Lecture 6Lecture 6

The Phenomenon of StressThe Phenomenon of Stress

Metical Principles and Metical Principles and ParametersParameters

Syllable ProminenceSyllable Prominence

Some words can be pronounced in one of two ways:Some words can be pronounced in one of two ways:NounsNouns VerbsVerbsININcreasecrease ininCREASCREASeeCONCONtesttest conconTESTTESTCONCONtrasttrast conconTRASTTRASTIMIMplantplant imimPLANTPLANT

Grammatical difference goes hand in hand with a Grammatical difference goes hand in hand with a difference in location of the word’s highest difference in location of the word’s highest prominence.prominence.

The prominence in question is what we call STRESS.The prominence in question is what we call STRESS. Thus, one of the syllables of each English word is Thus, one of the syllables of each English word is

singled out as the stress carrier.singled out as the stress carrier.

Word ProminenceWord Prominence

One of two words in a sequence is One of two words in a sequence is more prominent than the other:more prominent than the other:time time FLIESFLIES TIMETIME-flies-flies

A hierarchical structure is A hierarchical structure is superimposed on syllables and words.superimposed on syllables and words.

This is functionally analogous to the This is functionally analogous to the prosodic structure that gathers prosodic structure that gathers segments into syllables.segments into syllables.

Metrical GridsMetrical Grids

The metical grid is the formal notation for the The metical grid is the formal notation for the representation of the prosodic structure and representation of the prosodic structure and consequently for stress:consequently for stress:a.a. ** b.b. * * Stress lineStress line

* ** * * * * * BaselineBaseline(to) implant(to) implant (an) implant(an) implant

** ** Stress lineStress line** * * ** ** BaselineBaselinetime fliestime flies time-fliestime-flies

BaselineBaseline

In the baseline, all and only the In the baseline, all and only the segments that qualify to bear stress segments that qualify to bear stress are marked with an asterisk.are marked with an asterisk.

Those are normally the syllable Those are normally the syllable heads.heads.

The syllable head constitutes the The syllable head constitutes the core of the syllable; it is its sonority core of the syllable; it is its sonority peak.peak.

Stress lineStress line

In contrast to the stress potential In contrast to the stress potential formalized by the baseline, the stress formalized by the baseline, the stress line signals the actual presence of line signals the actual presence of stress on an element.stress on an element.

Stress can be interpreted as the Stress can be interpreted as the projection of certain syllable heads projection of certain syllable heads onto a higher structural level.onto a higher structural level.

Stress MovementStress Movement

In English double names, the second name is more In English double names, the second name is more prominent:prominent: ** Stress line 1Stress line 1 * ** * BaselineBaselineSue AnnSue Ann

When a surname follows, main stress falls on the When a surname follows, main stress falls on the right-most item. However, of the preceding two, the right-most item. However, of the preceding two, the first is now more prominent:first is now more prominent:

** Stress line 2Stress line 2 ** * * Stress line 1Stress line 1 ** * ** * BaselineBaselineSue Ann CookSue Ann Cook

Why?Why?

ClashClash

What would the grid structure look like if What would the grid structure look like if AnnAnn, rather than , rather than SueSue, had a line 1 mark?, had a line 1 mark? ** Stress line 2Stress line 2 ** * * Stress line 1Stress line 1 ** * * * * BaselineBaselineSue Ann CookSue Ann Cook

This grid contains a This grid contains a stress clashstress clash. There are . There are two adjacent asterisks on stress line 1 that two adjacent asterisks on stress line 1 that are not separated by an asterisk in the are not separated by an asterisk in the immediately lower level.immediately lower level.

The Rhythm RuleThe Rhythm Rule

English, among other languages, strongly resists clash.English, among other languages, strongly resists clash. A stress clash is usually resolved by movement:A stress clash is usually resolved by movement:

** Stress line 2Stress line 2 ** * * Stress line 1Stress line 1 * * ** * * BaselineBaselineSue Ann CookSue Ann Cook

Stress movement of this kind is generally seen as a result Stress movement of this kind is generally seen as a result of the Rhythm Rule:of the Rhythm Rule:

** ** ** **** ** ** ** ** **

The The left-mostleft-most of the clashing asterisks moves back by one of the clashing asterisks moves back by one position.position.

