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8/13/2019 Linguistics and Literature Papers Example: Paper Through Ages by Ummul Khoiriyah
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PAPER THROUGH
AGES
- Ummul Khoiriyah
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It is not surprising when we are in college and we have to create a paper and submit it to the
lecturer in order to fulfill such assignment. Well, I am a student of English Literature in State
University of Surabaya, and this is my first time experiencing how difficult making a paper
is. When I think about making any kind of paper either it is concerning on literature or
linguistics, it is hard for me thinking the ideas. I wonder whether there is such a person like
me feeling the same thing. In fact, after having a hard time of thinking and writing, it is really
satisfying enough finishing all of that burden. I do not know that a language will be so
complicated, until I am experiencing it deeply. How the theories are made and how they have been explored are mysteries for me. I think I am going out of my mind.
Then, my purpose of making such kind of this writing is perhaps this can be helpful for
everyone. Frankly speaking, may this can be such kind of reference for those who are
experiencing the same as what happened to me. In this writing, I collect all of my papers,
start from the area of linguistics to literature. Remember, you can use the theory in this
writing or use the same idea and the same method without copying the whole content of my
paper eventhough you are hopeless. When you are doing it, it means you have cheated and
lied toward your own self. I believe everyone has a great ideas, but the ideas are not going
well as in quotation of “Colorless green ideas sleep furiously” (Fromkin, Rodman, & Hyams,
2011, p. 122). To be honest, I get the ideas of making all of my papers after reading many
works and references. Opening your mind can make you awake!
At last, I would like to thank God for giving me those green ideas. Not being forgotten, I
would like to thank all of those who have helped me in making papers, my college friends.
To my parents, I love you.
PS: There is a paper in linguistics section that is not absolutely mine. It is a collaboration between Tiara
and I.
Thursday, January, 9 2014
Ummul Khoiriyah
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“This section contains of two titles of linguistics study” –
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THE LANGUAGE USED BY AMERICAN MALE AND FEMALE
RAPPERS
Ummul Khoiriyah
English Literature ‘11
Faculty of Languages and Arts
State University of Surabaya
ABSTRACT
The language used by American male and female rappers are considered as non-
standard or vernacular as they come from different social variety. The term of vernacular is
related to language that has different linguistics features with the standard one. The
purposes of this study are describing types of language used by American male and female
rappers and finding characteristics or factors influencing their language choice. The
linguistics features are divided into four: phonological, morphological, syntactical, and
lexical features. In phonological features, there are loss of interdental fricatives; realization
of final /ŋ/, the velar nasal, as the alveolar nasal /n/; clusters ending in /z/ and /s/ variation;
and /r/ deletion. In morphological features, there are absence of possesive –s marking and
absence of third person singular –s marking. In syntactical features, there are the existence
of invariant or habitual BE; the use of both negatio and negative concord; absence of
auxiliary DO; the use of completive DONE; the existence of zero copula; and then the use
of single auxiliary for both plural and singular subjects. The words used by American
rappers lexically different with meaning in dictionary. Those lexicons or words can be
categorized as slang or taboo words. Factors or characteristics of the language used by
American rappers are the existence of different linguistics features and the use of language
as an aspect of solidarity. Both male and female rappers speak the same speech style.
Language they use represents their identity and solidarity. Standard English is only used informal context.
Keywords: Vernacular, Linguistics Features; Language Variation
1. INTRODUCTION Every single speech communities has their own language which also has
different features of linguistics. It means that eventhough people speak the same
http://../user/Downloads/All%20for%20Sociolinguistics/website%20new/African%20American%20Vernacular%20English%20-%20Wikipedia,%20the%20free%20encyclopedia.htm
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language, the will us it differently. The differences can be seen from how the sound
is produced; how the word is organized; how the sentence is structured; and how
the word is used ( sometimes the meaning of the same word is different among
them). The use of language is also different through ages and gender. Adult and
teenager share different vocabularies, teenagers use their own words reflects their
identity and solidarity that adult can not understand. Meanwhile, the differences of
language use between men and women are in the lexicon or vocabulary and
pronunciation. We can see language phenomena are various since language is
changing over time depends on the context and the user.
In United States, people from different interests share different lexicon.
They speak the same English, but they are quite different in the way of using it. For
example, the language between rappers and workers are different. Rappers will use
the term of non-standard English in their community while workers share the term
of the standard one since they are considered as educated people. There are of
course some factors influencing language choice of speaker in a certain language
whether it is culture or even the addressee – to whom a speaker gets interacting
with.
Here, the writer interests in analyzing the language used by American male
and female rappers as long as their language is considered as non-standard English.
As the fact appears that standard and non-standard English share different features,
the writer describes the differences of linguistics features appear, start from
phonological features, morphological features, syntactical features, and lexical
features. The writer also tries to find kind of language American male and female
rappers use whether it is slang or taboo. At last, the writer will try to find
characteristics or factors influencing the language use between those rappers,
moreover men and women are basically differed when they speak a language.
Theories used in this study are the theories of Fromkin, Rodman, & Hyams (2011),
Holmes (1992), Wardhaugh (2006), and Yule (2010). The instruments of data
analysis are included.
2. THEORITICAL BACKGROUND In this section, the writer provides theories used in this study. The writer
uses the theory of social factors and dimension as this study describes factors
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influencing language choice of American male and female rappers. Then, theory of
language variation is used as it is related to language use in social varieties.
2.1. Social Factors and Dimension
There are some factors influencing language choice of a speaker. They are:
the participants (who is speaking and who is the speaker speaking to?); the setting
or social context of the interaction (where is the speaker speaking?); the topic (what
is being talked about?); and the function (why is the speaker speaking?) (Holmes,
1992, pp. 11-12). The relevant factors in understanding a particular communicative
events achieves its objectives is considered as ethnography of communicative
events. The factors are suggested in a form of acronyms “SPEAKING” (Setting
and Scene; Participants; Ends; Act Sequence; K ey; Instrumentalities; Norms of
interaction and interpretation; and Genre). Here, setting and scene refer to time and
place of a speaker gets communication. They will automatically change their
formality according to time and place of communication. Participants deal with
various combination of speaker-listener, adressor-addressee, or sender-receiver.
