2ND YEAR MINOR – SYNTAX 1COURSE INSTRUCTOR: ROXANA-CRISTINA PETCU, PhD

THE COPULATIVE PREDICATION

Let us start from the analysis of the following sentences:

1. (a)Mary is quiet. (b) Jack is a doctor. (c) Susan is of my age. (d) She will make a good mother.

These sentences contain a copula (be in sentences a,b,c) or a copula-like verb (make in sentence d) which functions as the link between the subject of the sentence and the constituent which predicates about the subject. This element is called a predicative. The copula or the copula-like verb and the predicative form a copulative predicate.

Let’s have a look at the following examples:

2. (a) Granfather is a good man. (DP) (b) My sister is very pretty. (AP) (c) The hat is of my size. (PP) (d) The problem is to do it correctly. (IP) (e) The idea is that you should never agree to such things. (CP)

As we can see the predicative can be expressed by a wide range of phrases. Only the copula BE allows the full range of predicatives, the other copula-like verbs allow only a limited number of possibilities.

THE COPULA BE

If we look at the sentences under 1, we shall immediately see that it is the predicative not the copula which assigns a property to the subject, namely Mary is assigned the property quiet, Jack the property a doctor, aso, which means that the predication relation hold between the subject and the predicative, and not between the subject and the copula. We can say that the subject of the sentence is assigned a theta role and so is an argument of the predicative, not of the copula BE. It can be demonstrated by the semantic relations that the predicative imposes on the subject.

3. (a) *Bill is a spinster. (b) *Mrs Brown is Mary’s father. (c) *His brother is buxom. The sentences above are ungrammatical as the property assigned by the predicatice to the subject violates the s-selection. A Spinster and buxom select a [+female] entity, while father selects a [+male] entity.

One conclusion would be that the copula does not assign an external theta role because it does not have substantive content. This means that the copula does not have an external argument ; it only has an internal argument, a small clause which account for the predication relation between the subject ant the predicative. The subject is base-generated in [Spec,SC] position where it is assigned a theta role, and from ther it moves to [Spec,IP] to be assigned case and also to satisfy the EPP, which says that all senteneces must have a subject. This means that BE cannot assign

case, which is in keeping with the fact that it does not assign a theta role to an external argument. So the copula BE behaves like an unaccusative verb.

Burzio’s generalization (i) a verb which lacks an external argument fails to assign Accusative case (ii)a verb which fails to assign Accusative case fails to theta-mark an external

argument

Mary is quiet.

IP

Spec I’ I0 VP

T V’

-s V0 SC/AP BE NP A’

N’ A0 N0 quiet Mary

The NP generated in the [Spec, SC] position will move to [Spec,IP] in order to be assigned case. Another possible position would be [Spec, VP] which is empty because BU does not have an external argument, so no theta role can be assigned in that position, but it is not a position in which case can be assigned.

The movement of the NP has to meet some requirements.

1. the moved element is an NP2. movement is obligatory.3. the landing-site of movement is an empty position4. the landing site is an A (argument)- position5. the landing site is an NP position5. the landing-site of movement is a position to which no theta-role cab be assigned.6. the landing-site of movement is a position to which case is assigned7. the site from which the element is moved is an NP position to which no case is assigned8. movement leaves behind a trace9. the trace is co-indexed with the entecedent, with which it forms a chain. Because the head of the chain is an A-position, it is called an A-chain.10. the chain is assigned a theta-role11. the theta-role is assigned to the lowest position of the chain, the foot of the chain12. the chain is case-marked13.case is assigned to the highest position of the chain, the head of the chain.

Conclusion The copula Be is a raising verb taking a small clause as its complement, it lacks an external

argument, fails to assign case to its complement, does not assign a theta role. Therfore it is an unaccusative verb which selects a small clause, the subject of the sclause being generated in the [Spec, SC] position out of which it raises to be assigned case.

The copula BE is semantically light, which has been taken as a possible explanation for the fact that it shares a number of properties with the auxiliaries.

It behaves like auxiliary verbs – it undergoes movement to I0; it moves to C0 in question formation; it is directly negated by not/n’t, it can be stressed by emphatic affirmations, it occurs in tags and codas

4. (a) Are they students? (b) They are not/aren’t students. (c) Oh, but they ARE students. (d) They are students, aren’t they? (e) They are students, and so are theor friends. Like an auxiliary, the copula BE precedes the adverbs.

5. They are always rude to everyone. He is never impertiment.

Unlike auxiliaries, which only allow one type of complement (VP), the copula allows a wide variety of small clauses as complements (DP, AP, NP, PP, IP, CP).

The copula can co-occur with other auxiliaries, including auxiliary BE

6. You have always been so nice to me. He is being clumsy now!

When the small clause contains two NPs, any of the two can raise ti [Spec,IP]

7. That unimportant incident was the cause of the war. The cause of the war was that unimportant incident.

To conclude, we can say that the copula BE is an unaccusative verb that has a number of specific properties which distinguish it from regular unaccusatives and from auxiliaries as well.

The role of the copula

Small clauses are reduced clauses which lack the functional categories, mainlt Tense but which denote predication relations, namely states of affairs which must receive temporal anchoring. This is done by the verb the small clause is a complement of. The copula carries the markers for Tense, Aspect, Agreement, Mood.

8. (a) Michael is careful. (Tense) (b) Michael is being so awkward today! (Tense, Aspect) (c ) He has always been so nice. (Tense,Aspect) (d) If only he were more attentive. (Tense, Mood)

COPULA-LIKE VERBS

Fall, stand, make, sit, loom, remain, hold, run, get, lie, grow, go, turn, pass, seem, come, etc

9. MAKE - If you work hard, you will make a good lawyer.(DP) She will make a wonderful actress.(DP) FALL – The scheme fell flat.(AP) He fell victim to her cruel remarks.(NP) She fell an easy prey to him.(DP) The house fell into ruins.(PP) LIE – The book lay open on the table.(AP) The snow lay thick on the ground.(AP) HOLD – The argument holds true.(AP) She always holds aloof from company.(AP) STAND – Tom stands alone amomg his mates.(AP) We will stand firm.(AP) Lady Jane stood godmother to her sister’s child.(NP) Those poor people stand in need of help.(PP) SIT – He sat tight on the saddle.(AP) LOOM – The castle loomed menacing in the distance. (AP) REMAIN – He remained a widower at the age of 30.(DP) GET – The sink got rusty.(AP) GROW – He has grown old.(AP) TURN – He finally turned a traitor. (DP) They obliged the prisoners to turn Muslim. (AP) PASS – They pass for rich.(PP) He passed for a doctor.(PP) SEEM – The students seem interested in linguistics. (AP) COME – The knot has come undone.(AP)

Copula-like verbs behave like the copula. They lack an external argument, their internal complement is a small clause, so they are raising verbs like the copula.

The scheme fell flat.

IP

Spec I’

I0 VP T V’ -ed V0 SC/AP Fall DP A’

The scheme A0

Flat

Nevertheless, there are a number of differences between the copula and the copula-like verbs. They preserve part of their lexical meaning (durative – stay, remain, inchoative –become,

get) They impose certain selectional restrictions on the small clause (see the examples above) They do not combine with the full range of small clauses as BE

They do not raise, do not invert in question formation, need do-support, are not negated by not/n’t, need do-support, do not appear in tags and codas.

10. They turned Muslim. *Turned they Muslim? (Did they turn Muslim?) *They turned not Muslim. (They didn’t turn Muslim) *They turned Muslim, turnedn’t they?

They do not precede the adverbs (like lexical verbs)

11. *The river runs always dry in summer. The river always runs dry in summer.

Unlike the copula BE, when the small clause contains two NPs, only the NP subject, that is the one generated in [Spec, SC] position can raise to [Spec, IP].