RetractionRetraction

Stress retraction is impelled by clash:Stress retraction is impelled by clash: ** Stress line 1Stress line 1* ** * BaselineBaselineantiqueantique

** * * Stress Stress line 2line 2

** * * * * * * Stress Stress line 1line 1

* ** * * * * ** * * * BaselineBaselineantique chairantique chair antique chairantique chair

Retraction FailuresRetraction Failures

Phrases like Phrases like antique chairantique chair, with stress , with stress retraction, strikingly contrast with retraction, strikingly contrast with compounds like compounds like antique dealerantique dealer, with no , with no retraction in spite of the clash:retraction in spite of the clash:

** Stress line 2Stress line 2

** * * Stress line 1Stress line 1

* ** * * * * * BaselineBaseline

antique dealerantique dealer Why?Why?

GapGap

Notice what will happen if Notice what will happen if antiqueantique underwent underwent stress retraction in the compound stress retraction in the compound antique antique dealerdealer:: ** * * Stress line 2Stress line 2

** * * * * * * Stress line 1Stress line 1

* ** * * * * * * ** * * * * * BaselineBaseline

antique dealerantique dealer antique dealerantique dealer The retraction created a gap in the asterisk The retraction created a gap in the asterisk

column on column on titi..

Continuous Column Continuous Column ConstraintConstraint

Metrical grid columns must be Metrical grid columns must be continuous; they cannot have gaps.continuous; they cannot have gaps.

This requirement is formulated in the This requirement is formulated in the universal Continuous Column Constraint:universal Continuous Column Constraint:Continuous Column ConstraintContinuous Column ConstraintMetrical grid columns must be Metrical grid columns must be continuous.continuous.

This justifies the retraction failure in This justifies the retraction failure in antique dealerantique dealer..

Retraction FailuresRetraction Failures

Stress clash also persists in Stress clash also persists in constructions like constructions like sports contestsports contest::

** Stress line 2Stress line 2

** * * Stress line 1Stress line 1

** * * * * BaselineBaseline

sports contestsports contest Why?Why?

MovementMovement

Stress movement could be carried out in Stress movement could be carried out in contestcontest without contravening the Continuous Column without contravening the Continuous Column Constraint:Constraint:

** Stress line 2Stress line 2 ** ** Stress line 1Stress line 1 ** * * * * BaselineBaselinesports contestsports contest

The output of this operation is, however, The output of this operation is, however, illegitimate in English, where the Rhythm Rule illegitimate in English, where the Rhythm Rule only implements only implements leftwardleftward movement. movement.

Evidence for StressEvidence for Stress/t/ weakening/t/ weakening

Consider the following forms:Consider the following forms:(a)(a) (b)(b) (c)(c)ccuuttingtting mmaasterystery attattaiainnwwaiaitingting aafterfter retretoortrt[[]/[]/[]] [[]] [[]]

Two conditions for /t/ weakening:Two conditions for /t/ weakening:-- intervocalicintervocalic-- a stressless following vowela stressless following vowel

tt or or / [-consonantal] _____ [- / [-consonantal] _____ [-consonantal]consonantal]condition: the second [-consonantal] does not condition: the second [-consonantal] does not support a gird columnsupport a gird column

Evidence for StressEvidence for Stress AspirationAspiration

Consider the following forms: the voiceless Consider the following forms: the voiceless stops in A and B are aspirated, but they are stops in A and B are aspirated, but they are not in C and D:not in C and D:

AA BB CC DDttoonene appappeendnd ststoonene tomtomaatotokkiinn ententaiaill skskiinn cancanooee

English voiceless stops are aspirated when English voiceless stops are aspirated when initial in a initial in a stressedstressed syllable. syllable.

