Lecture 9Lecture 9SemanticsSemantics

The Analysis of MeaningThe Analysis of Meaning

SemanticsSemantics

There is more to language than just There is more to language than just form.form.

In order for language to fulfil its In order for language to fulfil its communicative function, utterances communicative function, utterances must convey a message.must convey a message.

We can call this message (or content) We can call this message (or content) the utterance’s meaning.the utterance’s meaning.

The study of meaning in human The study of meaning in human language is language is SemanticsSemantics..

The Nature of MeaningThe Nature of Meaning

What is the nature of What is the nature of meaningmeaning?? This question has always been considered central This question has always been considered central

to philosophy.to philosophy. More recently, it has come to be important to More recently, it has come to be important to

psychology as well.psychology as well. Contributions to semantics have come form a Contributions to semantics have come form a

diverse group of scholars and disciplines.diverse group of scholars and disciplines.What has this research revealed about What has this research revealed about meaningmeaning??

Answering this question requires considering Answering this question requires considering some of the basic analytic notions used in some of the basic analytic notions used in evaluating meaning of words and sentences.evaluating meaning of words and sentences.

Semantic RelationsSemantic RelationsWordsWords

By virtue of their meaning, words By virtue of their meaning, words and phrases are able to enter into a and phrases are able to enter into a variety of semantic relations with variety of semantic relations with other words and phrases in the other words and phrases in the language.language.

These relationships help identify These relationships help identify those aspects of meaning relevant to those aspects of meaning relevant to linguistic analysis.linguistic analysis.

SynonymySynonymy

Synonyms are words or expressions that have the same Synonyms are words or expressions that have the same meaning in some (or all) contexts:meaning in some (or all) contexts:

beginbegin startstartrememberremember recallrecallpurchasepurchase buybuyvacationvacation holidaysholidaysbigbig largelarge

These are synonyms, but there are contexts where their These are synonyms, but there are contexts where their meanings may diverge:meanings may diverge:

Bank Bank holidaysholidays are not necessarily part of one’s are not necessarily part of one’s vacationvacation..

Many linguists believe that it would be inefficient for a Many linguists believe that it would be inefficient for a language to have two words whose meanings are absolutely language to have two words whose meanings are absolutely identical in all contexts.identical in all contexts.

Therefore, complete (total) synonyms are rare or non-existent.Therefore, complete (total) synonyms are rare or non-existent.

Context and SynonymyContext and Synonymy

Linguistic studies of synonymy have always Linguistic studies of synonymy have always emphasized the importance of context in deciding emphasized the importance of context in deciding whether or not a set of lexical items is whether or not a set of lexical items is synonymous:synonymous:

The items The items rangerange, , selectionselection, , choicechoice, …, … are synonyms are synonyms in a context like:in a context like:

What a nice --- of flowersWhat a nice --- of flowers,,but they are not in a context like:but they are not in a context like:

His --- of knowledge is enormous.His --- of knowledge is enormous.Only Only rangerange can be used along with a different set of can be used along with a different set of

synonyms like synonyms like breadthbreadth, for example., for example.

AntonymyAntonymy

Antonyms are words or phrases that are opposites Antonyms are words or phrases that are opposites with respect to some component of their meaning:with respect to some component of their meaning:

darkdark lightlightboyboy girlgirlhothot coldcoldupup downdowncomecome gogo

They contrast with respect to at least one They contrast with respect to at least one component of their meaning:component of their meaning:

The meanings of The meanings of boyboy and and girlgirl are opposites are opposites with with respect to respect to gendergender, but they are alike with , but they are alike with respect to respect to speciesspecies (both are human). (both are human).

PolysemyPolysemy

Polysemy occurs when a word has two or more Polysemy occurs when a word has two or more relatedrelated meanings: meanings:

brightbright shiningshining oror intelligentintelligentdepositdeposit moneymoney or or mineralsminerals The ease with which words acquire additional The ease with which words acquire additional

related meanings allows language to accommodate related meanings allows language to accommodate the new concepts and perspectives that the new concepts and perspectives that accompany technological and cultural changes:accompany technological and cultural changes:SurfersSurfers are not only found are not only found on the ocean waveon the ocean wave but but also also on the Webon the Web..

