Learning skills, brain & Learning skills, brain & cognitioncognition

Jaana HolvikiviJaana Holvikivi

20112011

ContentsContents

Intelligence and learningIntelligence and learning Brain and cognitionBrain and cognition Learning styles and cognitive skillsLearning styles and cognitive skills Self-regulationSelf-regulation MotivationMotivation

HolvikiviHolvikivi

Emotional states,

feelings, physical well-

being

Previous knowledge and mental schemas

Metacognitive skills and abilities,

motivation

Guidance:

Advising of studies and

student support

Expert community

Development of expertise

Learning as a knowledge

creation process

Student

Teachers

Mediating structures:

instruction, methods,artefacts

Activity and practice

Information, knowledge

Social interaction,study group

Engineering expertise

Technical skills

Knowledge

Social &communicationskills

Managementskills

Problem-solvingReasoningCreativity

MotivationInitiativeAttitudes

Learning Community: Students & Teachers

Expertcommunity

Learning through activity,practice &theory

Engineering expertise

Technical skills

Knowledge

Social &communicationskills

Managementskills

Problem-solvingReasoningCreativity

MotivationInitiativeAttitudes

InformationMediatingartifactsMethods

Learning Community: Students & Teachers

Expertcommunity

Learning through activity,practice &theory

Engineering expertise

Technical skills

Knowledge

Social &communicationskills

Managementskills

Problem-solvingReasoningCreativity

MotivationInitiativeAttitudes

InformationMediatingartifactsMethods

Personal qualities Learning approaches Cultural schemas

Personality, Feelings, Reactions, Knowledge Cognitive styles, skills

MotivationMetacognitive skills,Habits

Communication stylesSocial relationsAttitudesRelations to artifacts

Embodied cultural experience

LIFE

Intelligence and expert Intelligence and expert performanceperformance

IQ, general intelligenceIQ, general intelligence

Linguistic competenceLinguistic competence ReasoningReasoning Spatial abilitySpatial ability Analytic and number skillsAnalytic and number skills General knowledgeGeneral knowledge Visual & auditory processingVisual & auditory processing Long-term storage and retrievalLong-term storage and retrieval Working memory and processing speedWorking memory and processing speed

Views of intelligenceViews of intelligence

Academic success requires analytical Academic success requires analytical intelligence, GIintelligence, GI

Modern society versus instinctive behaviorModern society versus instinctive behavior evolution prepared us for natural evolution prepared us for natural

surroundings, surroundings, schooling prepares us for information societyschooling prepares us for information society

IQ does not seem to predict expertise nor IQ does not seem to predict expertise nor does it predict the acquisition of complex does it predict the acquisition of complex problem-solving competenceproblem-solving competence

Successful intelligenceSuccessful intelligence(R.Sternberg)(R.Sternberg)

analytical intelligence, analytical intelligence, practical intelligencepractical intelligence creative intelligence,creative intelligence, ethical intelligence,ethical intelligence, executive processes to plan and control executive processes to plan and control

activity are instrumental for successful activity are instrumental for successful performance. performance.

Multiple intelligencesMultiple intelligences

linguistic, linguistic, bodily-kinesthetic, bodily-kinesthetic, spatial, spatial, musical, musical, logical-mathematical, logical-mathematical, intrapersonal, intrapersonal, interpersonal,interpersonal, naturalist intelligencesnaturalist intelligences emotional intelligence emotional intelligence

Other views on intelligenceOther views on intelligence

Intelligent action Intelligent action as deciding what to do next; as deciding what to do next; if the environment is well-designed and well-if the environment is well-designed and well-

known to the person, intelligent action is known to the person, intelligent action is greatly facilitated. greatly facilitated.

people are not particularly good at tasks that people are not particularly good at tasks that require abstract reasoning or intensive recall require abstract reasoning or intensive recall but they excel at using resources in a but they excel at using resources in a systematic but creative fashion to work their systematic but creative fashion to work their way to solutions. way to solutions.

The Cree in Canada (hunters): The Cree in Canada (hunters): showing respect, self-control, and listening attentively are showing respect, self-control, and listening attentively are

essential parts of intelligent behavior, in addition to good sense of essential parts of intelligent behavior, in addition to good sense of direction, wisdom and a quick wit. direction, wisdom and a quick wit.

Insensitivity, living like a white, and craziness were seen as Insensitivity, living like a white, and craziness were seen as negative competences. negative competences.

Chinese views of intelligence:Chinese views of intelligence: focus on hard work and effort, focus on hard work and effort, intelligence is not a quality of a person but behavior. intelligence is not a quality of a person but behavior.

The Japanese view of intelligence encompasses The Japanese view of intelligence encompasses social competence such as one's ability to sympathize with social competence such as one's ability to sympathize with

others. others. African conceptions of intelligence focus on African conceptions of intelligence focus on

wisdom, wisdom, trustworthiness and trustworthiness and social attentiveness.social attentiveness.