SoSo

There is a hierarchy of prominence There is a hierarchy of prominence among syllables in words and among among syllables in words and among words in compounds and phrases.words in compounds and phrases.

This prominence hierarchy is This prominence hierarchy is grounded in rhythm.grounded in rhythm.

The drive to preserve rhythm can The drive to preserve rhythm can induce stress movement.induce stress movement.

Stress on the EdgeStress on the Edge

We saw that in English phrasal We saw that in English phrasal collocations main stress falls on the collocations main stress falls on the right, whereas in binary compounds the right, whereas in binary compounds the greatest prominence tends to be on the greatest prominence tends to be on the left.left.

This cross-linguistic tendency is This cross-linguistic tendency is formalized as follows:formalized as follows:END STRESSEND STRESSProject the right-most/left-most asteriskProject the right-most/left-most asterisk

Phrasal CollocationsPhrasal Collocations

Phrasal stress can be assigned by applying End Phrasal stress can be assigned by applying End Stress in its “right-most” setting:Stress in its “right-most” setting:

** Stress line 1Stress line 1* ** * * ** * BaselineBaselinetime flies time flies time flies time flies

End Stress [End Stress [RightRight]]

The last baseline asterisk projects onto the newly The last baseline asterisk projects onto the newly created line 1.created line 1.

The resulting grid appropriately expresses the The resulting grid appropriately expresses the fact that fact that fliesflies has greater prominence than has greater prominence than timetime..

CompoundsCompounds

Applying the same procedure to the Applying the same procedure to the compound compound time-fliestime-flies produces an produces an identical output.identical output.

Such an output is unattested, Such an output is unattested, however, since we know that the first however, since we know that the first word is more prominent in word is more prominent in compounds.compounds.

We need to introduce some change We need to introduce some change in the procedure.in the procedure.

Multiple Settings?Multiple Settings?

One possible way to get the correct stress in One possible way to get the correct stress in compounds would simply be to switch the setting of compounds would simply be to switch the setting of End Stress:End Stress:

** Stress line 1Stress line 1* ** * * ** * BaselineBaselinetime-flies time-flies time-flies time-flies

End Stress [Left]End Stress [Left]

This procedure is rejected on the grounds that it This procedure is rejected on the grounds that it requires requires multiple settingsmultiple settings for the same parameter for the same parameter in a single language.in a single language.

ExtrametricalityExtrametricality

An alternative procedure, consistent with An alternative procedure, consistent with the “right-most” setting of End Stress the “right-most” setting of End Stress involves concealing the right-most involves concealing the right-most asterisk.asterisk.

The device known as Extrametricality The device known as Extrametricality excludes the element it acts upon from the excludes the element it acts upon from the computations in the metrical grid:computations in the metrical grid:Extrametricality:Extrametricality:Mark the right-most/left-most asterisk Mark the right-most/left-most asterisk extrametrical.extrametrical.(* (* <*>) <*>)

PeripheralityPeripherality

Extrametrical behaviour has been Extrametrical behaviour has been found to be associated with found to be associated with peripheral elements.peripheral elements.

This is formalized as follows:This is formalized as follows:

Peripherality ConditionPeripherality Condition

Only peripheral elements can be Only peripheral elements can be extrametrical.extrametrical.

Compounds and Compounds and ExtrametricalityExtrametricality

So far, extrametricality is only relevant to So far, extrametricality is only relevant to compound structures:compound structures:

* ** * * <*>* <*> BaselineBaselinetime-flies time-flies time-flies time-flies

ExtrametricalityExtrametricality The output includes only one baseline asterisk:The output includes only one baseline asterisk:

** Stress line 1Stress line 1* <*>* <*> * <*>* <*> BaselineBaselinetime-flies time-flies time-flies time-flies

End Stress [Right]End Stress [Right] The action of End Stress [Right] places the main The action of End Stress [Right] places the main

stress in the correct position.stress in the correct position.