12. My uncle remained a doctor all his life. *A doctor remained my uncle all his life.

THE PREDICATIVE

THE ADJECTIVAL TYPE

Adjectives are heads that project structure according to X-bar, can be modified by an adverb in the Spec position, can select a complement (PP , CP or IP), can also contain adjuncts

13. (a)rather envious of Mary’s success (b) glad that we were there (c) very unvilling to come here (d) rather discontent with me for my behaviour

They may have an exclusively attributive or a exclusively predicative use or both

14. Mary is beautiful. I saw a beautiful woman.

ATTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVES

They appear only in pre-nominal positions in English, unlike Romanian

15. an envious person / * a person envious

When used attributively, adjectives do not allow complements

16. * a very unwilling to come here person * a rather discontent with me father

Nevertheles, there are a number of adjectives which appear post-nominally even when used attributively - general, public, martial. laureate

17. secretary general, attorney general, notary public, court martial, poet laureate

There are adjectives which, under specific conditions, appear post-nominally even when used attributively

18. The ships damaged by the strom were recovered yesterday.

Attributive adjectives have degrees of comparison, but only those which denote gradable properties. They can be modified by degree words (quite, rather). Adjectives that denote ungradable properties do not allow comparison or degree words.

19. (a) the most beautiful woman (b) It isn’t very hot. (c ) *He is very alive.

When the occur in a string preceding the noun they are arranged on a very strict order

a) adjectives modifying object-denoting nominalspossessives>cardinal>quality>size>shape>color>nation

20. a beautiful red Persian carpet / * a Persian beautiful red carpet

b) adjectives modifying event nominalspossessives>cardinal>ordinal>speaker-oriented>subject-oriented>manner>thematic21. his previous disgusting angry reaction to your demand Their future possible friendly cooperation

Adjectives may denote temporary or permanent properties, and depending on that they may appear in pre or post-modifying positions

22. the only navigable river (permanent property) / the responsible man (trustworthy) The only river navigable (transient property) / the man responsible (to blame)

Exclusively modifying adjectives

1) denominal adjectives derived from nound denoting substances

Eg. Wooden, leaden, golden23. a wooden bracelet / *The bracelet is wooden. (made of wood) A leaden coffin. / *The coffin is leaden. (made of lead) A golden ring / *The ring is golden. (made of gold)

If used in a figurative meaning, these adjectives may also be used predicatively

24. Her movements were wooden. (like wood) The sky was leaden. (the colour of lead) Her hair was golden. (the colour of gold)

2) adjectives which may have been derived from adverbs

Eg. Main, eventual, principal, utter, actual, favourite, former, mere, sole

25. The main purpose of his action has never been known. / *The purpose is main.

What we witnessed was an utter failure. /*The failure is utter. Don’t overestimate the actual importance of the act./ *The importance of the act is actual.

3) past participles which never occur in passive sentences (deprated, escaped)

26. The departed guests. /*The guests are departed. The escaped prisoner /*The prisoner is escaped

4) modal adjectives – alleged, potential, possibel

27. an alleged genius / *the genius was alleged

5)temporal adjectives – future, former, late, occasional, present, daily, monthly

28. the future wedding / *the wedding is future

6) manner adjectives (related to adverbs) – compulsive, big, frequent,

29. a compulsive eater / *the eater is compulsive

PREDICATIVE ADJECTIVES

They select internal arguments (like verbs) to which they assign theta roles. They generally subcategorize for PP, but the preposition is idiosyncratic, that is it cannot be predicted from the properties of the adjective. Some adjectives subcategorize for IP (infinitives) or CPs.

30. capable of decision; conversant with the subject; lacking in intelligence; dependent on his family; answearable to the Prime Minister

31. They were eager to succeed. He is ready to leave. She was happy that they had arrived. I am afraid that they will not manage.

They behave like verbs in a number of ways, but do not inflect for Tense and Agreement. They take a subjected hosted by [Spec,AP] and a complement to which they assign theta roles.This type of phrase is assumed to be a small clause

32. He became very angry with his sisters for their attitude.

IP

Spec I’

I0 VP

T V’

-ed V0 SC/AP

Become DP AP

He AvP A’

PP Very A’ For their Attitude A0 PP

Angry with his Sisters

Exclusively predicative adjectives

1)Adverb-like adjectives beginning with a-

Eg. Ablaze, afire, agog, aghast, afraid, asleep, akin, ajar, akimbo, alive, alike, alone, afloat, aware, awash, astir, askew, averse, ashamed

33. The whole building was ablaze. / *the ablaze building He was asleep. /*the asleep man The door was ajar. /*the ajar door

If the adjective is quantified it can be used as a modifying adjective.

34. a half-asleep student; a somewhat afraid student; a fully aware teacher

2) prepositional adjectives which can never appear as pre-nominal modifiers, which nevertheless appear in a post-modifying position

35. Young people are fond of pop music. Is your child subject to colds? This woman is prone to superstition. A child subject to so many colds should be carefully looked after.

Adjectives which appear in both positions

1) with distinct meanings

Eg. Heavy, hard, slow, frequent, traditionalist, occasional, possible, apparent

36. The march is slow. / A slow child The luggage is heavy. / A heavy smoker

2) both predicative and modifying in one meaning and only modifying in the other meaning

Eg. Civil, criminal, dramatic, atomic, chemical

37. She gave me a very civil answer. /Her answer was civil. He specializes in civil engineering / *The engineering is civil.

3) adjectives such as old, new, wrong – when characterizing the refernt directly they are used In both positions Eg. True, complete, perfect,sure,clean,firm,sheer,total

38. old/new furniture / The furniture is old/new

A wrong answer / The answer is wrong

- when not characterizing the referent directly they are used attributively

39. an old/new acquaintance The wrong person (wrongly identified)

ATTRIBUTIVE AND EQUATIVE (IDENTIFYING) COPULATIVE PREDICATION

a) Attributive – A is B 40. Mary is smart. Bobby is a fresher. The district is in a state of chaos. The problem is that he sould leave.

b) Equative – A=B41. The girl is John’s friend. He is Secretary of State. This girls is the most attractive of all.

The Nominal Predicative

a) Attributive – a shame, a pity, no wonder, no doubt It’s a pity that he should have left. - NPs without a determiner He is master of the situation. The woman was poor class. (of the poor class)

- very rarely definite NPs

White hats are the thing today.

SYNTAX OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE2ND YEAR ENGLISH MINOR Course instructor: Roxana-Cristina Petcu, PhD

ENGLISH SYNTAX SEMINAR (III) - THE COPULATIVE PREDICATION

I. Is copulative BE a raising verb? What are the features that copulative BE shares with the auxiliaries? What are the features that copulative BE does not share with the auxiliaries? What kind of complement does copulative BE subcategorize for?

II. Derive the sentences below:

1.The programme was open to criticism. 2.Life itself is form. 3. He is at peace with himself and with his environment.4. All work is noble. 5. The town was abuzz with excitement. 6.All those reporters are enthusiastic about the results. 7. Morality must be action. 8. Beauty is a joy forever. 9. These bills are chargeable to Bill. 10.She is at home in several foreign languages.

III. Are copula-like verbs raising verbs? What kind of complement do copula-like verbs subcategorize for? What features do copula-like verbs share with the copula BE and what features they don’t?

IV. Derive the sentences below:

1. Jack went red with anger. 2. The other child looked neglected. 3. He’ll make a good manager some day. 4. His fear turned into unreasoning panic. 5. The cake tasted sweet.