Other views on intelligenceOther views on intelligence

The acquisition of expert The acquisition of expert performance as problem solvingperformance as problem solving

Even the most talented individuals in a domain must Even the most talented individuals in a domain must spend over ten years actively engaging in particular spend over ten years actively engaging in particular practice activities (deliberate practice) that lead to practice activities (deliberate practice) that lead to gradual improvements in skill and adaptation that gradual improvements in skill and adaptation that increase performance to achieve mastery. increase performance to achieve mastery.

The acquisition of expert performance can be described The acquisition of expert performance can be described as a sequence of mastered challenges with increasing as a sequence of mastered challenges with increasing levels of difficulty levels of difficulty

The mental representations of experts appear to be The mental representations of experts appear to be qualitatively different from those of less skilled qualitatively different from those of less skilled individuals. It is not simply a difference in accumulated individuals. It is not simply a difference in accumulated knowledge about past experience. knowledge about past experience.

Expert – novice differences appear to reflect differential Expert – novice differences appear to reflect differential ability to react to representative tasks and situations that ability to react to representative tasks and situations that have never been previously encountered.have never been previously encountered.

The acquisition of expert The acquisition of expert performanceperformance

Comparison of several groups of professional musicians Comparison of several groups of professional musicians representing different levels of achievement:representing different levels of achievement:

the most accomplished had spent more time in activities the most accomplished had spent more time in activities classified as deliberate practice: classified as deliberate practice: by the age of 20, the best musicians had spent over by the age of 20, the best musicians had spent over 10,000 hours practicing, which is 2,500 and 5,000 hours 10,000 hours practicing, which is 2,500 and 5,000 hours more than two less accomplished groups, respectively, more than two less accomplished groups, respectively, and 8,000 hours more than amateur pianists of the same and 8,000 hours more than amateur pianists of the same age.age.

elite performers report a very high level of focus and elite performers report a very high level of focus and concentration during deliberate practice. Practice concentration during deliberate practice. Practice sessions were limited to around one hour at a time; sessions were limited to around one hour at a time; maximal level of deliberate practice was found to be 4-5 maximal level of deliberate practice was found to be 4-5 hours when sustained daily for months and years. hours when sustained daily for months and years.

Problem solving by experts and Problem solving by experts and novicesnovices

Experts possessed greater domain-specific knowledge Experts possessed greater domain-specific knowledge about a task that novices. Experts excelled mainly in their about a task that novices. Experts excelled mainly in their own domains and did not have greater knowledge or own domains and did not have greater knowledge or general problem-solving abilities.general problem-solving abilities.

Experts perceived meaningful patterns, redefined and Experts perceived meaningful patterns, redefined and classified problems according to underlying principals. classified problems according to underlying principals. They organize their knowledge more hierarchically than They organize their knowledge more hierarchically than novices.novices.

Experts performed quickly because they took strategic Experts performed quickly because they took strategic shortcuts. shortcuts.

Experts spent more time in analyzing and planning.Experts spent more time in analyzing and planning. Experts redefined and reinterpreted the task. Experts redefined and reinterpreted the task. Experts monitored their performance more carefully. Experts monitored their performance more carefully.

Good self-regulation. Good self-regulation. High levels of motivation.High levels of motivation.

Intuitive and formal reasoning Intuitive and formal reasoning systemssystems

deductive reasoningdeductive reasoning categorizationcategorization analogical reasoninganalogical reasoning decision-makingdecision-making belief formationbelief formation social cognitionsocial cognition Western: Western:

analytical mode of thought dominant (?)analytical mode of thought dominant (?) East Asian: holistic mode of thought (?)East Asian: holistic mode of thought (?)

Contextualization in reasoningContextualization in reasoning Environment of evolutionary adaptedness (EEA) favored Environment of evolutionary adaptedness (EEA) favored

the tendency to contextualize a problem with as much the tendency to contextualize a problem with as much prior knowledge as is easily accessibleprior knowledge as is easily accessible

The tendency to socialize problems. To see deliberate The tendency to socialize problems. To see deliberate design and pattern in situations that lack intentional design and pattern in situations that lack intentional design. (superstition)design. (superstition)

Seeing intentional design in random events.Seeing intentional design in random events. ““Financial analysts tend to concoct elaborate explanations for Financial analysts tend to concoct elaborate explanations for

every little fluctuation in stock market prices even though the every little fluctuation in stock market prices even though the fluctuations are mainly random.”fluctuations are mainly random.”

The intentional interpreter in our brains does not The intentional interpreter in our brains does not automatically decouple itself from problems when it is automatically decouple itself from problems when it is not needed.not needed.

The narrative mode of thought. The narrative mode of thought.