Ends refer to speaker and addressee’s goal in participating such speech event. Act
sequence deals with the form of what is being talked about. Key represents tone,
manner, and spirit a speech is delivered. It can include posture, gesture, behavior or
even deportment in a speech event. Instrumentalities are channels of interaction
whether it is in form of written or spoken, formal or non-formal, etc. Norms of
interaction and interpretation are the specific behavior and properties in an
interaction that include speaker-adressee-others (those who do not participate in
speech event) views of the interaction, such as loudness and gaze return. The last is
genre that is related to types of utterance being used (Wardhaugh, 2006, pp. 247-
248).
There are also four dimensions of analyzing factors influencing language
choice above. They are social distance, status scale, formality scale, and the
referential and affective function scales. Social distance concerns to the
relationship between speaker and addressee. Whether the relationship between
speaker and adressee is intimate (high solidarity) or distant (low solidarity) affects
the language choice of the speaker him/herself. The status between speaker and
addressee in superior (high status) or in subordinate (low status) is the explanationof status scale that influences a speaker’s language. For example, the language use
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between a teacher and school principal. Formality scale is also important in
assessing a speech event, it relates to the formality setting that occurs in a
communication, for example, the formal language that is used in ritual service or in
church. High information content or low information content in referential scale
and low affective content or high affective content in affective scale basically serve
information of an interaction. They are related to how speaker is feeling during the
communication takes place (Holmes, 1992, pp. 12-14).
2.2. Language Variation
Language vary in many ways. Speakers of a language will have different
dialects of the language. It is related to whether the dialects occur in regional or
social variation (Wardhaugh, 2006, p. 135). Language refers to a single linguistics
group of norms, and dialect refers to one of the norms (Wardhaugh, 2006, p. 28).
Regional dialect is language variation of different regions of speakers in the same
language (Yule, 2010, pp. 241-242). Meanwhile, social dialect concerns with
speakers in towns and cities (Yule, 2010, p. 254). Regional dialcts involve features
of pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar that are different according to
geographical area of the speaker. Social dialects involve features that are different
according to the social group of the speaker (Holmes, 1992, p. 142).
The language variation includes the form of vernacular or standard form.
Standard language is actually based on an existing dialect of the language
(Wardhaugh, 2006, p. 42). Non-standard or vernacular form of language is
characterization of any non-standard spoken version of a language used by lower
status group, it is considered non-standard because it makes differences from the
standard one (Yule, 2010, p. 261). In United States, Standard American English
(SAE) is a dialect of many Americans nearly speak. It may have social functions,
but in fact, nobody speaks SAE. The term of SAE is used in most language
teaching environment only (Fromkin, Rodman, & Hyams, 2011, p. 440).
Here, the term of gender (men and women) in language is involved. In some
cases, the form of language of women are more conservative than those used by
men (Finegan, 1999, p. 407). In English, there are lexical differences between men
and women, there are also more subtle unnoticed differences (Finegan, 1999, p.
409). Women’s greater use of standard speech form reflects their sensitivity tocontextual form. Standard speech form is used in more formal contexts. It depicts
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social distance (Holmes, 1992, p. 178). In conclusion, women can speak vernacular
speech form as men the social distance is in high solidarity or intimate.
2.2.1. English Vernacular
It is difficult defining other dialects without contrasting them with the
standard, but there is nothing inferior about the non-standard form. Some
sociolinguists use vernacular as an alternative to non-standard. Vernacular tends to
be used at home and informal context. It is generally valued by the users, especially
as meaning of solidarity and affective expression (Holmes, 1992, pp. 145-146).
Vernacular is used in a number of ways, it has not been standardised and does not
have official status (Holmes, 1992, p. 80).
In the United States, African American English (AAE) or Black English has
distinctive features that do not occur in the grammar. Its differences act as a symbol
of ethnicity (Holmes, 1992, pp. 193-194). AAE is a group of closely related
dialects also known as Black English, Inner City English (ICE) or Ebonics (a term
that also has other meaning and connotations) (Fromkin, Rodman, & Hyams, 2011,
p. 443). The form of AAE that has been most studied is usually described as
African American Vernacular English (AAVE) (Yule, 2010, p. 261). AAVE shares
several characteristics with Creole English language-forms. It has pronunciation,
grammatical structures, and vocabulary in common with various West African
languages (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_American_Vernacular_English).
All in all, we can say that it has different phonological; morphological; syntactical;
and lexical features with SAE. Those differences can be seen from the explanation
as written below:
a. Phonological FeaturesThose deals with phonological environment. They are related to the production
of sound segments. We can see it from r-deletion, consonant cluster reduction,
diphtong reduction, or even loss of interdental fricatives (Fromkin, Rodman, &
Hyams, 2011, pp. 443-444).
b. Morphological FeaturesMorphology is the study of the structure of words and the component of
grammar that includes the rules of word formation. Morphological knowledge
deals with morphemes and the rules of combining them (Fromkin, Rodman, &Hyams, 2011, p. 83). The examples of this difference occur in most common
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_American_Vernacular_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_American_Vernacular_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_American_Vernacular_English
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use of words which have absence of plural –s marking such as four girl – four
girls; absence of possesive –s marking such as mama house – mama’s house;
and absence of third person singular –s marking such as she get – she gets.
c. Syntactical FeaturesThis difference is related to the rules of sentence formation and the component
of mental grammar that represents speaker’s knowledge of the structure of
phrases and sentences. There are use different syntactical features between SAE
and AAVE. They are: use of multiple negatives or negative concord such as he
don’t know nothing ; deletion of ‘be’ (zero copula) such as he nice; habitual ‘be’
such as John be happy; and ‘there’ replacement (Fromkin, Rodman, & Hyams,
2011, pp. 445-446).
d. Lexical FeaturesLexical category is general term for the word-level syntactic categories of noun,
adjective, verb, and adverb. These are categories of content and function words.
While lexicon is the component of the grammar containing speakers’
knowledge about morphemes and words; a speaker’s mental dictionary. AAVE
shares much of its lexicon with other varieties of English. Some of the
vocabularies etymology are often difficult to trace; in many cases, the
postulated etymologies are not recognized by linguists or dictionary
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_American_Vernacular_English). For
example, the existence of the word “jigga” that does not exist in dictionary.
Sometimes, the same words of AAVE and SAE have different lexical meaning.
2.2.2. Slang
Slang or colloquial speech describes words that are used among younger
speakers and other social groups with special interests in everyday communication
(Yule, 2010, p. 259). It is one of informal style that occurs frequently. People use
and recognize slang well. The use of slang has produced a new word by combining
old word into a new meaning in a language. Slang also results entirely new words
with new meanings (Fromkin, Rodman, & Hyams, 2011, p. 470).