IV. What do the following copula-like verbs subcategorize for?

1. He’ll make a poor pop-singer. 2. His voice went hoarse with so much shouting.3.The results of these experiments will remain a secret as long as the researches are alive.4.The United States stands ready to take whatever military action is appropriate.5.In ten years’ time from now on he will make a good president.6.The air turned cold.7.The hose has fallen lame. 8. The house fell into decay. 9. He will turn traitor, you will see.10.The knot has come untied.11.He can grow tired of writing. 12. He’ll continue as manager of the company till the following elections. 13. The prospect of war loomed large in everybody’s minds. 14. Seawater tastes salty. 15. His fear turned into uncontrolled panic.

V. Discuss the properties of adjectives when used attributively and predicatively.Decide whether the adjectives below are exclusively modifying or exclusively predicative.Illustrate in sentences of your own.ENVIOUS, GENERAL, PUBLIC,ALIVE, ASHEMED, DAMAGED, WOODEN, MAIN, FAVOURITE, DEPARTED, ALLEGED, EAGER, FOND, HEAVY, CIVIL, OLD, GLAD.CURIOUS

VI. Arrange the pre-nominal adjectives as well as the noun modifiers in the most appropriate order in relation to the noun they modify:1.DISCUSSION long, boring, about the price of houses; 2. RESULT worse, rather; 3.VASE beautiful, tiny, glass, lime-green, 4.STUDENTS few, allergic to syntax; 5.DESCRIPTION of the painting,brief, following; 6. QUALITIES basic, human, certain; 7.ADVANCE technological, further; 8.PRINCE Russian, genuine, only; 9.HOUSE white, wooden, little, our; 10.DRESS lacy, pretty, black, my; 11. FREEDOM fast, diminishing, personal, degree of; 12. EYES her, frightened, blue,big; 13.OFFICER retired, army; 14.EQUIPMENT expensive, sophisticated; 14.CHILD well-behaved, intelligent, Romanian; 15.CARPET woolen, big,round,old,excellent,Persian,red.

VI. Distinguish between the instances of BE in the sentences below:1. He was at school with my sisters. 2. He was at school. 3. The tulips are out. 4. My mother is out.5.The Social Democrats are in. 6. My boss is in. 7. He is reading a new play. 8. The house has just been redecorated. 9. The soup is off. 10. We’re off. 11. He is at home in several foreign languages. 12. He is still at home. 13. I was surprised at/by the idea. 14. He is well -behaved. 15. I was being surprised by/*at your behaviour. 16.There’s the accident! 17.He is at table./ He is at the table.18.He is Secretary of State. 19.Vegetative reproduction is by fragmentation.20.It’s no use crying over the spilt milk.21.She is artist enough to find an original solution.22.Fur coats are the thing today.23.The funeral is tomorrow.24.Nobody is on the safe.25.There should be a lot of people there tomorrow.VII. Replace by BE-predicates and make all the necessary changes:1.I regret to say that. 2. I fear that I presume too much on your patience.3. They hope for a better life.4. The music pleased everybody. 6. These words express my intimate desire. 7. They support their wives in public. 8. The boat drifted for a month. 9. The waves washed the deck. 10. The bulbs glittered in the trees. 11. John resembles his brother. 12. Nobody touched the food. 13. His attitude provoked a disaster. 14. He doesn `t like to work hard. 15. She has always pursued her personal interests.

VIII. Consider the following subcategorization features and assign them to the copula-like verbs below; supply one illustrative context of your own for each feature that you associate with each verb:

Features: [-AP]; [-AP,PP]; [-NP]; [-PP]; [-PRT,PP]

Verbs: SMELL, GROW, GO, MAKE, STAND.

IX. Supply the copula-like verbs in the sentences below:1.His popularity may ......... eroded.2.Your zip has ......... undone.3.Lampposts .......... marooned on their concrete islands .4.The mail ....... scattered on the table.5.His eyes ......... black in anger.6.What kind of people ........ bandit? 7.His exploits .......... unsung. 8.The silk ........ soft and smooth.9.When that road ......... into disuse, nothing will be there anymore.10.You will ......... a lovely public figure. 11.Their case ……… unheard as far as the authorities were concerned. 12. His time of ten seconds ……….. unbeaten. 13. Unhinged by her death, he ………. ill. 14. Fashion has to change almost with the moon to ……………. fashionable.15. How did Socrates ………….. master of himself? 16. There are times when we are like horses, we …………. psychologists, we ………. restive. 17. When he ……….. very old, he told them a story he had heard in China. 18. Her relatives would have nothing to do with her. She ……. sick, poor and weak. 19.As he remarried, his son ……….. estranged. 20. Without what makes it full, the valley may ……….. dry. 21. He has such a sensitive face like Apollo ………….. fasting friar. 22. He did not seem to notice that Henry had ………….. silent. 23. Why had they all …… so quiet? 24. The nuclear weapons that had been stored in the cave had …….. loose, the cylinders had cracked. 25. He put in a word here before things ……….. heated. 26. The air around them ………….. awash with daylight. The sky ……….. something light and limitless. 27. Glands can ………… larger or smaller in response to use. 28. They may choose to ………. hungry rather than make another ten-mile track. 29. Perhaps if the population of that country had not been exposed to the whole terror of modern war, they would have ……………. permanently nonviolent. 30. Who can …….. muddy and yet, settling, slowly ……….. limpid. 31. And if I cease to desire and ………. still, they will be at peace of their own accord. 32. King`s Chapel …………. without peer. 33. Laws should not be allowed to ……… into contempt. 34. You can ………… young at heart. 35. How many positions have ………. vacant? 36. He is unhappy because he has ……… bald. 37. They have ……….. short of food. 38. Such crimes must not ……. unpunished. 39. Their achievement ………… unmatched to this day. 40. One can …….. lyrical on such a subject. 41. His plan to reform the system has ……… unstuck.42. Joblessness and school dropouts ……….. large among the problems I encountered. 43. A string may …….. unties. 44. The telephone …….. dead. 45. The material has ……….. thin. 46. The silk ……… soft and smooth. 47. She ……….. pretentious. 48. The machinery has ……… to rust. 49. They ………. for the richest family in the county. 50.These methods have gradually ……….. into disuse.