OrderingOrdering

The last baseline asterisk in compounds is a The last baseline asterisk in compounds is a potential target for both:potential target for both:

-- End Stress [Right] andEnd Stress [Right] and-- Extrametricality [Right]Extrametricality [Right]

Unless Extrametricality applies first, a formally Unless Extrametricality applies first, a formally ambiguous output is created:ambiguous output is created:

** ** Stress line 1Stress line 1 ** * * * * <*> * * * * <*> BaselineBaselinetime-flies time-flies time-flies time-flies time-flies time-flies End Stress [Right]End Stress [Right] ExtrametricalityExtrametricality Therefore, the interaction between the two Therefore, the interaction between the two

procedures needs to be regulated.procedures needs to be regulated.

Extrinsic OrderingExtrinsic Ordering

We could simply stipulate that We could simply stipulate that Extrametricality applies before End Extrametricality applies before End Stress.Stress.

However, this is an example of the However, this is an example of the disfavoured Extrinsic Ordering, in disfavoured Extrinsic Ordering, in which the order of rules is stipulated which the order of rules is stipulated by the analyst instead of being by the analyst instead of being derived from universal principles.derived from universal principles.

Restricted EnvironmentRestricted Environment

The two rules function as follows:The two rules function as follows:End StressEnd Stress ExtrametricalityExtrametricality

InputInput right-most asterisk right-most asterisk right-most asteriskright-most asterisk

EffectEffect projectproject mark extrametricalmark extrametrical

EnvironmentEnvironment no contextno context compoundscompounds

The environment of Extrametricality is The environment of Extrametricality is more restricted than that of End more restricted than that of End Stress.Stress.

Elsewhere ConditionElsewhere Condition

The Elsewhere Condition, which is active throughout The Elsewhere Condition, which is active throughout phonology, regulates the application of the two rules:phonology, regulates the application of the two rules:Elsewhere ConditionElsewhere ConditionGiven two rules such that:Given two rules such that:(i)(i) their inputs are identicaltheir inputs are identical(ii)(ii) their outputs are incompatibletheir outputs are incompatible(iii)(iii) the environment of one rule is the same as the the environment of one rule is the same as the environment of the other rule plus something extraenvironment of the other rule plus something extrathen, the rule with the richer environment is ordered then, the rule with the richer environment is ordered first, and, if it does apply, the other rule is skipped.first, and, if it does apply, the other rule is skipped.

As a consequence of the Elsewhere Condition, As a consequence of the Elsewhere Condition, Extrametricality applies before End Stress.Extrametricality applies before End Stress.

English NounsEnglish Nouns

Consider the following two groups of Consider the following two groups of forms:forms:

ccíínemanema aspaspááragusragus

éélephantlephant metammetamóórphosisrphosis

ccúústomerstomer hippophippopóótamustamus English noun stress is English noun stress is

antepenultimate.antepenultimate.

Metrical ProceduresMetrical Procedures

Can we achieve this antepenultimate Can we achieve this antepenultimate stress using the metrical procedures stress using the metrical procedures available at present?available at present?

** Stress Stress line 1line 1

* * * * ** * * * * * * * *<*> * * * *<*> * * * *<*> * * * *<*> BaselineBaseline

hippopotamus hippopotamus hippopotamus hippopotamus hippopotamus hippopotamus

The output *hippopotThe output *hippopotáámus does not mus does not match the correct pattern.match the correct pattern.

RhythmRhythm

English is one of those languages that English is one of those languages that favour stress in alternate syllables:favour stress in alternate syllables:

lláá la la lláá la la lláá la la ((SS - W) - W) Other languages may achieve this Other languages may achieve this

alternating rhythm differently:alternating rhythm differently:

la la lláá la la lláá la la lláá (W - (W - SS)) Languages with alternating stress employ Languages with alternating stress employ

one of these two opposite metrical one of these two opposite metrical patterns.patterns.

The Metrical FootThe Metrical Foot

The pairing of (S - W) or (W - S) syllables is formally The pairing of (S - W) or (W - S) syllables is formally called a FOOT.called a FOOT.