Learning, perception and memoryLearning, perception and memory

Mood

Emotions

Concentration:

alertnessmotivation

Perception

Learning situation

Memory and

knowledge

Mechanicalsenses: touch,

painBody state (hunger, vestibular sensation,

etc.)

Brain

Audition

Vision

Chemical senses:

Smell, Taste

Stored experience:MemoryEmotions

Movement

Action

Working memory

Modalities: perceptionModalities: perception

Human cognitive capacity 1Human cognitive capacity 1

Based on patterns and schemasBased on patterns and schemas Chess masters remember nearly all pieces Chess masters remember nearly all pieces

in a gamein a game Affordances: Affordances:

visual object is perceived through intended visual object is perceived through intended action; action; perception depends on contextperception depends on context

Auditive and visual input separateAuditive and visual input separate

Auditory and visual inputAuditory and visual input

Yakking drivers are four times more likely to Yakking drivers are four times more likely to crash their cars. Using a hands-free headset crash their cars. Using a hands-free headset instead of handheld phone made no difference instead of handheld phone made no difference at all. at all.

The brain can be intensely aware of what is The brain can be intensely aware of what is coming through either the eyes or the ears but coming through either the eyes or the ears but not both at the same time. not both at the same time. (Certain brain regions were activated when (Certain brain regions were activated when subjects consciously chose to see; these were subjects consciously chose to see; these were muted when they chose to hear. )muted when they chose to hear. )

Auditory and visual inputAuditory and visual input The use of sound during visual training can enhance The use of sound during visual training can enhance

later performance on a purely visual task, a finding that later performance on a purely visual task, a finding that demonstrates just how much multisensory interaction demonstrates just how much multisensory interaction occurs in brain areas that before now were thought to be occurs in brain areas that before now were thought to be dedicated solely to vision.dedicated solely to vision.

Multisensory interactions can be exploited to yield more Multisensory interactions can be exploited to yield more efficient learning of sensory information efficient learning of sensory information

People can focus on more than three items at a time People can focus on more than three items at a time if those items share a common color like players in a if those items share a common color like players in a

football team. They perceive separate individuals as a football team. They perceive separate individuals as a single set. Color seems to be the easiest sorting tool.single set. Color seems to be the easiest sorting tool.

Human cognitive capacity 2Human cognitive capacity 2

Attention: selective perceptionAttention: selective perception Object and background: discrimination, Object and background: discrimination,

exceptional featuresexceptional features Attention is directed to one objectAttention is directed to one object Memory registers also unconscious perceptionMemory registers also unconscious perception Automatic actions (bicycle riding) do not need Automatic actions (bicycle riding) do not need

attention; but then action becomes fixed, difficult attention; but then action becomes fixed, difficult to modify (changes in interface)to modify (changes in interface)

Which way does the airplane fall?

Mental framework 1 Mental framework 2

MEMORY

Short term memoryLong term or Reference memory

Modalities

Procedural memoryDeclarativememory

Sensorymemory

Workingmemory

Centralexecutive

Motorskills

Perceptuallearning

ConditioningSemanticmemory

Episodicmemory

Habituation and sensitation

RecallRecognition

Improving memorizingImproving memorizing Timing of activities is decisive when storing information Timing of activities is decisive when storing information

to the memory. to the memory. In an experiment, where In an experiment, where fruit flies were fruit flies were trainedtrained to avoid to avoid

a particular odor, it was found that massed training, a particular odor, it was found that massed training, giving the flies the same number of training experiences giving the flies the same number of training experiences in rapid succession, did not produce an enduring in rapid succession, did not produce an enduring memory; memory;

spaced training, with session intervals of 15 minutes, did spaced training, with session intervals of 15 minutes, did produce the memory. produce the memory.

Distributed practice works better than massed practice. Distributed practice works better than massed practice. Spreading out your study is better than cramming. Spreading out your study is better than cramming. TThere is a specific time interval, about six to eight hours here is a specific time interval, about six to eight hours

after training, when the neural activity is particularly after training, when the neural activity is particularly strong, and lasting memories are formed. strong, and lasting memories are formed.

Improving memorizingImproving memorizing

Memory consolidation takes place while we sleep, Memory consolidation takes place while we sleep, and it takes up to a few weeks of repeated rehearsal and it takes up to a few weeks of repeated rehearsal for the molecular reactions controlling gene and for the molecular reactions controlling gene and protein synthesis to record long-term memories. protein synthesis to record long-term memories.

If the interval between rehearsal sessions is too If the interval between rehearsal sessions is too long, the short-term memory will have weakened too long, the short-term memory will have weakened too much to benefit from repetition.much to benefit from repetition.

Also, having a break and relaxing after intensive Also, having a break and relaxing after intensive working often releases creativity and yields a working often releases creativity and yields a solution to the problem under consideration. solution to the problem under consideration.