X. Fill in the necessary prepositions:

1. He was not ________ home in their world. 2. The table was ______ disarray. 3.The writing fit was ________ him again. 4.Crying was ______ the point. 6.The man was _______ his best behaviour at the party. 6.I am _______ films. 7.This is an unpopular measure whichever Administration is ____ power. 8.We are ________ fear of snow. 9.In many cities efforts were _______ way to raise funds. 10.Life was _______ standstill in New York yesterday. 11.You are _______ liberty to go. 12.The film hits him home; it`s right _____ target. 13.Their skill is _______ demand now. 14.Are you _____ good terms with yourself? 15.Can you say you are _________ no obligation to help? 16.He is always ________ a disadvantage in arguments.17. Are you _______ to it? 18.Our zone is ______ peace. 19.The call is ________ . 20.These clans are still _______ war. 21.We were ________ exclusion and discrimination.XI. Translate into English using BE+PP/PRT+(PP):1. Este o greşeală fără importanţă. 2. Rămăsese în urmă cu plata chiriei. 3. Ţi-e soarta în joc. 4. Copacii au înmugurit. 5. Se studiaza promovarea ta. 6. E la curent cu asta? 7. terenul acesta este cultivat cu cartofi. 8. Sunt încă la prima ceaşcă de ceai. 9. Nu are greutatea necesară. 10. Au ordin să tragă. 11. Face parte din personal de zece ani. 12. E încă în tratament. 13. E în curs o anchetă pe plan local. 14. Îmi pare rău, nu mai avem aceste vederi în stoc. 15. Nu-i vorbi când lucrează. 16. El a greşit. 17. Ai terminat cu călătoriile. 18. Vrea să-ţi ia slujba. 19. Probabil că are dureri mari. 20. Nici nu ai idee cu ce te pui.XII. Translate into English, paying attention to the copulative predications and also to all the a fi predicates:A. Copiii sunt veseli şi zgomotoşi. Ei au devenit cercetători. Noi suntem fericiţi de venirea prietenilor noştri. Mihai a ajuns al doilea la crosul de ieri. Obligaţia ta rămâne de a citi mereu câte puţin din cărţile din biblioteca tatălui tau. Tema este de scris. Azi nu arăţi prea bine. Vecinul meu este, în zilele de sâmbătă şi duminică, paznic la un deposit de materii prime. Ea a rămas, cun ştii şi tu foarte bine, generoasă şi amabilă. Problema este să ne prezentăm in corpore acolo. Toţi veţi deveni ceea ce v-aţi propus. Să renunţi acum înseamnă să-ţi recunoşti public neputinţa. Primăvara aceasta este timpurie.B. Era pe la 1601. Am fost la munte cu trenul. Cât e kilogramul de banane? Ce e când ţi se bate ochiul stâng? Ea este în camera de alături. Aparatul era construit de o echipă specială. Când a fost să pleci te-am ajutat. Numai cine nu socoate iubirea de ţară drept o datorie e în stare să se laude cu ea. Tu ai ajuns, conform previziunilor mele, pictor. Realizarea ta în acest domeniu înseamnă, în final, o mare recompensă. Fapta lui pare neînsemnată, dar va avea, sunt sigur, consecinţe cumplite. El se va face medic după ce va termina facultatea. Pe măsura ce învăţaţi deveniţi mai înţelepţi. C. Dorinţa noastră este să ne perfecţionăm. Visul ei a fost să se facă actriţă. El nu a devenit ceeace a visat. Colegul meu a ajuns ce a dorit mereu să fie, adica on de afaceri. Şcoala a rămas cum o ştii. Fiica prietenei mele cele mai bune s-a făcut ceea ce şi-au dorit părinţii să fie şi acum este cumplit de nemulţumită. Răspunsul tău înseamnă că nu ai înţeles nimic din ce am spus până acum sau nu ai fost deloc atent.Răsplata va fi după cum o meriţi. Cartea este a oricui ar dori s-o cumpere. Întrebarea este cine ca fi premiat la sfârşitul acestui concurs. Mâncarea-i cum îţi place ţie, nici prea caldă, nici prea rece, nici prea sărată, nici prea condimentată. Cum e mama e şi fiica.D. 1. Căci obiceiul era să se meargă cumva cu capul descoperit în cazul când el singur ar fi fost acoperit şi s-ar fi văzut că n-a mai intrat niciodată în asemenea local, iar lumea distinsă s-ar fi uitat zâmbind dispreţuitoare după el. Dacă dimpotrivă obiceiul ar fi fost ca să se meargă acoperit iar el ar fi intrat cu pălăria în mână, cu hainele roase şi lustruite, cu faţa de bolnav nerasă socoti că ar părea desigur acolo un comisionar care aută pe cineva şi gândul acesta îi răsucea nervii. (Camil Petrescu) 2. Poate că ofiţerul a înţeles că e mai bună afacerea pentru el să se facă la noapte că doarme decât să mai meargă până la Seltim, hărţuit mereu că se află într-o ţară străină, mai ales că nu se mai opera nici o barcă şi pe malul celălalt nu puteau să vorbească cu lopătarii . (Camil Petrescu) 3. N-am să-ţi dau răspuns la întrebările acestea căci ce voiesc eu e numai să deştept în mine sentimental că atunci când eram copil nu-mi dădeam seama despre ceea ce făceam. Mama era, ce-i drept, aspră, dar ei nu-I păsa de ceea ce făceam eu; vorba era numai să nu cad, să nu mă lovesc, să nu mă tai, să nu mă ard, să nu mă fac de ruşine . (Ioan Slavici) 4. Asta înseamnă că se apropie sfârşitul, se gândi bolnavul, şi pe portiţa gândului simţea cum se furişa în gol ameninţător o dâră de groază care totuşi părea că-I plăcută. (Liviu Rebreanu) 5. Dacă el îndrăznea, însemna că el ştia ceva care ei nu ştiau şi înfriguraţi să afle acest ceva nou şi nesăbuit care apăruse în mijlocul lor, lăsară căruţele fără pază şi începură să se apropie din toate părţile. (Marin Preda). 6. Când fu să plecăm, mă luă la o parte să mă previe să fiu faţă de soţul ei ca şi cum nu s-ar fi întâmplat nimic şi n-aş fi ştiut nimic, pentru că nici dânsul nu avea să-şi aducă aminte. (Mateiu Caragiale).

2ND YEAR MINOR – SYNTAX 1COURSE INSTRUCTOR: ROXANA-CRISTINA PETCU, PhD

THE INTRANSITIVE PREDICATION (ONE-ARGUMENT VERBS)

Traditionally, one-argument verbs minimally contain one NP, which generally appears in the subject position, but the main problem seems to be related to the position of that argument in the argument frame of the verb, so the problem is whether it is the external or the internal argument. The position of the argument has important consequences for the syntactic behaviour of the verb.One-argument verbs fall into two categories: a)unergatives and b)unaccusatives.Eg. A) He may protest. He overdosed. He complained.

The children are swimming. They were coughing because of the smoke. B) There arose an unfortunate misunderstanding. There came a cry of anguish from inside the house. There appeared a ghostly face at the window. In front of the house there stands a statue of the general. There have arisen several problems.

A) Unergatives Describe mainly volitional acts The subject has control over the action, it is the initiator of the event, it is an Agent The NP appearing with an unergative verb is its external argument Is is not possible to have an postverbal imperative subject with unergatives Eg. *Eat you up!

The past participles of unergative verbs cannot be used as adjectives in a post-head positionEg. *The man talked to was a neighbour of mine.

The past participles of unergatives cannot be used as an adjective in a pre-head positionEg, * The yawned student eventually fell asleep in class.

Unergatives evince the feature of atelicity, in other words they do not presuppose an end pointEg. The boys cried with laughter.

Unergatives allow a so-called cognate object, an object which copies the semantic features of the verb and which occupies the canonical position of the direct object, namely after the governing verb.Eg. They slept the sleep of the just. They died a heroic death. She dreamt a nice dream.

B) Unaccusatives The subject of unaccusatives undergoes a change of location or state and has no control

over the action The subject is not an Agent, it is generally assigned the theta-role Patient or Theme The unique argument of an unaccusative verb is the internal argument In Belfast English it is possible to have a postverbal imperative subject

Eg. Leave you now! Arrive you before 6! Be going you out of the door when he arrives!

The past participles of unaccusatives can be used as aadjectives in a post-head positionEg, The train arrived at platform 5 is the London Express. They arrested a businessman recently returned from Thailand.

The past participles of unaccusatives can be used as adjectives in a pre-head positionEg. He is some kind of a fallen hero.

Unaccusatives evince the feature of telicity, namely they presuppose an end point.Eg. The car had vanished from sight.

They do not allow a direct objectEg. *The prices decreased cheese.

UNERGATIVE VERBS

a) predicates describing willed or volitional acts: work, play, speak, talk, smile, grin, frown, grimace, think, mediate, cogitate, daydream, skate, ski, swim, hunt, bicycle,

walk, skip, jog, quarrel, fight, wrestle, box, agree, disagree, knock, bang, hammer, pray, weep, cry, kneel, bow, laugh, dance, crawl.

b) verbs denoting manners of speaking: whisper, shout, mumble, grumble, growl, bellow, etcc) predicates describing sounds made by animals: bark, neigh, quack, roar, chirp, oink, mew,

etcd) verbs denoting involuntary bodily processes: cough, sneeze, hiccough, belch, burp,

defecate, urinate, sleep, cry, weep, etc

Eg. They quarreled quite often. We sneezed a lot with hay fever. They ski in the Alps every year. She was weeping with joy at the ceremony.