Binarity can be a property of metrical feet, where each Binarity can be a property of metrical feet, where each is made up of precisely two elements (syllables).is made up of precisely two elements (syllables).

The strong element in the foot is the Head.The strong element in the foot is the Head. So, our metrical machinery is augmented with:So, our metrical machinery is augmented with:

** Stress line 1Stress line 1-- left-headed foot = (S W)left-headed foot = (S W) (* *)(* *) BaselineBaseline

** Stress line 1Stress line 1-- right-headed foot = (W S)right-headed foot = (W S) (* *)(* *) BaselineBaseline

The location of the foot head is indicated by means of The location of the foot head is indicated by means of an asterisk in line 1.an asterisk in line 1.

Main Word Stress in EnglishMain Word Stress in English

English noun stress algorithm:English noun stress algorithm:a.a. Mark the last element extrametricalMark the last element extrametricalb.b. Build a left-headed foot at the right Build a left-headed foot at the right

edgeedge ** Stress Stress

line 1line 1* * * * * * * * * * * *<*> * (* *<*> * (** *)<*> *)<*> BaselineBaselineasparagus asparagus asparagus asparagus asp aspaaragus ragus

(a)(a) (b) (b) As a result of these two steps, main stress As a result of these two steps, main stress

is correctly assigned to the syllable is correctly assigned to the syllable ppaa..

Verbs and AdjectivesVerbs and Adjectives

The English noun stress algorithm works well for The English noun stress algorithm works well for both nouns and suffixed adjectives (mboth nouns and suffixed adjectives (méédicine - dicine - medmedíícinal).cinal).

However, it does not yield the correct stress pattern However, it does not yield the correct stress pattern for verbs and unsuffixed adjectives (devfor verbs and unsuffixed adjectives (devéélop - lop - implimplíícit):cit):

** Stress line 1Stress line 1* * * * *<*> (* *)<*>* * * * *<*> (* *)<*> BaselineBaseline

implicit implicit implicit implicit implicit implicit (a)(a) (b) (b)

The output *The output *íímplicit does not match the correct mplicit does not match the correct pattern.pattern.

Restricting ExtrametricalityRestricting Extrametricality

To get the correct stress pattern for verbs and To get the correct stress pattern for verbs and unsuffixed adjectives, extrametricality should be unsuffixed adjectives, extrametricality should be suppressed:suppressed:

** Stress line 1Stress line 1

* * ** * * * (* *)* (* *) BaselineBaseline

implicitimplicit implicitimplicitFootingFooting

Restricting extrametricality to nouns justifies the Restricting extrametricality to nouns justifies the difference of stress patterns in English verbs and difference of stress patterns in English verbs and nouns.nouns.

Unreduced VowelsUnreduced Vowels

The procedure developed so far yields one The procedure developed so far yields one (left-headed) foot per word.(left-headed) foot per word.

This could be interpreted as one stressed This could be interpreted as one stressed syllable per word.syllable per word.

We know that unstressed short vowels in We know that unstressed short vowels in English undergo reduction.English undergo reduction.

However, there are some words with more However, there are some words with more than one unreduced vowel (hthan one unreduced vowel (hiippopppopootamus).tamus).

The fact that short vowels surface unreduced The fact that short vowels surface unreduced suggests that they are stressed.suggests that they are stressed.

Rhythm and Multiple StressRhythm and Multiple Stress

The unreduced vowels are located at equal The unreduced vowels are located at equal intervals to the left of the vowel stressed intervals to the left of the vowel stressed by the algorithm:by the algorithm:hhaamammameelidlidáánthemumnthemum

The basic rhythm of English involves an The basic rhythm of English involves an alternation of strong and weak elements alternation of strong and weak elements throughout the word, not just at the right throughout the word, not just at the right edge.edge.

This means that foot construction must This means that foot construction must sweep across the whole word.sweep across the whole word.