MemorizingMemorizing

Rats learn to navigate new spaces by replaying Rats learn to navigate new spaces by replaying memories in reverse order:memories in reverse order:

After exploring an environment such as a maze, rats After exploring an environment such as a maze, rats typically pause to eat, groom or rub their whiskers. typically pause to eat, groom or rub their whiskers. Electrodes in rat’s hippocampus monitored so-called Electrodes in rat’s hippocampus monitored so-called place neurons, which fire in specific sequence as a rat place neurons, which fire in specific sequence as a rat navigates a path. When various rats paused on navigates a path. When various rats paused on completion of a run, the place neurons fired in reverse completion of a run, the place neurons fired in reverse order from the firing that had occurred during navigation. order from the firing that had occurred during navigation. This reverse replay occurred more frequently after This reverse replay occurred more frequently after walking through new mazes than familiar ones, implying walking through new mazes than familiar ones, implying that the technique plays a role in learning. that the technique plays a role in learning.

Cognition and emotionCognition and emotion Happiness and positive mood increases

flexibility in problem solving. Affect, cognition, and motivation influence one

another.

Meaningful and emotional information is retained better in memory than purely factual information.

It does not necessarily indicate, however, that the memories would be accurate in relation to factual events, especially if they are connected to strong feelings.

Memories do change.

Cognition and emotionCognition and emotion Stress weakens attention and working memory.

It rises levels of noradrenalin, dopamine, and cortisol in the brain, and induce neuron destruction in hippocampus. The production of new neurons in hippocampus is also reduced under stress.

Laughing has numerous benefits for health as well as learning.

Laughing reduces stress because the level of cortisol is reduced and levels of epinephrine decrease.

Laughing improves memory: Students who watched an episode of "Friends" after studying for an exam, got 20% better grades than the control group that did not have fun.

Music in brainMusic in brain

Brain imaging studies: when people listen to Brain imaging studies: when people listen to music, the neural activation proceeds from the music, the neural activation proceeds from the auditory system to regions related to planning, auditory system to regions related to planning, expectation and language as well as arousal, expectation and language as well as arousal, pleasure, mood and rhythmic movement. pleasure, mood and rhythmic movement.

Music engages nearly every area of the brain.Music engages nearly every area of the brain. Music promotes cognitive development. Music promotes cognitive development. Music reaches deep into the brain's most Music reaches deep into the brain's most

primitive structures, including the "reptilian brain" primitive structures, including the "reptilian brain" tied to motivation, reward and emotion. tied to motivation, reward and emotion.

Music elevates dopamine levels. Music elevates dopamine levels.

Types of intelligence and teachingTypes of intelligence and teaching Experiment with four methodsExperiment with four methods

One group was subjected to the "traditional" teaching One group was subjected to the "traditional" teaching method that is called method that is called memory conditionmemory condition, which includes , which includes presenting the material which students have to memorize presenting the material which students have to memorize and represent. and represent.

In the In the analytical conditionanalytical condition, students are asked to , students are asked to compare and contrast theories. compare and contrast theories.

In the In the creative conditioncreative condition, they are asked to formulate , they are asked to formulate their own theory based on the facts.their own theory based on the facts.

In the In the practical conditionpractical condition, they are asked to apply the , they are asked to apply the theoretical knowledge in a real-life problem. theoretical knowledge in a real-life problem.

All students were evaluated in the same way for memory, All students were evaluated in the same way for memory, practical, analytical, and creative quality. The results practical, analytical, and creative quality. The results confirmed that students who got instruction that matched confirmed that students who got instruction that matched their cognitive style, performed better than others. their cognitive style, performed better than others.

Memory condition teaching resulted in an inferior Memory condition teaching resulted in an inferior outcome than other methods.outcome than other methods.

Students who were subjected to a multicondition Students who were subjected to a multicondition teaching that included analytical, practical, and teaching that included analytical, practical, and creative methods, performed best in all types of creative methods, performed best in all types of tests that included practicing analysis, creativity, tests that included practicing analysis, creativity, and practical application, and practical application,

even in better memorization of the material than even in better memorization of the material than the memory condition students the memory condition students

Students who were strong in analytical skills, Students who were strong in analytical skills, had an advantage over others in all conditions, a had an advantage over others in all conditions, a consequence of the emphasis on analytical way consequence of the emphasis on analytical way of teaching in all school instruction. of teaching in all school instruction.

Expert community

Embodied knowledge,

feelings

Previous knowledge

Metacognitive abilities

Social interaction

Problem solving through

progressive inquiry

Development of expertise

Learning

Student

Teacher

Instruction, methods,artifacts

Activity and practice

Information

Cultural influence

Learning approaches

Reactions, skills

Experience with artifacts

Communicationstyles

Cultural schemas

Ways of action

Learningstyles