2.2.3. Taboo
Taboo is a tongan word meaning “forbidden”. Taboo is the term ofunacceptable words in a certain language. It is considered unacceptable as long as
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_American_Vernacular_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_American_Vernacular_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_American_Vernacular_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary
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the word is offensive (swear words) or obscene (profanity). Words relating to sex,
sex organs, and natural bodily functions are part of the set of taboo words in many
cultures. There is no grammatical reason of why a word is considered as taboo, but
it is clear that there are sociolinguistics reason of it (Fromkin, Rodman, & Hyams,
2011, pp. 471-473).
3. RESEARCH METHOD The writer uses qualitative method of research in this study. The method is
used because it is suitable since the goal of this study are describing types of
language used by both American male and female rappers and finding the
characteristics. The source of the data is three songs of each three male rappers and
three songs of each three female rappers. The rappers are 50 Cent (Candy Shop, In
Da Club, and Many Men); Jay Z (99 Problems, Empire State of Mind , and Hard
Knock Life); Eminem ( Lose Yourself , Not Afraid , and Till I Collapse); Lauryn Hill
( Doo Woop That Thing , Everything Is Everything , and Final Hour ); Lil’ Kim ( Big
Momma Thang , No Time, and Queen Bitch); and Missy Elliot ( Beep Me 911, She’s
A Bitch, and Queen Bitch). The writer uses the lyrics of the whole 18 rap songs to
find features of linguistics this community uses, including phonological features;
morphological features; syntactical features; and then lexical features.
The main instrument of this data analysis is the writer herself since this
study does not involve direct participant (using non-participant observation for the
data collection technique) by asking them to interact. The writer takes a big role in
using the lyrics in order to find the poof of non-standard English existence among
them. Besides, the writer also uses online slang dictionary (cited
onlineslangdictionary.com) and the third edition of Cambridge Advanced Learner’s
Dictionary to provide translation of lexicon (slang or taboo words) they have.
The way the writer uses in this analysis are: 1. Identifying the data, finding
the non-standard English words; 2. Classifying the data, differentiating the non-
standard English words rappers have in different features of linguistics; 3.
Analyzing the data; 4. Describing factors of language used by them; 5. Cocluding ,
includes finding the result of the study.
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4. FINDING AND DISCUSSION In this section, the writer provides data analysis of the language used by
American male and female rappers. Since the language they use has linguistics
features difference with SAE (Standard American English), the data analysis will
be grouped into 4: phonological features, morphological features, syntactical
features, and lexical features. There is also other findings of this study deals with
their lexicons are slang and taboo words. The characteristics of their language
choice will be explained in discussion section.
4.1. FINDING
The writer does not provide the whole lyrics consist of different features of
linguistics between the language used by American male and female rappers with
SAE in data analysis. The writer only uses lyrics represent the different linguistics
features between them as long as the rappers share the same words and they often
use the same changes in the form of the words.
4.1.1. Phonological Features
Phonological features deals with the production of the sound segments in a
language. Here, the writer provides data that have different production of sound
segments with SAE.
1. let 'em hate then watch the money pile up (50 Cent – Candy Shop)
2. You can try and read my lyrics off of this paper before I lay 'em (Eminem
– Not Afraid)
In 1 to 2, there is no existence of the sound /ð/. 50 Cent and Eminem use the same
word of “em” in the use of the word”them”. Actually the word “them” should be
pronounced as /ðem/, but they simply omit the sound /ð/.
3. Twenty four carats nigga that's when I'm fuckin' wit' the average nigga
(Lil’ Kim – Big Momma Thang)
In 3, “wit” is the form of “with”. “with” should be pronounced as /wɪð/, but in 3,
the sound of /ð/ is absented. As long as the word is ended by /ð/, they will usually
omit it.
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4. you da best (Lil’ Kim – No Time)
5. Why not, break it down like dat (Missy Elliot – The Rain)
The word “da” in 4 is derived from the word “the”. Here, “the” should be
pronounced as /ðə/, but the rapper simply replaces /ð/ with /d/. This case also
happens in 5. The word “dat” is derived from the word “that”. In SAE, “that”
should be pronounced as /ðæt/, but the rapper replaces /ð/ with /d/. All of cases in 1
to 5 are the cases of loss of interdental fricatives.
6. Locked down in the ten by fo' (Jay Z – Hard Knock Life)
7. Nuttin' make a woman feel betta (Lil’ Kim – No Time)
8. Get ya friend and ya girl and them
9. Girl, get yo mind checked (Missy Elliot – Beep Me 911)
10. See I got mo' cheese (Missy Elliot – She’s A Bitch)
In 6 to 10, there is the same case of r-deletion. “fo” is a new form of “four”, “betta”
is a new form of “better”, “ya” and “yo” are new forms of “your”, and “mo” is a
new form of “more”. In 6, 8, 9, and 10, the only reason of /r/ is deleted is because
there is a rounded vowel before /r/, /ɔ/.
- “fo” (four) should be pronounced as /fɔːr/
- “yo” (your) should be pronounced as /jɔː r /
- “mo” (more) should be pronounced as /mɔːr/
11. I'm into havin' sex, I ain't into makin' love (50 Cent – In Da Club)
12. Just lettin' you know that you're not alone (Eminem – Not Afraid)
13. This is your moment and every sin'le minute you spend (Eminem – Till
I Collapse)
14. If you havin' girl problems I feel bad for you son (Jay Z – 99 Problems)
11 to 14 are considered as the case of realization of final /ŋ/, the velar nasal, as the
alveolar nasal /n/. The words “havin”, “makin”, “lettin”, and sin’le” have velar
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nasal sound segment either in the end of the word or in the center of the word. This
realization occur in function or content morpheme with two syllables, having
consists of two syllables.
15. Now these pussy niggaz putting money on my head
16. niggaz keep pulling techs on me (50 Cent – Many Men)
15 and 16 show that there is clusters ending in both /z/ and /s/ variation. The word
“niggaz” is derived from “niggers”. There is consonant cluster existence of –rs that
has been changed into /z/. Then the word “techs” is derived from the word
“technology” that has experienced back-clipping process as “tech”. The rapper adds
/s/ after consonant cluster –ch. In fact, the consonant cluster is pronounced weakly,while /s/ is pronounced strongly.
