Chapter 1

Lifespan Development: A Topical

Approach

OrientationWhat is Human Development?

It is a pattern of movement and change Some things change Some things stay the same

Movement & change include growth, transition, and decline.

The Lifespan Perspective

History Studied child development since about

1900.

Studied adult development since about 1960.

The reason for the difference is cultural change & increased longevity (life expectancy).

Life Expectancy Changes Lifespan, the maximum number of

years a human being could live (about 120 years) remains relatively constant.

Life expectancy, the number of years a person can expect to live when born in a certain place in a certain year, changes. U.S., 1900 47 years U.S., 2005, 77 years (30 year increase)

Lifespan Research is Multidisciplinary

Where did this information come from?

Research and study in many fields of endeavor including psychology, sociology, anthropology, education, and medicine.

What types of influences form the context of development?

Normative age-graded (cultural) e.g., puberty, graduation, retirement

Normative history-graded (historical) e.g., war, famine, earthquakes, terrorism

Non-normative life events & conditions (personal) Individual experiences, biology,

personality

Assumptions In order to discuss or examine

phenomena or issues, we must make assumptions.

If we do not make the same assumptions, we need to know that and not waste time talking past one another.

Worldview Collective assumptions about how

the world operates or should operate

Examples: socialist vs. capitalist Origins: evolution, creation, intelligent

design, pan-spermia (ancient aliens), don’t know

Historical Views of Human Nature Prevailing views of children (human

nature) throughout history? Preformationism Original Sin Tabula Rasa Innate Goodness

How does each view affect child-rearing practices?

Historical View: Preformationism

Time: 6th 15th Centuries

View: Children are basically small adults without unique needs and characteristics.

Effect: Little or no need for special treatment

Historical View - Original Sin

Time: 16th Century (Puritan)

View: Children are born sinful and more apt to grow up to do evil than good.

Effect: Parents must discipline children to ensure morality and ultimate salvation.

Historical View - Tabula Rasa

Time: 17th Century, philosopher John Locke (behaviorist)

View: Children are born “blank slates” and parents can train them in any direction they wish (with little resistance).

Effect: Shaping children’s behavior by reward and punishment.

Historical View – Innate Goodness

Time: 18th Century, philosopher Jean Jacque Rousseau (humanist)

View: Children are “noble savages” who are born with an innate sense of morality.

Effect: Parents should not try to mold them at all.

Issue: Nature vs. Nurture Nature = biological inheritance

(genetics) Rousseau (humanists)

Nurture = all experience Locke (tabula rasa)

Is that all there is? (Is it neither?) Are they separable? Is it both? What is epigenetic theory?

Interaction of nature and nurture

What does age have to do with it? How many ways can we conceptualize

(think about) age? Chronological age: years since birth Biological age: health; vital organ

capacity Psychological age: adaptable; learning;

flexible; good judgment Social age: roles, expectations

What are the periods (age groups) of development?

These are not standard across textbooks. However, they roughly agree.

Prenatal - conception to birth Infancy – birth to about 2 years Early childhood – about ages 2-6 (preschool) Middle & late childhood – about ages 6-11 Adolescence – ages 10-12 or puberty until

about ages 18-22 or independence

What are the periods (age groups) of development?

Early adulthood – ages 20/25 – 40/45

Middle adulthood – ages 40/45 – 60/65

Late adulthood – ages 60/65 on Young old: 65-84 Oldest old: 85+

To what extent are we becoming an age-irrelevant society?

People‘s lives are more varied.

We have a loose “social clock.”

The frequency of reported happiness is about the same for all ages. (78%)

Theories (Perspectives) of Development

Psychoanalytic /Psychodynamic Freud: unconscious mind; sexual motivation

Personality formed by age 6 Erikson: eight socioemotional stages in the

life-span (very influential; not very scientific/testable)

Behavioral (tabula rasa) Classical conditioning (automatic learning from

experience Operant conditioning (reward & punishment) Social-cognitive learning (observation &

imitation) (very testable, but ignores individual

differences)

Psychoanalytic Theory: Erik Erikson (1902-1994)

Eight psychosocial stages in the lifespan Trust v. mistrust Autonomy v. shame/doubt Initiative v. guilt Industry v. inferiority Identity v. confusion Intimacy v. isolation Generativity v. stagnation Integrity v. despair

Review of TheoriesRecommendations:

We will not be studying these theories directly in this course. However, their general principles may be referred to in explaining developmental events or processes. If you feel that you need to review them, I would recommend:1. your textbook2. any Introduction to Psychology textbook 3. www. allpsych.com4. http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/perscontents.html5. Google the word in question, e.g., psychoanalysis, ethology, B. F. Skinner, etc.