Multiple Foot ConstructionMultiple Foot Construction

* * * * * * <*>* * * * * * <*> baselinebaseline

h a m a m e l i d h a m a m e l i d a a n t h e m u m n t h e m u m footingfooting ** Stress line 1Stress line 1

* * * * (* *) <*>* * * * (* *) <*> baselinebaseline

h a m a m e l i d h a m a m e l i d aa n t h e m u m n t h e m u m footingfooting ** ** Stress line 1Stress line 1

* * (* *) (* *) <*>* * (* *) (* *) <*> baselinebaseline

h a m a m h a m a m ee l i d l i d aa n t h e m u m n t h e m u m footingfooting ** ** ** Stress line 1Stress line 1

(* *) (* *)(* *) <*>(* *) (* *)(* *) <*> baselinebaseline

h h aa m a m m a m ee l i d l i d aa n t h e m u mn t h e m u m

Secondary StressesSecondary Stresses

Foot construction iterates from right-to-left.Foot construction iterates from right-to-left. As a result, a number of syllables end up supporting As a result, a number of syllables end up supporting

foot heads.foot heads. Therefore, their vowels do not reduce.Therefore, their vowels do not reduce. These additional peaks of prominence are referred to These additional peaks of prominence are referred to

as Secondary Stresses.as Secondary Stresses. Hence, the foot construction rule is modified as Hence, the foot construction rule is modified as

follows:follows:b’.b’. Build left-headed feet iteratively from right to Build left-headed feet iteratively from right to leftleft

(The direction of footing needs to be stipulated (The direction of footing needs to be stipulated language by language.)language by language.)

Word HeadednessWord Headedness

We have a number of left-headed We have a number of left-headed feet in (hfeet in (haama)(mma)(meeli)(dli)(daanthe)<mum>.nthe)<mum>.

We know intuitively that stress on We know intuitively that stress on ddaann is the strongest. is the strongest.

But, there is no structural difference But, there is no structural difference between this syllable and the two between this syllable and the two other foot heads: other foot heads: hhaa and and mmee..

Word HeadednessWord Headedness

To make up for this shortfall, we submit the final To make up for this shortfall, we submit the final footing output to End Stress [Right]:footing output to End Stress [Right]:

** Stress line 2Stress line 2

** ** * * Stress line 1Stress line 1

(* *) (* *)(* *) <*>(* *) (* *)(* *) <*> BaselineBaseline

h h aa m a m m a m ee l i d l i d aa n t h e m u mn t h e m u m The head of the metrical word shows up as the The head of the metrical word shows up as the

word’s main stress, and the heads of the word’s main stress, and the heads of the remaining feet as secondary stresses.remaining feet as secondary stresses.

Summing upSumming up

A limited set of universal principles and parameters can account for A limited set of universal principles and parameters can account for the apparently varied and unpredictable stress patterns of English.the apparently varied and unpredictable stress patterns of English.

Marking an element extrametrical accounts for contrasting stress Marking an element extrametrical accounts for contrasting stress patterns, while maintaining a single setting for the End Stress rule.patterns, while maintaining a single setting for the End Stress rule.

Extrametricality is controlled by the Peripherality Condition.Extrametricality is controlled by the Peripherality Condition. Introducing the Foot as a level of analysis allows for assigning Introducing the Foot as a level of analysis allows for assigning

correct stress patterns in words made up of more than two correct stress patterns in words made up of more than two syllables.syllables.

Metrical feet are further substantiated by the alternating patterns Metrical feet are further substantiated by the alternating patterns of stressed and unstressed syllables.of stressed and unstressed syllables.

The inventory of metrical parameters includes:The inventory of metrical parameters includes:- the location of the foot’s head,the location of the foot’s head,- the direction of foot construction,the direction of foot construction,- the presence and edge setting of extrametricality, andthe presence and edge setting of extrametricality, and- the edge setting of End Stress.the edge setting of End Stress.

Next WeekNext WeekChapters 13 and 14Chapters 13 and 14

Assignment:Assignment:

Key QuestionsKey Questions

(pages 379 and 406)(pages 379 and 406)