4.1.2. Morphological Features
1. it come to this
2. she like it from behind (50 Cent – Candy Shop)
3. If the roof on fire, let the motherfucker burn (50 Cent – In Da Club)
4. Everybody ride her just like a bus route (Jay Z – Empire State Of Mind)
Our grammatical knowledge will simply recognize the addition of –s or –es in verb
after third person singular existence in a sentence. The rappers do not use this
addition when they organize sentences with singular term. They treat the verb as the
verb they use in plural form.
- it comes ..
- she likes ..
- let the motherfucker burns ..
5. Baby mama drama's screaming on and too much for me to wanna
(Eminem – Lose Yourself)
6. Shit, I made the Yankee hat more famous than a Yankee can (Jay Z –
Empire State Of Mind)
7. Don't discuss the baby mother business (Lauryn Hill – Final Hour)
8. it's a big momma thang (Lil’ Kim – Big Momma Thang)
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The case in 5 to 8 is the case of the absence of possessive –s marking. The use of
additional –s actually represents the possessive use in a sentence. In fact, the
rappers do not apply it at all.
- Baby mama’s drama
- Yankee’s hat
- Baby’s mother business
- Big momma’s thang
4.1.3. Syntactical Features
1. If you be a nympho, I'll be a nympho (50 Cent – Candy Shop)
2. They know where we fuckin' be (50 Cent – In Da Club)
3. Nigga, I be spiked out (Jay Z – Empire State Of Mind)
4. Look at what you be in (Lauryn Hill – Doo Woop That Thing)
In 1 to 4, there is the case of invariant or habitual BE existence. People will
automatically use any auxiliaries when they organize nominal sentence, such as am,
is, are, was, were, etc. There is no such kind of this application in language they
use.
- If you are a nympho ..
- where we are ..
- .. I am spiked out
- Look at what you are in
The case in 2 is special as it uses the addition of “fucking” before another word.
Rappers tend to use addition of swearing or fucking word before they use a certain
word.
5. I ain't finished teaching you 'bout how sprung I got ya (50 Cent – Candy
Shop)
6. I'm the diamond in the dirt, that ain't been found (50 Cent – Many Men)
7. Look nigga, I done came up, and I ain't changed (50 Cent – In Da Club)
There is the existence of negation and completive DONE in lyrics 5 to 7. We will
use auxiliaries in forming negative form of verbal sentence. The rappers do not use
this rule in their language used. Here, they also use only DONE in signalingcompletion or statinng activity that has been finished in the past.
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- I have not finished ..
- that has not been found
- .. I have done ..
8. how you think you're really going to pretend? (Lauryn Hill – Doo Woop
That Thing)
9. Who made these rules? (Lauryn Hill – Everything Is Everything)
10. How you like it baby? (Lil’ Kim – No Time)
11. Why you played on me? (Missy Elliot – Beep Me 911)
12. who got the keys to the jeep? (Missy Elliot – The Rain)
In 8 to 12, there is absence of auxiliary DO in interrogative sentences. In present
tense, the rappers do not use DO, they only use question words that is followed by
infinitive verb; while in past tense, they only use question words that is followed by
irregular or regular verb.
- how do you think ..
- Who did make ..
- How do you like ..
- Why did you play ..
- who did get ..
13. Like you wasn't down and you called him again? (Lauryn Hill – Doo
Woop That Thing)
14. I thought we was cool, why you want me to die homie? (50 Cent –
Many Men)
15. it don't matter he's dope (Eminem – Lose Yourself)
16. Well you was doin fifty-five in the fifty-four (Jay Z – 99 Problems)
17. Maybe, they was right 'cause I feel like a fool (Missy Elliot – Beep Me
911)
Here (13 to 17), the writer finds the use of one auxiliary for all subjects (plural and
singular). Actually, the use of auxiliary depends on the subject whether it is plural
or singular, but the rappers do not use this rule at all.
- .. you were not ..
- .. we were cool ..
- it does not ..
- .. they were ..18. He don't say nothing back (50 Cent – Many Men)
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19. You ain't never heard a sound like this before (50 Cent – Candy Shop)
20. Lord I don't cry no more (50 Cent – Many Men)
21. These hoes don't want him no more (Eminem – Lose Yourself)
There is multiple negation or double negatives or negative concord in 18 to 21. It
often appears in the language used by American male and female rappers. After
using negative form in a sentence, we simply use kind of possitive words after all.
- He does not say anything
- You have not heard or You have never heard
- I no more cry or I don’t cry
- These hoes don’t want him
There are many alternative sentences in interpreting sentence with negative concord
as long as there are no both of negative forms in one sentence.
22. The pretty face men claiming that they be the "big men." (Lauryn Hill
– Doo Woop That Thing)
23. they sayin,"50 you hot" (50 Cent – In Da Club)
24. My practice extending across the atlas (Lauryn Hill – Everything Is
Everything)
25. Why you cheatin' on me? (Missy Elliot – Beep Me 911)
In 22 to 25, there is the case of zero copula (absence of is and are). The use of
copula depens on the subject.
- The pretty face men are claiming - They are saying - My practice is extending - Why are you cheating
4.1.4. Lexical Features
Lexical features deals with the meaning of the words that have been used in
a language. Here, the writer provides lexicons of the language used by American
male and female rappers that do not exist in dictionary. Sometimes, there are words
that exist in the dictionary, but they are totally different in the meaning. The more
complete data is provided in the appendix.
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No.
Song
Title Rapper Lyric Meaning
1
Candy
Shop
50 Cent
If you be a nympho, I'll
be a nympho nymphomaniac
2
Wanna show me how
you work it baby? Acronym of want to
3 it come to this shit used in negatives to mean 'anything'
4
how erotic it is to watch
you in thongs?
underpants resembling a G-string;
worn by women especially under
very tight pants
5Had me thinking 'boutthat ass after I'm gone
used by men to refer to sexual
activity, or to women considered
only as sex objects
6
Long as she ain't
stopping, homie I ain't
stopping A good friend
7
In Da
Club
Go shawty, it's your
birthday An addressee to someone
8
We gonna party like it's
your birthday Acronym of going to
9
And you know we don't
give a fuck
to treat someone badly by wasting
their time or causing them problems
10
So come gimme a hug, if
you're into gettin' rubbed Acronym of hive me
11
When I pull up out front,
you see the Benz on dubs Refers to a car
12
Niggaz heard I fuck with
Dre Nigger; An addressee to a black
13
When you sell like
Eminem, and the hoes,
they wanna fuck
A derogatory; offensive term for
women
14
But homie ain't nuttin'
changed hold down, G's
up Nothing
15
I want them to love me
like they love Pac
An addressee to a famous superstar,
Tupac.