UNACCUSATIVE VERBSA) burn, fall, drop, sink, float, slide, slip, glide, soar, flow, ooze, seep, trickle, drip, gush, hang,

dangle, sway, wave, tremble, shake, languish, flourish, thrive, drown, stumble, trip, roll, succomb, dry, boil, seethe, lie(involuntarily), sit(involuntarily), bend(involuntarily),

B) inchoatives (verbs showing a process resulting in a change of state) : melt, freeze, evaporate, redden, darken, yellow, rot, decompose, germinate, sprout, bud, wilt, wither, increase, decrease, blush, explode, die, perish, choke, suffocate, scatter, disperse, vanish, disappear

C) verbs of existing and happening: exist, occur, happen, result, take placeD) aspectual predicates: begin, start, stop, cease, continue, end, etcE) duratives: last, remain, stay, survive, etcF) verbs denoting a non-voluntary emission of stimuli that has an impact on the senses: shine,

sparkle, glitter, glow, jingle, clink, clang, snap, crackle, pop, smell, stink, etcG) verbs of existence: blaze, bubble, cling, coexist, correspond, decay, depend, drift, dwell,

elapse, emanate, exist, fester, float, flow, fly, grow, hide, hover, live, loom, lurk, overspread, persist, predominate, prevail, project, protrude, revolve, reside, rise, shelter, settle, smoulder, spread, stream, survive, sweep, swing, tower, wind

H) verbs of appearance: accumulate, appear, arise, awake, awaken, break, burst, dawn, derive, develop, emerge, ensure, evolve, exude, flow, follow, gush, happen, issue, materialize, occur, plop, spill, steal, stem, supervene, surge

Remark: the basic meaning of the verbs in the last two categories may not be that of

existence or appearance, but, when used in the there-insertion construction, they will

show this sense.

Different D-structures

Unergatives : NP [VP V]

Unaccusatives: _ [VP V NP]

Unergatives Unaccusatives

VP VP

NP V’ V’

V0 V0

NP

This D-structure is in accordance with the case-assigning properties of the two classes of

verbs. Following Burzio’s generalization, a verb which lacks an external argument, that is

does not assign an external theta role also fails to assign Accusative case.Therefore, the

internal argument of unaccusatives has to move out of the VP internal position in order to

be assigned case. On the contrary, unergatives, which have an external argument, can

assign Accusative case under specific conditions.

Eg. He dreamt a nice dream.

TESTS FOR UNERGATIVITY/UNACCUSATIVITY

A. There-insertion Only unaccusatives (with the exception of verbs of change of state) and passive verbs can occur in the there-insertion construction, unergatives are not allowed in this construction.

Eg. A problem developed. /There developed a problem. A ship appeared in the horizon. / There appeared a ship in the horizon. A woman lodged at Mrs Brown’s. / *There lodged a woman at Mrs Brown’s

Oiled soared in price. / *There soared in price.Eg, (passive predicates) There was found in this cave an ancient treasure. There was glued a poster on this wall.Eg. (unergatives) *There sneezed a man. *There broke out a fire. *There spoke a man in a loud voice.Eg. (change of state) *On the line there are drying a lot of clothes. *There melted a lot of snow on the streets of the city.

1.The there-insertion construction which diagnoses unaccusativity

There V NP PP Eg. There remained three men in the room. There followed a wave of indignation in the newspapers. Throughout the 19th century there stood an ugly statue of the last king on the palace lawn. There dangles a magnificent chandelier from the ceiling.

This construction simply postulates the existence of some entity and it may contain no locative information. The existential there used in this construction is just a presentative construction, which does not necessarily locate in space. There is devoid of meaning, it is an expletive element. The internal argument of the verb must be [-agentive], it cannot have any control over the action denoted by the verb. Such sentences usually express ‘coming into being’. (There began a riot. / *There ended a riot). Not all unaccusatives allow the there-insertion construction. It is mainly verbs of existence(the state resulting from the appearance of some entity) and verbs of appearance (come into existence), which share the idea of existence. They also require a location argument, be it overt or implicit, which means that these verbs have two internal arguments – one describing the entity that exist (Theme) and the other one describing the location at which the entity exists (the location argument).Such verbs lack a causative variant.

Eg. *He appeared a cat at the door. *They remained three men in the room.

There occupies the subject position, [Spec, IP] so the internal argument of the unaccusative verb can remain in situ, inheriting case from there, with which it forms a chain <there i, NPi>. It inverts with the auxiliary in question formation (Were there many children in the yard?)

There are unaccusatives derived from basically two argument-verbs causative predicates which become intransitive and do not allow the there-insertion construction.The causative component of the predicate disallows the there-insertion construction.

Eg. The glass broke./ He broke the glass *There broke the glass.

The structure of There-sentences

1. The Small clause analysis

Existential BE – interpreted as an unaccusative verb, a raising verb, just like the copula

There is a student in the room.

IP

I’

I0 VP

T V’ -s V0 SC BE A student in the room

Because of the Case Filter and the EPP, either the subject of the SC moves to [Spec,IP] or the expletive there is inserted.

2. The VP adjunct analysis

The PP is an adjunct adjoined to V’ and there is assumed to be present at D-structure.

IP

There I’

I0 VP T V’

-s V’ PP In the room V0 DP

BE a student

3. The VP Shell analysis

Starting from the analysis of exemples such as The light blinded him. or His attitude saddened me., in which it obvious that a second causative predicate is involed, this predicate being in fact an affixal verb, overt (-en) or non-overt (ø) it is assumed that the VP shell comprises two different projections: (a) an outer νp shell headed by a light verb and (b) an inner VP shell headed by the lexical verb. The light verb ν is an abstract, affixal verb which introduces the idea of agentivity for unergative and transitive verbs and the idea of eventivity for unaccusative verbs. Adjectives and verbs attach to this affix. The assumption is that the subject of unergatives and transitives originates in [Spec, νp], namely the spec position of the light verb, as the subject of the agentive light verb, while the subject of unaccusatives originates in the [Spec, VP], namely in the specifier position of the lexical verb.The lexical verb raises from V0 to ν0 to merge with this feature.

Eg. A cry of anguish came from inside the house. There came a cry of anguish from inside the house. IP IP

I’ I’

I0 νp I0 νp

ν ‘ there ν ‘

ν0 VP ν0 VP

DP V’ DP V’ A cry of a cry of Anguish anguish V0 PP V0 PP Came from came from Inside the inside the House house

2. The second type of there-insertion construction

There V PP NP

This construction need not be related to unaccusatives. There is a long list of verbs that can occur in this construction. There in this construction carries a clear locative meaning. Eg. A little boy darted into the room. / There darted into the room a little boy.

Verbs that can occur in this construction: amble, climb, crawl, creep, dance, dart, flee, float, fly, gallop, head, hobble, hop, hurtle, jump, leap, march, plod, prance, ride, roam, roll, run, rush, sail, shuffle, skip, speed, stagger, stray, stride, strut, swim, trot, trudge, walk.

3.Definiteness

Definite NPs, proper names and pronouns cannot normally be used as subjects of the there-insertion constructions.

Eg. *There is every student of mine in the room. *There is John in the garden. * There was him waiting for Mary.

Indefinites are allowed as subjects in there-insertion constructions, while the postverbal NP had to denote a discourse referent that is new to the hearer.

Eg. There were flies in the room. There remained a boy in the room.