HomonymyHomonymy

Homonymy exists when a single form has Homonymy exists when a single form has two or more two or more entirely distinctentirely distinct meanings: meanings:

bankbankfinancial institutionfinancial institution oror edge of a riveredge of a riverpenpenwriting instrumentwriting instrument oror small cagesmall cage It is assumed that there are two or more It is assumed that there are two or more

separate words with the same separate words with the same pronunciation rather than a single word pronunciation rather than a single word with different meanings.with different meanings.

Polysemy or HomonymyPolysemy or Homonymy

A theoretical problem for the linguist is how A theoretical problem for the linguist is how to distinguish Polysemy from Homonymy,to distinguish Polysemy from Homonymy,

(one form, several meanings) or(one form, several meanings) or

(two items, the same phonological form).(two items, the same phonological form). One suggested criterion is the closeness of One suggested criterion is the closeness of

the relationship between the meanings:the relationship between the meanings:

plainplain clear, unadorned,clear, unadorned,

planeplane carpenter’s tool, aeroplanecarpenter’s tool, aeroplane

Semantic RelationsSemantic RelationsSentencesSentences

Like words, sentences have meanings Like words, sentences have meanings that can be analyzed in terms of their that can be analyzed in terms of their relation to other meanings.relation to other meanings.

We will consider three such relations:We will consider three such relations:

ParaphraseParaphrase

EntailmentEntailment

ContradictionContradiction

ParaphraseParaphrase

Two (or more) sentences that have the Two (or more) sentences that have the same meaning are said to be same meaning are said to be paraphrasesparaphrases of each other: of each other:The dog is eating the bone.The dog is eating the bone.

The bone is being eaten by the dog.The bone is being eaten by the dog.

It is the dog that is eating the bone.It is the dog that is eating the bone. Sentences whose meanings are close to Sentences whose meanings are close to

each other are said to have the same each other are said to have the same truth conditionstruth conditions..

EmphasisEmphasis

Is this enough to justify saying that the Is this enough to justify saying that the two sentences have the same meanings?two sentences have the same meanings?

There are subtle differences in emphasis:There are subtle differences in emphasis:The dog is eating the bone.The dog is eating the bone.a statement about what the dog is doinga statement about what the dog is doing

The bone is being eaten by the dog.The bone is being eaten by the dog.a statement about what is happening to the bonea statement about what is happening to the bone

Languages do not permit two or more Languages do not permit two or more structures to have absolutely identical structures to have absolutely identical meanings.meanings.

Therefore, paraphrases are never perfect.Therefore, paraphrases are never perfect.

EntailmentEntailment

It is a relation in which the truth of one sentence It is a relation in which the truth of one sentence necessarily implies the truth of another.necessarily implies the truth of another.

In a paraphrase, the entailment relation between the In a paraphrase, the entailment relation between the pair of sentences is pair of sentences is mutualmutual (the truth of either (the truth of either guarantees the truth of the other).guarantees the truth of the other).

In some cases, entailment is said to be In some cases, entailment is said to be asymmetrical:asymmetrical:

I can see a horse.I can see a horse.I can see an animal.I can see an animal.

The first sentence entails the second one because The first sentence entails the second one because seeing a horse means seeing an animal. However, seeing a horse means seeing an animal. However, the reverse does not follow as seeing an animal may the reverse does not follow as seeing an animal may mean seeing a horse, a dog, a cat, an elephant, … mean seeing a horse, a dog, a cat, an elephant, …

ContradictionContradiction

It is a semantic relation between It is a semantic relation between sentences which display a type of sentences which display a type of oppositeness in meaning:oppositeness in meaning:

Charles is a bachelor.Charles is a bachelor.

Charles is married.Charles is married. When two sentences cannot both be When two sentences cannot both be

true, we say that there is a true, we say that there is a contradictioncontradiction..

What is Meaning?What is Meaning?

It is relatively easy to determine whether It is relatively easy to determine whether two words or sentences have identical or two words or sentences have identical or different meanings.different meanings.

However, it is much more difficult to However, it is much more difficult to determine precisely what meaning is.determine precisely what meaning is.

What do we know about the nature of What do we know about the nature of meaning?meaning?

How is that represented in the human How is that represented in the human mind?mind?

ConnotationConnotation

Connotation is the set of associations that a word’s Connotation is the set of associations that a word’s use can evoke (bring to mind):use can evoke (bring to mind):For Canadians, the word For Canadians, the word winterwinter evokes thoughts of: evokes thoughts of: snow, bitter cold, long nights, and the like.snow, bitter cold, long nights, and the like.

