual takes up and makes his own. So far, there seems to be quite agreement between

Piaget and Vygotsky in the sense that what the individual must learn is a social product of

past generation (Bettina Dahl, 2002)

ENVIRONMENT

Learning involves transactions between the person and the environment. Piaget sees the

individual as the source of learning, and that children learn by continuous interaction and

experience with their environment. (Bettina Dahl, 2002)

Environmental experiences are a second influence of the social learning of violence in

children. Albert Bandura reported that individuals that live in high crime rates areas are more

likely to act violently than those who dwell in low-crime areas (Bandura, 1976).

This assumption is similar to Shaw and McKays theory of social disorganization. They

believed that a neighbourhood surrounded by culture conflict, decay and insufficient social

organizations was a major cause of criminality (Bartollas, 1990).

EXPERIENCE

Learning is a continuous process grounded in experience. According to Kolb, learning is the

process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience. Knowledge

results from the combination of grasping experience and transforming it.

The people who learn by having experiences are gregarious, seek challenge and immediateexperience, are open-minded and are bored with implementation. (Alan Chapman, 2005)

Students make discoveries and experiment with knowledge themselves instead of hearing or

reading about the experiences of others. Students also reflect on their experiences, thus

developing new skills, new attitudes, and new theories or ways of thinking. (Kraft & Sakofs,

1988)


13/17

MEDIA

Social learning theorists believe that the media are a powerful influence on the young, and on

some impressionable adults. These theorists are concerned about levels of violence in the

media and the impact of viewing violence on young peoples behaviour.

Research into the impact of celebrity role models in commercials on audience attitudes &

behaviours has shown them to be influential on some young people, in both positive and

negative ways. Social learning theorists see this as evidence of the influence of social

learning. Libraries have used this approach to promote boys reading through images of male

footballers claiming to enjoy reading. (Margaret Delores Isom, 1998)

Some organizations are setting up LinkedIn groups and forums for people to share ideas, but

that is in many ways an extension of networking or action learning that already exists, just

migrating to new platforms. While many of the social media and networking tools are great

communication and connection vehicles, they should not be looked at as tools to replace

formal learning strategies. But they can complement them.

Social learning is said to be open, informal, direct and easy. Open, because everybody or a

preselected group of people can follow what you are doing. Informal, as it is about the here

and now, a gestalt approach. It can be more structured if for example you search for specific

content, or a reaction to something someone else has just written about that has inspired you

to find out more. Direct, because people can connect to you, through the channel that the

original communication was made blog, Twitter, Face Book etc. Easy, because new

technologies such as smart-phones are making it easier to stay connected to your social media

tools and updates them wherever you are and whenever you want. (Margaret Delores

Isom, 1998)

Social media is an excellent medium for professional development because it allows for

both synchronous and asynchronous participation. The participants are active learnersthat is, they are actively engaged in the construction of knowledge, not just passive

receivers of it. Social media usually can be captured, thus providing not only an archive of

the learning experience, but content that can be repurposed for future seminars, or courses.

(Leslie Madsen-Brooks, 2008)


14/17

Albert Bandura believed television was a source of behaviour modelling. Today, films and

television shows illustrate violence graphically. Violence is often expressed as an acceptable

behaviour, especially for heroes who have never been punished. Since aggression is a

prominent feature of many shows, children who have a high degree of exposure to the media

may exhibit a relatively high incidence of hostility themselves in imitation of the aggression

they have witnessed (Berkowitz, 1962).

EDUCATION

Learning through Education is an important part of our lives whether starting Primary school

or as an older person learning in university. Early childhood education often focuses on

children learning through playing. (Bettina Dahl, 2002)

Education helps in learning a lot of things. It teaches us new concepts and subjects. We learnhow to do calculations and solve questions. It helps us to groom ourselves and we get to

enhance our personality through getting education and learning a lot new things.

One learns from the text provided to us. For example the employees get education in

management skills and learn new things and then apply these concepts in practical life.

CONCLUSION

Learning activity is undertaken throughout the life, whether formal or informal. In order to

create an enriching and dynamic society in the 21st century, it is vital to form a lifelong

learning society in which people can freely choose learning opportunities at any time during

their lives and in which proper recognition is accorded to those learning achievements.

Lifelong learning comprises two main aspects: the concept to comprehensively review

various systems including education, in order to create a lifelong learning society; and the

concept of learning at all stages of life. In other words, the concept of learning in the context

of lifelong learning encompasses not only structured learning through school and social

education but also learning through involvement in such areas as sports, cultural activities,

hobbies, recreation and volunteer activities, and also by our culture, environment, media,

experience and social interaction.

Lifelong learning covers the whole range of learning. That includes formal and informal

learning and workplace learning. It also includes the skills, knowledge, attitudes and


15/17

behaviours that people acquire in their day-to-day experiences. Thus an individual can learn

through these entire sources all his life.

Learning opportunities should be available to all citizens on an ongoing basis. In practice this

should mean that citizens each have individual learning pathways, suitable to their needs and

interests at all stages of their lives. The content of learning, the way learning is accessed, and

where it takes place may vary depending on the learner and their learning requirements.


16/17

References:

Anthony R. Zito and Adriaan Schout, learning theory reconsidered: EU integration theories

and learning

Behaviorism, (Internet), Available from: http://www.learning-theories.com/behaviorism.html

Brenda Mergel, (1998), Instructional Design & Learning Theory

Classical Conditioning, (Internet) Available from: www.learning-theories.com/classical-

conditioning

Cognitive (Internet) Available from: http://www.learning-theories.com/cognitivism

Constructivism (Internet) Available from: http://www.learning-theories.com/constructivism

John Schostak and Katie Birch, SOME THEORIES OF LEARNING AND THE PROCESS

OF PROFESSIONAL REFLECTION

Judy McKimm, (2002) Learning theories

Karen E. Hart, William Allan Kritsonis, (2006) Critical Analysis of an Original Writing on

Social Learning Theory: Imitation of Film-Mediated Aggressive Models by: Albert Bandura,

Dorothea Ross and Sheila A. Ross (1963), NATIONAL FORUM OF APPLIED

EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH JOURNAL, 20(3).

KOHONE N, Learning to learn through reflection an experiential learning perspective,

(internet) Available from: archive.ecml.at/mtp2/Elp_tt/.../Supplementary%20text%20E.pdf

Lee Dunn, (2002) Theories of learning (internet). Available from www.brookes.ac.uk

Marzano & Debra (1993) assessing student outcomes: Performance assessment using the

dimensions of learning model.

Mike Sharples, Josie Taylor, Giasemi Vavoula, (2005) Towards a Theory of Mobile

Learning


17/17

Patricia L. Smith and Tillman J. Ragan, The Impact ofR.M. Gagns Work on Instructional

Theory

Peter J. Patsula, (1999) Applying Learning Theories to Online Instructional Design

Social Learning Theory, (Internet) Available from:

http://www.about.com/psychology/sociallearningtheory

Social Learning Theory (Bandura) (Internet) Available from: http://www.learning-

theories.com/social-learning-theory(Bandura)

Social Learning Theory by Vygotsky, (Internet) Available from:

http://www.learning-theories.com/vygotskys-social-learning-theory.html

Tara J. Fenwick, Emancipatory Potential of Action Learning: A Critical Analysis, Journal

of Organizational Change Management, 16 (6).

Taylor, Edward W.(2007) 'An update of transformative learning theory: a critical review of

the empirical research (1999-2005)', International Journal of Lifelong Education, 26(2).

Documents

Learning Mode1