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16
But holla in New York
them niggaz'll tell ya Greeting
17
Her girlfriend willin' to
get bi and they ready to
go Bisexual
18
You that faggot-ass nigga
tryin' to pull me back A homosexual man
19 I wink my eye at ya bitch an unkind or unpleasant woman
20
If the roof on fire, let the
motherfucker burn
an extremely insulting name for
someone you hate or for someone
who has made you angry
21
I'ma tell you what Banks
told me 'cause go 'head
switch the style up I'm going to
22
Many
Men
we gotta go get
something to eat Got to
23
damn what's taking
homie so long an expression of anger
24
Now these pussy niggaz
putting money on my
head
a woman's vagina; sex with a
woman
25
I know He protecting me,
but I still stay with my gat A gun
26
Psych says some bitch
dumb stupid and annoying
4.2. Other Findings
In this section, the writer provides other findings instead of different
linguistic features between the language used by the rappers and SAE. The writer
finds the lexicons they use (as listed in data of lexical features analysis) are
categorized in slang and taboo words as their existence and use depend on the user
context, not as listed in dictionary.
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4.2.1. Slang
As long as the language the rappers use do not listed in dictionary, it means
that they have their own vocabularies that have certain meaning. The words that are
listed here sometimes listed in dictionary, but the meaning are different at all. The
meaning and the complete data of the words are provided in the appendix.
1. If you be a nympho, I'll be a nympho
2. Wanna show me how you work it baby?
3. Long as she ain't stopping, homie I ain't stopping (50 Cent – Candy Shop)
4. Go shawty, it's your birthday
5. So come gimme a hug, if you're into gettin' rubbed
6. When I pull up out front, you see the Benz on dubs (50 Cent – In Da
Club)
7. we gotta go get something to eat
8. I know He protecting me, but I still stay with my gat (50 Cent – Many
Men)
9. I'm from the hood stupid (Jay Z – 99 Problems)
10. I'm up at Bed-Stuy, home of that boy Biggie (Jay Z – Empire State Of
Mind)
11. Let's take the dough and stay real jiggy
12. Flow infinitely like the memory of my nigga biggie, baby (Jay Z – Hard
Knock Life)
13. I began this flippin' in the ghetto on a dirty mattress (Lauryn Hill –
Everything Is Everything)
14. Like I'm deuce (Lauryn Hill – Final Hour)
15. Don'tcha like the way I roll and play wit' my bushy (Lil’ Kim – Big
Momma Thang)
16. Just sip some Cristal with these real niggaz (Lil’ Kim – No Time)
17. What cha'all gonna do, fellas? (Missy Elliot – Beep Me 911)
18. Im a supa fly (Missy Elliot – The Rain)
Here, some of the words are also categorized as taboo words or unacceptable words
such as nympho.
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4.2.2. Taboo
All of slang words the rappers use are also listed as taboo words. The reason
of it is the use of the words are considered offensive and the meaning of the words
are related to sexual terms. In this sub-section, the writer provides all of the lyrics
that consist taboo words. From the whole 18 rap songs, the writer finds 20 taboo
words as listed below. The meaning of those words are provided in the appendix.
1. If you be a nympho, I'll be a nympho
2. it come to this shit
3. how erotic it is to watch you in thongs? (50 Cent – Candy Shop)
4. And you know we don't give a fuck
5. Niggaz heard I fuck with Dre
6. When you sell like Eminem, and the hoes, they wanna fuck
7. You that faggot-ass nigga tryin' to pull me back
8. I wink my eye at ya bitch
9. If the roof on fire, let the motherfucker burn (50 Cent – In Da Club)
10. damn what's taking homie so long
11. Now these pussy niggaz putting money on my head
12. Psych says some bitch dumb (50 Cent Many Men)13. these goddamn food stamps don't buy diapers (Eminem – Lose
Yourself)
14. you can kiss my whole asshole
15. So advertisers can give 'em more cash for ads, fuckers
16. Am I under arrest or should I guess some mo'? (Jay Z – 99 Problems)
17. Take it in the butt, yeah, yazz wha
18. Mafia also deadens all the bullshit (Lil’ Kim – Big Momma Thang)
19. Let me grab your ta-ta's, do the cha-cha
20. No licky licky, fuck the dicky dicky (Lil’ Kim – No Time)
4.3. DISCUSSION
Based on the findings above, the writer concludes that there are four
different linguistics features: phonological, morphological, syntactical, and lexical
features; and the lexicons used by American male and female rappers are
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categorized as slang and taboo words. In this section, the writer provides
characteristics or factors influencing their language use.
4.3.1. The Existence of Different Linguistics Features
The characteristic that makes the language used by American male and
female rappers different with SAE is, there is the existence of different linguistics
features. Usually, they have their own features and rules in their language use. This
represents that they automatically show their different culture. In another word,
they tend to show their identity by using a language with different linguistics
features as listed in standard form. As language becomes an identity, it will affect
the use of the language itself.
4.3.2. The Use of Language As An Aspect Of Solidarity
As we know, rap community consist of gender both male and female. The
writer does not find any differences when both male and female rappers use their
each languages. Women speak as same as men do. The vocabularies and
pronounciation are just the same. Standard form is only used in formal context.
Here, the social factors and dimensions take place. The only reason why they share
the same language and features is aspect of solidarity. They express their solidarity
toward others using language. Frankly speaking, they use the non-standard or
vernacular form to show that their relationship is intimate.
5. CONCLUSION In conclusion, the language used by American male and female rappers is
considered as non-standard or vernacular English. Their language is listed in
African American Vernacular English. There are four different linguistics features
between the language of American rappers and Standard American English. They
are phonological, morphological, syntactical, and lexical features. Phonological
features deals with the term of sound segments production. In the language of
American rappers, there are loss of interdental fricatives; realization of final /ŋ/, the
velar nasal, as the alveolar nasal /n/; clusters ending in /z/ and /s/ variation; and /r/
deletion. Morphological features deals with the term of grammatical knowledge. In
morphological features, there are absence of possesive –s marking and absence ofthird person singular –s marking. Syntactical features deals with the term of how a
http://../user/Downloads/All%20for%20Sociolinguistics/website%20new/African%20American%20Vernacular%20English%20-%20Wikipedia,%20the%20free%20encyclopedia.htmhttp://../user/Downloads/All%20for%20Sociolinguistics/website%20new/African%20American%20Vernacular%20English%20-%20Wikipedia,%20the%20free%20encyclopedia.htmhttp://../user/Downloads/All%20for%20Sociolinguistics/website%20new/African%20American%20Vernacular%20English%20-%20Wikipedia,%20the%20free%20encyclopedia.htm
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phrase or a sentence is organized or structured. Here, there are the existence of
invariant or habitual BE; the use of both negatio and negative concord; absence of
auxiliary DO; the use of completive DONE; the existence of zero copula; and then
the use of single auxiliary for both plural and singular subjects. At last, lexical
features deals with the term of meaning of the word.