These associations make up the word’s These associations make up the word’s connotation, but they cannot be its (entire) connotation, but they cannot be its (entire) meaning:meaning:The word The word winterwinter is used for the season (December is used for the season (December to March) even if none of the above is experienced.to March) even if none of the above is experienced.

Therefore, we must look beyond connotation for Therefore, we must look beyond connotation for our understanding of what meaning is.our understanding of what meaning is.

DenotationDenotation

Denotation (referents) is the set of Denotation (referents) is the set of entities to which a linguistic unit (a entities to which a linguistic unit (a word) refers.word) refers.

The denotation of the word The denotation of the word summersummer corresponds to the season between corresponds to the season between spring and autumn (regardless of spring and autumn (regardless of whether or not it is hot and unpleasant).whether or not it is hot and unpleasant).

One approach to semantics attempts to One approach to semantics attempts to equate meaning with denotation.equate meaning with denotation.

ButBut

A word’s denotation is not always one and A word’s denotation is not always one and the same thing:the same thing:

A word like A word like unicornunicorn and a phrase like and a phrase like the present king the present king of Franceof France have no referents in the real world, but have no referents in the real world, but they cannot be classified as meaningless.they cannot be classified as meaningless.

Two distinct expressions can have the same Two distinct expressions can have the same referent:referent:

The Prime Minister of the United KingdomThe Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Tony BlairTony Blairthe leader of the Labour Partythe leader of the Labour Party Tony BlairTony BlairAlthough they have the same referent, it is wrong to Although they have the same referent, it is wrong to

say they mean the same thing.say they mean the same thing.

Extension and IntensionExtension and Intension

The impossibility of equating an element’s The impossibility of equating an element’s meaning with its referents has led to a distinction meaning with its referents has led to a distinction between between extensionextension and and intensionintension..

An expression’s extension is a set of entities it An expression’s extension is a set of entities it picks out in the world.picks out in the world.

An expression’s intension is its inherent sense, An expression’s intension is its inherent sense, the concepts it evokes.the concepts it evokes.

Prime Minister of the UKPrime Minister of the UKExtensionExtension individual (Tony Blair)individual (Tony Blair)IntensionIntension concept (leader of the governing concept (leader of the governing party)party)

Extension and IntensionExtension and Intension

The distinction between intension and extension The distinction between intension and extension does not resolve the question of what meaning is.does not resolve the question of what meaning is.

It permits posing it in a new way:It permits posing it in a new way:Intensions correspond to mental images.Intensions correspond to mental images.As an improvement over the referential theory, it is As an improvement over the referential theory, it is

now possible to have a mental image of a unicorn now possible to have a mental image of a unicorn although there is no such entity in the real world.although there is no such entity in the real world.

However, if the meaning corresponds to a mental However, if the meaning corresponds to a mental image, an image of the word image, an image of the word dogdog would have to be would have to be general enough to include the different sizes, general enough to include the different sizes, shapes, and colours, yet still exclude foxes and shapes, and colours, yet still exclude foxes and wolves.wolves.

Componential AnalysisComponential Analysis

Componential analysis, another Componential analysis, another approach to meaning, represents a approach to meaning, represents a word’s intension by braking it down into word’s intension by braking it down into smaller semantic components smaller semantic components (features):(features):

manman boyboy womanwoman girlgirl

+human+human +human+human +human+human +human+human

+male+male +male+male -male-male -male-male

+adult+adult -adult-adult +adult+adult -adult-adult

Componential AnalysisComponential Analysis

However, there are limits on the insights into However, there are limits on the insights into word meaning offered by componential word meaning offered by componential analysis:analysis:

-Do we say that the meaning of -Do we say that the meaning of blueblue consists consists of the feature [+colour] and something else?of the feature [+colour] and something else?

-If so, what is that other thing?-If so, what is that other thing?

-Is it -Is it bluenessblueness??

-If so, then we still have not broken the -If so, then we still have not broken the meaning of meaning of blueblue into smaller components. into smaller components.

Meaning and ConceptsMeaning and Concepts

Now, what can we say about meaning?Now, what can we say about meaning? Meaning must be something that exists in the Meaning must be something that exists in the

mind rather than the world.mind rather than the world.It must be more abstract than pictures.It must be more abstract than pictures.There is more to it than just features.There is more to it than just features.

Therefore, other approaches to semantics try to Therefore, other approaches to semantics try to relate relate meaningmeaning to mental to mental conceptsconcepts..