Nevertheless, there may be other situations when not only indefinites are allowed as subjects of a there-insertion construction:

Partitives (headed by indefinite determiners)Eg. There remained many of the same students at both seminars.

Definite NPs - they are allowed as subjects of the there-insertion construction if and only iff they denote discourse referent that is new to the hearer. Eg. There was the mother of a student in the office. There was the smell of liquor on his breath.

Definite NPs which denote kindsEg. There were those kinds of books at the library. There was every flavour of ice for tasting.

There was that kind of book listed in the catalog. (The underlined NP does not necessarily refer to a unique object, it refers to a kind of objects, so it cannot be replaced by the pronoun it as an anaphoric expression - *However, it was checked out).

Definite NPs if the noun is modified by an AP, a PP or a clause:Eg, There weren’t the doctors to staff the clinic. There is her future to consider. There has arisen the important problem of their social status.

Definite NPs in an enumeration/listEg. Q: What else is there in that drawer? A: There’s the rubber, the red pencil, and the writing paper. Q: Who can we ask? A: There’s Ann, or Mike, or Pete.

Remark: such definite NPs are allowed only it the truth of their existential assertion is presupposed.

4. The Predicate Restriction

There-insertion is allowed only with stage-level predicates, namely predicates which refer

to unique, individual events. There-insertion is not compatible with generic

interpretations.

Eg. There was a man sick. / *There was a man tall. There are three pigs loose. / *There are three pigs stupid. The set of sentences on the left refer to two unique, individual events – one person who was sick at some point in time or three pigs who are loose at some point in time, whereas the set of sentences on the right have generic interpretations, referring to the inherent qualities of the subjects (being tall or being stupid).

Conclusion There has no meaning of its own It is a semantically empty element, required for structural reasons – it fills the subject

position Its presence in the sentence is dependent of the presence of its associate, the postverbal

NP, which must be indefinite

B. Intransitives and Locative Inversion

It is a non-canonical construction in which the the surface subject stays inside the VP and the sentence initial position is occupied by a locative PP.It is a construction in which only unaccusatives can appear, unergatives and transitives are ungrammatical. The most frequently used verbs are underived unaccusatives, namely verbs of appearance and verbs of existence as well as verbs denoting position in space. Derived unaccusatives denoting a definite change of state cannot be used in this configuration

(locative) PP V NP

Eg. 1. On our left was the Mediterranean. 2. On the table sat a nervous cat. 3. Out of nowhere appeared a mysterious figure.

Eg. *In the dining-room drank John a glass of wine. * In the hall talked many people. *On the top floor opened many windows.

Nevertheless, some unergatives can also be used in this configuration, namely verbs of manner of motion and verbs of emission.

Eg. Around them chattered and sang many girls. Up the stairs bounded the President

C. The Resultative Construction

A resultative phrase is a phrase that denotes the state achieved by the NP argument of the verb as a result of the action denoted by the verb. Such a phrase can be predicated only of the immediately postverbal NP, namely the internal argument of the verb. In other words, only those verbs that have an internal argument are compatible with Resultative phrases.

Eg. The river froze [solid]. The door slid [open]. John laughed [himself sick]. The horse galloped [himself lame].

Unergatives and resultative phrases Unergatives have no internal argument, so theoretically they should not allow resultative

constructions.

Eg. *John laughed sick. *She shouted hoarse.

In order to allow a resultative phrase, a fake reflexive object is added. Eg, John laughed himself sick. She shouted herself hoarse.

It is also possible to have a resultative phrase with an unergative in case the post verbal NP is not the argument of the unergative.Eg. The dog barked him awake. You may sleep the baby quiet again.Obviously, the postverbal NP is not the argument of the unergative, as the sentences below show it. This NP is not subcategorized for by the verb. *The dog barked him. *You may sleep the baby.

In case the possessor and the subject of the verb are co-referential.Eg. Mike cried [his eyes out]. Mary had better sleep [her wrinkles away].

Such sentences are incorrect if the resultative phrase is left out. *Mike cries his eyes. *Mary had better sleep her wrinkles.

Unaccusatives and resultative phrases

Unaccusatives have only an internal argument in their argument structure, so they cannot take any surface object. The resultative phrase can only refer to the internal argument of the unaccusative verb, which, at the level of the surface structure, appears in the subject position.

Only derived telic unaccusatives are the ones that allow a resultative construction Verbs belonging to the arrive class, which are telic, but underived (they do not have a

transitive causative counterpart) do not allow this construction (advance, arrive, ascend, come,depart, descend, enter, escape,exit,fall, flee,go,leave,plunge,return, rise, etc)

Eg, The prisoners froze [to death] The bottle broke [open]. The gate swung [shut]. The curtain rolled [open on the court of the queen].

Eg. *She arrived tired.*The convict escaped exhausted.*She fell broken to pieces.

Unaccusatives do not occur in sentences with Resultatives phrases predicated of non-argumental NPs, unlike unergatives that appear in such constructions.

Eg. *The log rolled [its bark off]. / The log rolled off. *The cart rolled [the rubber off its wheels]. The two NPs which appear in a postverbal position are not arguments of the unaccusative verbs, they are not subcategorized for by the verb, so they cannot enter a resultative phrase.

Unaccusatives can appear with resultative phrases without the mediation of a fake reflexiveEg. * The water froze itself solid.

D. Intransitives and Past Participles

Generally speaking, the past participle of an unaccusative can be used as a noun modifier, both pre and post-nominally, while the past participle of unergatives cannot.

Eg. A fallen leaf; vanished civilizations *walked man, *slept children, *a worked man

Nevertheless, not all unaccusatives appear in a pre or post-nominal modifying position.

Eg. *A man lived in Paris, *an existed solution (atelic verbs)

The past participle of unaccusative describing atelic situations is incompatible with this position. Telic unaccusatives are compatible with this construction.Atelic unaccusatives – verbs of appearance, verbs of disappearance, verbs of inherently directed motion, verbs denoting an internally caused change of state.Telic unaccusatives fall into two categories: firstly (a) verbs depicting a change of state which can be interpreted as a property (eg. Fallen leaves, blistered feet) and which are freely used as noun modifiers, and secondly(b) verbs depicting a change of location or of place (?a fallen child) which are less felicitous as noun modifiers.

2ND YEAR MINOR – SYNTAX 1COURSE INSTRUCTOR: ROXANA-CRISTINA PETCU, PhD

ENGLISH SYNTAX - THE INTRANSITIVE PREDICATION (II)

Phrasal intransitives

They are lexically complex verbs, made up of a verb and an Adverbial Particle. They evince a high degree of idiomaticity. The transition from V AdvP to V Prt is made by a subgroup of verbs that combine freely with a number of particles, mostly directional ones. Eg. Puff across – move across sending out smoke and/or panting noisily Zoom across/along/away – move across, etc swiftly with engine roaring

Eg. The rain came down. It is an unaccusative phrasal verb, and if we resort to the VP-shell analysis, the d-structure representation of the sentence is the following.

IP

I’

I0 νp

ν ‘

ν0 VP

DP V’

The rain V0 Prt

Came down

The Particles with the strongest meaning are the locative or directional ones. They preserve a high degree of independence which is confirmed by their possible Preposing for emphasis purposes.

Eg. The balloon went up. / Up went the balloon.

IP

I’

I0 νp

ν ‘

ν0 VP

DP V’ The balloon V0 Prt Go up

With unaccusative verbs the [Spec, νp] position is a non-thematic position, so the particle can move to that position and later on to [Spec,IP] which is also a non-thematic position with such verbs.

Aspectual particles refer to the temporal dimension of the event. They may render a variety of meanings:a) the incipient character of the event – out, in, off eg. They set out to win support for their cause. A hostile reaction has set in. The cars set off in a cloud of dust.b) the durative aspect – on, away (they indicate the continuation of the event) Most verbs combine freely with on. Eg. Speak / work / walk on Away is more limited contextually. Eg. He was working away.