The words used by American rappers lexically different with meaning in
dictionary. Those lexicons or words can be categorized as slang or taboo words.
The words are categorized as taboo when they are offensive and related to sexual
terms. Factors or characteristics of the language used by American rappers are the
existence of different linguistics features and the use of language as an aspect of
solidarity. Both male and female rappers speak the same speech style. They use the
same vocabularies and pronunciation. Language they use represents their identity
and solidarity. Standard English is only used in formal context.
REFERENCES
African American Vernacular English. (n.d.). Retrieved January 3, 2014, from Wikipedia,
the free encyclopedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_American_Vernacular_English
Feature (linguistics). (n.d.). Retrieved January 4, 2013, from Wikipedia, the free
encyclopedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feature_%28linguistics%29
Finegan, E. (1999). Language It's Structure and Use (3rd ed.). United States of America:
Heinle & Heinle, Thomson Learning.
Fromkin, V., Rodman, R., & Hyams, N. (2011). An Introduction to Language (9th ed.).
Boston: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning.
Holmes, J. (1992). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. New York: Longman.
Introduction to American 'Black English' . (2013, April 6). Retrieved January 3, 2014, from
www15.uta.fi: http://www15.uta.fi/FAST/US1/REF/blackeng.html
Lexical Differences Between BE and SAE . (2010, May 2010). Retrieved January 3, 2014,
from http://www15.uta.fi/FAST/US1/REF/be-sae.html
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McDorman, R. E. (2012, October). Understanding African-American English (AAE): A
Course in Language Comprehension and Croos-Cultural Understanding for Advanced
English Language Learners in the United States. Retrieved January 3, 2014, from
RICHARDMCDORMAN.ORG: http://www.richardmcdorman.org/wp-
content/uploads/2012/10/Understanding-African-American-English_Richard-E-
McDorman.pdf
Profanity. (n.d.). Retrieved January 4, 2014, from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Profanity
Standard English. (n.d.). Retrieved January 4, 2014, from Wikipedia, the free
encyclopedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_English
Wardhaugh, R. (2006). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics (5th ed.). Oxford: Blackwell
Publishing.
Yule, G. (2010). The Study of Language (4th ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
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Appendix I
Phonological Features of The Language Used by American Male and Female Rappers
No. Song Title Rapper Lyric Analysis
1 Candy Shop
50 Cent
let 'em hate then watch the money pile up Absence of [ð]2
In Da Club
I'm into havin' sex, I ain't into makin' love
Realization of final /ŋ/, the velar nasal, as the
alveolar nasal [n]
3 they sayin,"50 you hot"
4
Now shawty said she feelin' my style, she feelin'
my flow
5
Her girlfriend willin' to get bi and they ready to
go
6
Many Men
Now these pussy niggaz putting money on my
head
Clusters ending in /z/ and /s/ variation 7 niggaz keep pulling techs on me
8
Not Afraid
Eminem
Just lettin' you know that you're not alone
Realization of final /ŋ/, the velar nasal, as the
alveolar nasal [n]
9
You can try and read my lyrics off of this paper
before I lay 'em Absence of [ð]
10 I'm doin' this for me
Realization of final /ŋ/, the velar nasal, as the
alveolar nasal [n]
11 Till I Collapse
This is your moment and every sin'le minute you
spend
12 99 Problems
Jay Z
If you havin' girl problems I feel bad for you son
13 Hard Knock Life Locked down in the ten by fo' Dropping of /r/
14 Big Momma Thang Lil Kim
Twenty four carats nigga that's when I'm fuckin'
wit' the average nigga Absence of [ð]
http://c/Users/user/Downloads/All%20for%20Sociolinguistics/website%20new/African%20American%20Vernacular%20English%20-%20Wikipedia,%20the%20free%20encyclopedia.htmhttp://c/Users/user/Downloads/All%20for%20Sociolinguistics/website%20new/African%20American%20Vernacular%20English%20-%20Wikipedia,%20the%20free%20encyclopedia.htm
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15
No Time
Nuttin' make a woman feel betta Dropping of /r/
16 you da best Replacement of /ð/ to /d/
17
Beep Me 911
Missy Elliot
Get ya friend and ya girl and them
Dropping of /r/
18 Girl, get yo mind checked
19
She's A Bitch
Talk mo' junk but won't look my way
20 See I got mo' cheese
21 The Rain Why not, break it down like dat Replacement of /ð/ to /d/
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Appendix IIMorphological Features of The Language Used by American Male and Female Rappers
No. Song Title Rapper
Lyric Normal Form Analysis1
Candy Shop
50 Cent
it come to this shit it comes to this
Absence of singular --s marking
2 she get to pulling on my zipper she gets to pull on my zipper
3 she like it from behind she likes it from behind
4 you should see the way she whine you should see the way she whines
5 In Da Club
If the roof on fire, let the
motherfucker burn
If the roof on fire, let the
motherfucker burns
6
Many Men
here he come here he comes
7
something special happen every
time
something special happens every
time
8
Lose
Yourself
Eminem
Baby mama drama's screaming on and too much for me to wanna Baby mama's drama is screaming
Absence of possesive --s marking9
Empire State
of Mind
Shit, I made the Yankee hat more
famous than a Yankee can Yankee's hat
10
Everybody ride her just like a bus
route
Everybody rides her just like a bus
route Absence of singular --s marking
11 Final HourLaurynHill
Don't discuss the baby motherbusiness baby's mother business
Absence of possesive --s marking12
Big Momma
Thang Lil Kim it's a big momma thang big momma's thang
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Appendix IIISyntactical Features of The Language Used by American Male and Female Rappers
No. Song Title Rapper Lyrics Normal Form Analysis
1
Candy Shop
50 Cent
If you be a nympho, I'll be a nympho If you are a nympho Invariant (or habitual) 'be'
2
I ain't finished teaching you 'bout
how sprung I got ya I have not finished teaching The use of negation
3Wanna show me how you work it
baby?Do you want to show me how you
work it baby? Absence of auxiliary DO
4
You ain't never heard a sound like
this before
You have never heard a sound like
this before The use of negative concord
5
In Da Club
they sayin,"50 you hot" they are saying
Zero copula
6 my money on my mind my money is on my mind
7 Now shawty said she feelin' my style,
she feelin' my flow she is feeling
8
Her girlfriend willin' to get bi and
they ready to go
Her girlfriend is willing; they are