Concepts do not have to correspond to Concepts do not have to correspond to objectsobjects, , imagesimages, or sets of , or sets of featuresfeatures..

However, equating meaning of linguistic forms However, equating meaning of linguistic forms with concepts in the mind requires determining with concepts in the mind requires determining what a concept is.what a concept is.

The Conceptual SystemThe Conceptual System

Underlying the use of words and sentences Underlying the use of words and sentences to express meaning in human language is a to express meaning in human language is a conceptual system.conceptual system.

This conceptual system is capable of This conceptual system is capable of organizing and classifying all aspects of our organizing and classifying all aspects of our life:life:inner feelings and perceptions,inner feelings and perceptions,cultural and social phenomena,cultural and social phenomena,the physical world that surrounds us,the physical world that surrounds us,……

Fuzzy ConceptsFuzzy Concepts

Do concepts, expressed by words and phrases of Do concepts, expressed by words and phrases of our language, have precise definitions, clear-cut our language, have precise definitions, clear-cut boundaries?boundaries?

Consider the concept associated with the word Consider the concept associated with the word richrich !!How much does one have to own to be called How much does one have to own to be called richrich ??

This is a This is a fuzzy conceptfuzzy concept.. Many linguists believe that this type of fuzziness Many linguists believe that this type of fuzziness

pervades the human conceptual system:pervades the human conceptual system:tall, old, clever, strong, fast, clean, genius, …tall, old, clever, strong, fast, clean, genius, …

Graded MembershipGraded Membership

Concept members can be graded in terms of their Concept members can be graded in terms of their typicality typicality ::

The concept ‘bird’The concept ‘bird’PrototypicalPrototypical >>>> … … >>>> Least typicalLeast typicalSparrowsSparrows >>>> PigeonsPigeons >>>> PenguinsPenguins Fuzzy concepts and graded membership provide Fuzzy concepts and graded membership provide

important insights into the nature of the human important insights into the nature of the human conceptual system.conceptual system.

There are no clear-cut boundaries, or all-or-nothing There are no clear-cut boundaries, or all-or-nothing notions.notions.

Concepts recognize degrees of typicality and fuzzy Concepts recognize degrees of typicality and fuzzy boundaries that make categorization uncertain in boundaries that make categorization uncertain in some cases.some cases.

LexicalizationLexicalization

There is no reason to believe that human beings, in There is no reason to believe that human beings, in different linguistic communities have different different linguistic communities have different conceptual systems.conceptual systems.

But, do all languages express concepts in the same But, do all languages express concepts in the same way?way?

No, they don’t:No, they don’t:EnglishEnglish SpanishSpanishrolledrolled entrentróó … rodando … rodando motion & mannermotion & manner

‘‘entered rolling’entered rolling’moved-downmoved-down bajbajóó motion & pathmotion & path

‘…’‘…’

GrammaticalizationGrammaticalization

Some concepts are expressed by affixes and non-Some concepts are expressed by affixes and non-lexical (functional) categories.lexical (functional) categories.

These are said to have been These are said to have been grammaticalizedgrammaticalized::ConceptConcept Affix, Non-lexical categoryAffix, Non-lexical categoryPastPast -ed-edMore than oneMore than one -s-sAgainAgain re-re-NegationNegation in-, un-in-, un-ObligationObligation mustmustDefinite, specificDefinite, specific thetheConjunctionConjunction andand

Summing upSumming up

The study of meaning in human language is Semantics.The study of meaning in human language is Semantics. Answering the question of what meaning is requires considering Answering the question of what meaning is requires considering

some of the basic analytic notions used in evaluating meaning of some of the basic analytic notions used in evaluating meaning of words and sentences.words and sentences.

By virtue of their meaning, words and sentences are able to enter By virtue of their meaning, words and sentences are able to enter into a variety of semantic relations with other words and into a variety of semantic relations with other words and sentences in the language.sentences in the language.

These relationships help identify those aspects of meaning These relationships help identify those aspects of meaning relevant to linguistic analysis.relevant to linguistic analysis.

It is difficult to determine precisely what meaning is.It is difficult to determine precisely what meaning is. How is it represented in the human mind?How is it represented in the human mind? Underlying the use of words and sentences to express meaning in Underlying the use of words and sentences to express meaning in

human language is a conceptual system.human language is a conceptual system. This conceptual system is capable of organizing and classifying all This conceptual system is capable of organizing and classifying all

aspects of our life.aspects of our life.