She was laughing / muttering/ grumbling away.c) the terminative aspect – out, away, through, off, up Eg. This custom has died out. He passed away quietly at midnight. We must clean up after the party. There’s planty for every one. So, eat up!

The particle up may be used to indicate intensification of the action. Eg. The runners are warming up before the race. Cheer up!

The contribution of the particle to the global meaning of the verb may be null, in other words a new meaning is created as a result of the combination. The meaning of the phrasal verb no longer is a sum total of the meanings of the two components, namely the verb and the particle, but a totally new meaning is now associated with the resulting phrasal verb. Eg. Come round (regain consciousness) Do up (be fastened) Give in (yield) Get along (manage) Get by (survive) Turn up (appear)

The Syntactic behavioura) insertion of adverbial modifiers such as right and straight with contexts where the particle has a locative or directional meaning. Eg. The prices came right down when people started buying elsewhere.b) optionality of the particle where the particle reinforces the basic meaning of the verb Eg, climb (up); fly (up); go (away)c) nominalizations – the Verb Particle complex turn into a noun Eg. Break-in; make-up; sit-in; take-off; flypast; splashdown

These nominalizations occur in two possible sentence patterns:1) with a general activity verb (do, stage, make, take, have) followed by the nominalized form functioning as direct object Eg. The actor is doing his make-up for the part of Othello. A gang of thieves did a break-in last night. The runners are having a quick warm-up before the race. Building workers staged a walk-out.2) an existential BE sentence, where the nominalized form appears in a postverbal position, while the position of the subject is filled by the expletive THERE. Eg. There was a break-in last night. There was a walk-out during the morning.

d) preposing – stylistic device which applies for emphatic purposes. It applies where the particle does not form a unit with the verb. It means that the subject remains in post verbal position, while the particle moves before the verb. If the subject is an NP it can sometimes move in [Spec, vp]. If the subject is a pronoun, it always moves in [Spec, vp]. Eg. Down came the prices. Off came the actor’s fake beard. Down the snow came. In the sun went. Down they came.

Down the snow came.

IP

I’

I0 νp

ν ‘

ν0 VP

DP V’ The snow V0 Prt Come down

Inherent reflexivesThere are a number of verbs which are inherently reflexives. The reflexive is specified as an inherent feature by the Lexicon. Some of these verbs can subcategorize for a prepositional object.

Eg. Absent oneself; bestir oneself; perjure oneself Avail oneself of something; pride oneself on something

Complex intransitives

Complex intransitives are two-argument verbs, which have an external argument and an internal argument which is not a direct object, but it generally is a prepositional object or and adverbial modifier.

1.Prepositional intransitives

Prepositional intransitives are not a homogeneous class, due to various factors such as:

a) the meaning contribution of the prepositionb) some are not passivizable, as different from the greatest number of prepositional

intransitivesc) the degree of idiomaticity

Examples:1. A gang of thieves broke into her house last night. He glanced through the article quickly. In the examples above, the preposition retains part of its meaning.

2. Adverbs of time or manner (carefully, easily, frequently) can be inserted between the verb and the prepositional phrase. We will go very carefully into these proposals. If the combination is idiomatic, it is no longer possible. She gets at her husband frequently. / *She gets frequently at her husband.

3. Passivization – it is possible for some, but impossible for some others. The main points were run through briefly. If the prepositional object is part of an idiomatic phrase, passivization is blocked. He has fallen into disrepute recently. / *Disrepute had been fallen into recently.

Passivization of the prepositional object is possible for unergatives, and unacceptable for unaccusatives.

Intransitives with Particle and Preposition

This class includes verbs that subcategorize for a fixed particle and a fixed preposition followed by its object.

Eg. They had done away with that piece of legislation. The family came up against fresh problems.

Look forward to; put up with, scrape along on (a low salary) Some collocation allow deletion of the prepositional object: Eg. The boat went aground (on the shore) In between the particle and the preposition an adverb of manner may be inserted: Eg. They had done away reluctantly with that piece of legislation.

If the preposition is not deletable, passivization can apply: Eg. Those interruptions were not put up with cheerfully.

Intransitives with a Prepositional Indirect Object

Eventive verbs, experiencer verbs and relational verbs subcategorize foe an indirect object headed by the preposition to. Eventive – happen, befall – the Dative NP expresses the experiencer or victim of the event Eg. What’s happened to the old man? A great misfortune has befallen the old man (the deletion of the preposition to is obligatory)Experiencer – seem, appear, occur, sound, taste Eg. How does it seem to you? It has never occurred to her to ask herself that question. The cake tastes funny to me.

Relational a) general relational verbs indicating possession – belong, possess

Eg. It belongs to me.b) relations of inferiority – bow to smb, cringe to/before smb, defer to smd/smth, submit to

smd, yield to smth Eg. The girl bowed to the audience. I shall always defer to my taste / to his experience.

As the prepositional object is generally an experiencer, it not possible to passivize any of the verbs in these categories.

Intransitives with two Prepositional Objects

a) V to about/upon/for Eg. He lectures to undergraduates on the Elizabethan theatre. You should appologize to Mary for your bahaviour.

Most of them allow passivization, and even have two passive counterparts. Eg. We will have to speak to the tutor about the matter. The tutor will have to be spoken to about the matter. The matter will have to be spoken about.

b) argue, discuss, quarrel with [+human] about smth Eg, He was arguing with his wife about the matter. (NO passive)

Intransitives with Adverbial modifiers

a) with locative and directional AdvP

- lie, be, remain, sit, stand – locative phrase Eg. A book is on the table. / There is a book on the table. Romania lies in Europe.- directional phrase – and Adverbial phrase denoting the departure point, the destination point, the path or the itinerary Eg.I have been to Brasov. (destination) Eg. Go (away, fro,, to, towards, off) Arrive (at, in)

Come (to, from) Travel (from, to, through) Swim (across) Run (along)

NO passive

b) with adverbial phrases of time

- last The show lasted (for) two hours.

NO passive

c) with manner adverbials- act, behave eg. He acted well. He has always behaved decently.

NO passive

Intransitives with Quantifying Adverbs

- cost, weigh, owe (NO Passive)

Eg. The dress cost $100. The apples weigh one pound. - a dative pattern eg. I owe him $200. The new car cost him $ 2000.

Reciprocal intransitives Eg. The train and the bus collided. The train collided with the bus.

TO – add, attach, correspond, join, relate WITH – agree, associate, combine, collide, confer, connect, coincide, disagree, overlap FROM – differ, distinguish, part, separate

(NO Passive

SYNTAX OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE2ND YEAR ENGLISH MINOR Course instructor: Roxana-Cristina Petcu, PhD

ENGLISH SYNTAX SEMINAR (IV) - THE INTRANSITIVE PREDICATIONI. Decide whether the verbs in the sentences below are unergatives or unaccusatives:1. The car had vanished from sight. 2. No other creature can fly as fast, or for as long as birds.3. My hopes collapsed. 4. They work very hard.5. The soldier’s face reddened with anger. 6. The bells were clanging. 7. Dogs bark. 8. The child burped after eating. 9. A cluster of stars glowed above us. 10. When I saw them they were dancing with joy. 11. All the water has evaporated. 12. He was suffocating with indignation. 13. When I last met him, he was meditating on a difficult question. 14. The lake has already dried up. 15. A dim glow of light emanated from the room.II. Why are the sentences below (un)grammatical?1.*Eat you up! 2.*Always laugh you at his joke! 3. Arrive you before six! 4. Several facts recently come to light point to his guilt. 5.*The thief stolen the jewels was never captured. 6. He is a changed man. 7. *The overdosed man was John Smith. 8. He spoke an unforgettable speech. 9. They fought the most important battle in their lives.10. *A ghost appeared me. 11. *Several major problems have arisen John.