ready
9
Look nigga, I done came up, and I
ain't changed
Completive 'done'; the use of
negation
10 Nigga, you mad? are you mad? Zero copula
11 They know where we fuckin' be They know where we are Invariant (or habitual) 'be'
12
Many Men
And niggaz trying to take my life
away
Niggers are trying to take my life
away Zero copula
13 Lord I don't cry no more I don't cry The use of negative concord
14
Now these pussy niggaz putting
money on my head Niggers are putting money Zero copula
15 I'm the diamond in the dirt, that ain't that have not been found The use of negation
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been found
16
I thought we was cool, why you want
me to die homie? I thought we were cool
The use of single auxiliary for
every subject
17 He don't say nothing back
He doesn't say nothing back - He
doesn't say anything back
The use of single auxiliary for
every subject+negative
concord
18
Lose Yourself
Eminem
His palms are sweaty, knees weak ,
arms are heavy knees are weak Zero copula
19 it don't matter he's dope it doesn't matter he's dope The use of single auxiliary for
every subject20 And hope it don't pass him And hope it doesn't pass him
21 These hoes don't want him no more The hoes don't want him The use of negative concord
22 the mood all changed the mood are all changed Zero copula
23 Not Afraid You said you was the king You said you were the king
The use of single auxiliary for
every subject
24
99 Problems
Jay Z
You'd celebrate the minute you was
havin' dough
You'd celebrate the minute you were
havin' dough
25
Well you was doin fifty-five in the
fifty-four
Well you were doin fifty-five in the
fifty-four
26 Fiends on the floor Fiends are on the floor
Zero copula27 You crazy for this one Rick You are crazy
28
Empire State
of Mind
Nigga, I be spiked out I am spiked out Invariant (or habitual) 'be'
29
Welcome to the melting pot, corners
where we selling rock we are selling rock
Zero copula30
And if you with me, mom, I rub on
your tits if you are with me
31
Doo Woop
That Thing Lauryn Hill
how you think you're really going to
pretend?
how do you think you're really going
to pretend? Absence of auxiliary DO
32
Like you wasn't down and you called
him again?
Like you weren't down and did you
call him again?
The use of single auxiliary for
every subject; Absence of
auxiliary DO
33 Look at what you be in what you are in Invariant (or habitual) 'be'
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34The pretty face men claiming that
they be the "big men."
The pretty face men are claimingthat they are the "big men."
Zero copula; Invariant (or
habitual) be
35
Everything Is
Everything
Who made these rules? Who did make these rules? Absence of auxiliary DO
36
My practice extending across the
atlas My practice is extending
Zero copula
37
Final Hour
Words so profuse Words are so profuse
38 Two people both equal Two people are both equal
39 Big Momma
Thang
Lil Kim
Work the shaft, brothers be battin'
me, and oh brothers are batting me Invariant (or habitual) 'be'
40 your tongues in the pussy your tongues are in the pussy Zero copula
41 No Time How you like it baby? How do you like it baby?
Absence of auxiliary DO42
Beep Me 911
Missy Elliot
Why you played on me? Why did you play on me?
43 Why you cheatin' on me? Why are you cheating on me? Zero copula
44
I thought you was the one but you just
a hit and run
I thought you were the one but you
just a hit and run
The use of single auxiliary for
every subject
45
Maybe, they was right 'cause I feel
like a fool
Maybe, they were right 'cause I feel
like a fool
46 Now we talkin' we are talking Zero copula
47
The Rain
We so tight We are so tight
48 who got the keys to the jeep? who did get the keys to the jeep? Absence of auxiliary DO
49
Give them pounds, now look who it
be look who it is
Invariant (or habitual) 'be'
50 It be me, me, me and Timothy It is me
51
My finger waves be dazed, they fall
like humpty My finger waves are dazed
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Appendix IVLexical Features of The Language Used by American Male and Female Rappers
No. Song Title Rapper Lyric Meaning
Form
Slang Taboo
1
Candy Shop
50 Cent
If you be a nympho, I'll be a nympho nymphomaniac √ √
2 Wanna show me how you work it baby? Acronym of want to √3 it come to this shit used in negatives to mean 'anything' √
4 how erotic it is to watch you in thongs?
underpants resembling a G-string; worn by women especially under very tight pants √ √
5 Had me thinking 'bout that ass after I'm gone
used by men to refer to sexual activity,or to women considered only as sexobjects √
6Long as she ain't stopping, homie I ain'tstopping A good friend √
7
In Da Club
Go shawty, it's your birthday An addressee to someone √8 We gonna party like it's your birthday Acronym of going to √
9 And you know we don't give a fuck to treat someone badly by wasting theirtime or causing them problems √
10 So come gimme a hug, if you're into gettin'rubbed Acronym of give me √
11When I pull up out front, you see the Benz ondubs Refers to a car √
12 Niggaz heard I fuck with Dre Nigger; An addressee to a black √ √
13When you sell like Eminem, and the hoes,they wanna fuck
A derogatory; offensive term forwomen √ √
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14But homie ain't nuttin' changed hold down,G's up Nothing √
15 I want them to love me like they love Pac An addressee to a famous superstar,Tupac. √
16 But holla in New York them niggaz'll tell ya Greeting √
17Her girlfriend willin' to get bi and they readyto go Bisexual √
18You that faggot-ass nigga tryin' to pull me back A homosexual man √ √
19 I wink my eye at ya bitch an unkind or unpleasant woman √
20 If the roof on fire, let the motherfucker burn
an extremely insulting name forsomeone you hate or for someone whohas made you angry √
21I'ma tell you what Banks told me 'cause go'head switch the style up I'm going to √
22
Many Men
we gotta go get something to eat Got to √23 damn what's taking homie so long an expression of anger √
24 Now these pussy niggaz putting money onmy head a woman's vagina; sex with a woman √ √
25I know He protecting me, but I still stay withmy gat A gun √
26 Psych says some bitch dumb stupid and annoying √ √
27 Lose YourselfEminem
these goddamn food stamps don't buy diapers
used to add emphasis to what is being
said √28 Till I Collapse
You pizzles forgot slizzle does not give afuck √
29
99 Problems Jay Z
I'm from the hood stupid The (Housing) Project √30 you can kiss my whole asshole arsehole √
31So advertisers can give 'em more cash for ads,fuckers stupid person √
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32 Got two choices y'all you all √
33Am I under arrest or should I guess somemo'?