MODULE 1.3RESEARCH METHODS

Posing Developmental Questions

What is a theory?How can a theory be tested?

Data Where do we get our data?

What information are we going to believe?

What do you know about…? Experimental studies

Hypotheses

Independent and dependent variables

The Scientific Method

Identifying questions of

interest

Formulating an explanation

Carrying out research that either lends

support to the explanation or

refutes it

Hypothesis

Can you think of a hypothesis related to grades assigned in this class?

How could your hypothesis be tested?

Choosing a Research Strategy: Answering Questions

Correlational research

Experimental research

What are the techniques of collecting data?

Observation Survey/interview: asking questions Standardized Tests Physiological Measures Case Study Life-history records

Research Designs Descriptive – includes more detail

Correlational – numbers show strength & direction of relationship Used for prediction Ranges from -1.00 to +1.00 (+ is direct;

- is inverse); Remember: correlation does not equal causation

Experimental

Experiments

Manipulation in experiments means there is different treatment in different groups. The experimental group experiences the

“real” treatment or manipulation. Control groups do not; they are for

comparison. (“Placebo” controls get a fake treatment.)

Random assignment of participants to groups ensures that groups start out the same.

Experiments Provide Evidence of Cause-Effect Relationships

This is because of control and manipulation. One situational factor (Independent Variable) is

manipulated. A behavior (Dependent Variable) is measured. All other factors are “held constant” or the

same in all groups. (This is control.) A change in the dependent variable (behavior)

could only be caused by manipulation of the independent variable because all else was controlled.

Experiments: Determining Cause and Effect

Experiment• Groups

– Treatment/experimental– Control

• Variables– Independent– Dependent

• Random subject selection and assignment

Why aren't experiments always used?

Logically impossible

Ethically impossible

Research on How People Change across the Lifespan

Cross-sectional research: People of different ages are measured in the same year. Cohort effects may occur. These are

differences due not to common age, but common experience

Longitudinal research: The same people are repeatedly measured across different years. Expensive, time-consuming, dropouts

Research on How People Change across the Lifespan

Sequential or cross-sequential research: a combination of cross-sectional and longitudinal

People of different ages are measure the first year. Then at intervals (e.g., 1, 5, 10 years), the same people are measured again and new groups are added.

Measuring Developmental Change

Longitudinal Studies Measuring individual change

Cross-Sectional Studies Measuring people of different ages at same

point in time

Sequential Studies

Figure 1-4. Research Techniques for Studying

Development

Do you know why the sequential technique is

so effective?

Correlational Studies Do not prove causality

Do provide important information Correlation Coefficient

Finding a Correlation

Types of Correlational Studies Naturalistic

observation

Ethnography Case studies; surveys

Psychophysiological methods EEG, CAT fMRI

Complementary Approaches

Theoretical research

Applied research

Consider this…

• What are some policy issues affecting children and adolescents that are currently being debated nationally?

• Despite the existence of research data that might inform policy about development, politicians rarely discuss such data in their speeches.

Why do you think that is the case?

Thinking Critically about “Expert” Advice

Who are the “experts” in your life?

What expert advice have you received about going to college?

Why (or why not) did you value or use this advice?

Becoming an expert about experts!

Consider the source. Evaluate credentials. Understand difference between anecdotal

and scientific evidence. Find details of research-based advice. Do not overlook cultural context of

information. Recognize that popular consensus does

not guarantee scientific validity.

It is better to have data, but. . Data is no guarantee of accuracy.

Did you do it right? Did you interpret it right? Did you fudge the results on purpose? Could anyone replicate it? Was it correlational? Can it even be researched?

So what do we do with other information?

Ancient aliens: Do we discount as mythology? Does archeology count?

Piaget & Freud – mere observation

How do we use data? Don’t use it to turn your mind off. Don’t ignore it Stop to think why you accept

information or not Question yourself as to why you

believe it Logic, evidence, want to?

Ways to be Confused Too little information Too much information Deliberately sowing false information

or irrelevant information

How Do We Know? Or Do We Just Believe?

Robyn Dawes Why believe that for which there is no

good evidence? http://www.fmsonline.org/dawes.html

(Or possibly evidence to the contrary?)

Most of what we know, we actually believe that we know from authority and consensus.

How Do We Know? Or Do We Just Believe?

Authority implies that the knowledge is reliable Source is trustworthy No ulterior motives In position to have this type of

knowledge However, we often attribute this to

consistency of report/public exposure (media).

Consensus means that no one questions it.

Ethics and ResearchEthical Guidelines for Researchers (SRCD)

Researchers must protect participants from physical and psychological harm.

Researchers must obtain informed consent from participants before their involvement in a study.

The use of deception in research must be justified and cause no harm.

Participants’ privacy must be maintained.