III. Account for the grammaticality/ungrammaticality of the there-insertion in the sentences below: 1. There has never been such an opposition.2. There remains nothing to be done.3.*Karen appeared a striking appearance at the party. 4.?? There darted a little boy in the room. 5. *There thawed the snow in the early spring. 6. *There banged a man at the door. 7. There floated logs down the river. 8. *There is John in the garden. 9. There was the air of a soldier about him.10. There is that type of student in the class. 11. There was a person of that sort at the party. 12. There is her past to consider. 13. *There was a basketball player tall in those days. 14. *There is a kind of dinosaur widespread.15. Q: What’s on the table? A: There is the plate, the fork and the knife. 16. There was Ann. 17. There weren’t the sailors to man the ship. 18. There were tires in short supply. 19. There appeared only Mary at the party. 20.There strutted a man into the room.IV. Discuss the grammaticality/ungrammaticality of the following NPs:Tarnished metal, an existed solution, fallen leaves, a trembled student, capsized boat, withered plants, an already occurred event, a sparkled diamond, a gushed fountain, a bubbled stew, dried clothes.V. What type of surface Subject do the verbs below select?TASTE, EXIST, BREATHE, BLOOM, BARK, CHIRP, RAIN, HAPPEN, LIE, LIVE, SUFFER, JUMP, CURDLE, NEIGH, WITHER, EMERGE, SEEMVI. Translate the following into English using there-insertion:1. Masa aceasta are un capăt. 2. Există un oarecare adevar în asta.3. Sunt puţini cei care se încadrează în aceste criterii.4. Este loc pentru toată lumea. 5. Trebuie luaţi în consideraţie trei factori.6. Nu-mi mai rămâne nici o altă cale. 7. Se pare că mătorul are ceva. 8. Din întâmplare a mai rămas doar un exemplar. 9.În faţa trăsurii călărea un bărbar superb. 10. In toată ţara există un anume număr de clădiri asemănătoare. 11. Vine cineva la cină? Da, este vorba despre un vecin nou, prietenul său şi directorul şcolii.VII.Identify the intransitive subtypes in the sentences below;derive sentences 3, 5, 8, 11, 12. 1. His eyes glimmered, his lips quivered. 2. It is raining.3. We went away frequently. 4. The seconds ticked by. 5. They toiled away in silence till dawn. 6. Their tradtions are dying out.7. The neighbourhood has gone down recently. 8. They went through with the marriage despite their parents’ opposition. 9. We can look up to many people. 10. He can bestir himself to answer the phone. 11. They acted responsibly.12. The interruptions must have lasted a week. 13. Some trees live for hundreds of years. 14. They live in a small flat. 15. It weighs two pounds. 16. His estate totals twenty square miles. 17. He beamed at everyone. 18. Some opted for the solution. 19. The house belongs to him. 20. The two buses collided on a country lane. / Bus 31 and bus 34 collided yesterday. / Bus 31 collided with bus 34 yesterday. 21.She complained to me about his rudeness to spare your feelings. 22. His record weighed against him with the jury. 23.The lansmarks serve as signposts for an invisible mesh of trackways. 24. He emerged as a leader at the age of 40. 25. He looks at your as another son.VIII. Identify the transformations that occurred in the sentences below:1. Down came all the scales.2. The baloon came right up.3. He has been talked to on several occasions. 4. This has been talked about before.5. We talked for an hour. 6. Up he went.7. The workers staged a sit-in two weeks ago. 8. The police oraganized a round-up of all suspects last night. IX. Supply subcategorization frames for the verbs below:DIFFER, STAND, FALL, GO, RUN, OCCUR, DRIZZLE, DART, ABSENT, DEAL, COME, BEHAVE, SULK, RESIDE, DWELL, PANTX. Which of the sentences below containing instances of locative inversion are grammatical and which are ungrammatical?1.On the line are drying a lot of towels. 2. In a little white house lived two rabbits.3.To their left, beyond a strip of glass, was the front of a large high building in grey stone.4.Above then pranced the horses on the frieze.5. On her finger sparkled a magnificent diamond.XI. Passivize the sentences below:1. A gang of thieves broke into the house last night. 2. He glanced through the article quickly. 3. We will go very carefully into these proposals. 4. We ran through the main points. 5. They had done away with that piece of legislation. 6. They are looking forward to their voyage.7. The speaker did not put up with the interruptions so cheerfully. 8. They agreed with him on the matter. 9. You should not look down on such people. 10. They discussed the matter and put forth their proposals.XII. Fill in the appropriate item and specify if it is a Preposition or a Particle:1. She was _________ a strange spell. 2. The waiter has run ________ our bill. 3. Xandra seems to look ________ some of her schoolmates. 4. The horse was being galloped _________ the slope. 5. Alice fell __________ a trance. 6. The indigo horizon is penciled _______ _________ silver.7. Why do you kick ______ this comfortable chair? 8. Will the crystals break ________ a peal of bells? 9. The tiger’s fur was spotted __________ yellowish brown. 10. My parents have frowned ______ ma decision. 11. She looked ________ at the tables standing ________ . 12. The kid was crying ______ pain.XIII. Translate into English:

A. 1. A strigat până a răguşit.2. A plâns până a adormit. 3. Lacul a îngheţat de tot. 4. Adesea se încuie pe dinafară. 5. Beţivul a căzut dar a reuşit să se redreseze. 6. A râs până i s-a făcut rău.7. A tot mers până a obosit. 8. Câinele a lătrat până l-a trezit din somn. 9. A plâns de i-au ieşit ochii din cap. 10. A dormit până i-a trecut mahmureala. 11. Soldaţii lui Napoleon au murit îngheţaţi în Siberia. 12. Calul a galopat până a început să schiopăteze. 13. Apa a îngheţat bocnă. 14. Uşa s-a rotit şi s-a deschis. 15. Poarta s-a bălăngănit până s-a închis.B. 1. În ce abunda lacul? 2. Cui s-au predat? 3. Merge pe treizecu de ani. 4. Vasul nu mai supoartă schimbări. 5. Conta pe faptul că va fi transferat în India. 6. Clubul asigură satisfacerea preocupărilor celor tineri. 7. Mulţimea vocifera împotriva deciziei nedrepte. 8. Se agăţă de creangă. 9. M-a atacat ca o tigroaică. 10. Tînjea după pace şi linişte. 11. Soarele apăru în sfîrşit. 12. Vinul s-aterminat înainte de sfârşitul recepţiei. 13. A trebuit să suportăm mult zgomot cînd părinţii lor au fost plecaţi de acasă. 14. N-are rost să lăsăm lucrurile să se adune. 15. Era posibil să apară probe noi. 16. Vocea nu era la înălţimea înfăţişării. 17. Te dai în vânt după sărutatul mâinii? 18. Ar fi cazul să vorbească cineva în favoarea conceptului de cinste şi onoare. 19. Nu pot da ânapoi de la ce am zis. 20. De ce parte eşti? 21. Ce valori aperi? 22. Aştepta să primească noi instrucţiuni. 23. Mai redu din porţia de dulciuri, ai să faci diabet. 24.Doctorul i-a recomandat să elimine grăsimile ca să nu mai facă iar o criză de inimă. 25. Ieri la şedinţă a prezentat căteva propuneri. 26. Să trecem la următoarea chestiune. 27. Ţipa cât îl ţineau plămânii. 28. A trecut luna pe cer. 29. Ploaia a ţinut trei zile. 30. Oile tocmai urcau la stâna şi baciul venera agale pe lângă ele.