shortened form of "homo", i.e. "ahomosexual person." √ √
34Empire Stateof Mind I'm up at Bed-Stuy, home of that boy Biggie
Bedford Stuyvesant, and area of centralBrooklyn. √
35
Hard KnockLife
Jigga, uh huh, uh huh, uh huh, yeah thing √36 Let's take the dough and stay real jiggy sexy √
37Flow infinitely like the memory of my nigga biggie, baby an important person √
38Everything IsEverything
Lauryn Hill
I began this flippin' in the ghetto on a dirtymattress √
39 Final Hour Like I'm deuce used in questions to express anger orsurprise √
40
Big MommaThang
Lil Kim
Take it in the butt, yeah, yazz wha bottom √ √
41Don'tcha like the way I roll and play wit' my bushy Don't you √
42 Mafia also deadens all the bullshit complete nonsense or something that isnot true √
43
No Time
Just sip some Cristal with these real niggaz a brand of expensive champagne √44 Let me grab your ta-ta's, do the cha-cha breast; vagina √ √45 No licky licky, fuck the dicky dicky oral sex √ √
46 Queen BitchFemale Don Dada has, no problems spittin'cream with my team the most respected √
47 Beep Me 911
Missy Elliot
What cha'all gonna do, fellas? you all; friend √
48 She's A BitchWhatchu know about Timothy? Lemme know what do you; let me √
49 The Rain Im a supa fly high level of fly √
50 Supa dupa fly An extreme level of fly. √
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WORD FORMATION OF LANGUAGE USED BY INDONESIAN
FASHION BLOGGERS
Tiara Dwi Arini1, Ummul Khoiriyah
2
English Literature ‘11
Faculty of Languages and Arts
State University of Surabaya
ABSTRACT
Fashion bloggers share their everyday outfit, make up tutorial, or even a good
fashion info to look up in a blog. Most of Indonesian fashion bloggers use English as a
major language in their blog posts; those who are not expert enough using English, use
non-standard form of Bahasa Indonesia while mixing it with English. The words they used
are considered as colloquial words. This study uses qualitative method in order to describe
types and characteristics of word formation occur in the language used by them. There are
70 words found in some fashion bloggers’ blogs that are categorized in 8 types of word
formation. They are borrowing, compounding, prefix, blending, clipping, acronyms,
coinage, and onomatopoeia. Those word formation processes are divided into three: the
word formation caused by phonological, morphological, and another processes. The
characteristics that influence are the adaptation of Indonesian phonological system and
the tendency of English usage. Both of the authors conclude that this is a phenomenon of
language contact.
Keywords: Colloquial Words, Word Formation, Indonesian Fashion Bloggers
1. INTRODUCTION Nowadays, people start to implement the term of fashion through media;
they try developing it better than previously. The term of fashion spreads away over
countries. They should choose the way to communicate each other, using what
language and when it is applied. Eventhough language contact occurs in direct
conversation, still, people will use words as same as words they use in directinteraction when they communicate via internet.
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In Indonesia, the trend of fashion is also happening. Most of people,
especially for women, tend to express their interest in fashion by using a blog
showing their fashion existence. They consider language they use. Some of them
who know English, try to use it as a major language in their blog eventhough they
are not L2 learners; they just derive English from school or they imitate and even
adapt each other’s words. The purpose of the English usage is to become
worldwide. The remaining that are not expert enough in English, only use the non-
standard form of Bahasa Indonesia while mixing them with English words other
commonly use.
People who use blog as their medium to convey their fashion interest are
called by Fashion Bloggers. Usually, they will post everyday outfit, make up
tutorial, or even a good fashion info to look up. Indonesian fashion bloggers mostly
come from a well-educated environment; they can be a fashion designer, a fashion
consultant, and fashionistas (mostly collegian). They learn English by
communication. Using English is not only a prestige, but also a key. By using
English, they can cooperate each other creating a new fashion concept.
Their words can be categorized as colloquial words. Eventhough they use
English as a major language in their blog or their conversation; still, there are terms
of Bahasa Indonesia influence it, such as the change of sound segments. Those who
still use Bahasa Indonesia also experience the same; because they mix their
language (Indonesia – English), the change of word’s structure exists. The word
formation occurs in their language will be interesting to analyze as they often
borrow words from English and there are mixing words exist. The words of the
language used by Indonesian fashion bloggers can be caused by phonological,
morphological, and another processes of transferring words.
Here, both of the authors are interested in analyzing the language used by
Indonesian fashion bloggers in order to describe what types of word formation
occur beyond it and to find what characteristics exist in their language usage. Both
of the authors use their blogs as an instrument to find kind of borrowed or mixed
words to identify as the authors can not interact with those bloggers directly. The
authors use theories of Katamba (2005) and Yule (2010) in the analysis. Other
instruments are included.
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2. THEORITICAL BACKGROUND In this section, the authors give brief background of theory uses in this
study. The authors use “language contact” with a reason that this phenomenon of
new words created happens when they communicate each other. The authors also
uses “articulatory phonetics” because the words created are different in the sound
segments. At last, there will be “word formation” because the aim of this study is to
describe types of word formation occurs.
2.1 LANGUAGE CONTACT As people in the world live together, they will be involved in such contact.
They will automatically use a system in order to communicate each other. The
system used is called by ‘language’ (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language).
People will acquire and apply language in their everyday communication. The fact
that people speak in different languages as they live in different region, makes the
language contact occurs when they are getting interaction (Thomason, 2001, p. 1).
The result of this communication is borrowing or mixing language
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_contact).
Usually, language contact occurs in direct interaction between speakers. Aspeaker with more than one language will influence another, moreover recipient
speaker comes from different speech community. The usage of a word that has
been acquired from the conversation will be adapted to their original language.
That is why, there will be a new word created (Thomason, 2001, pp. 3-5). Here,
speech communities have different dialect, language, and variety. They have
different interest of speech characteristics (Wardhaugh, 2006, p. 119).
When two speakers from different two languages communicate each other,
there will be not only a borrowing happens, but also the structure of the word will
be fully changed. It is because of the word they hear are being transferred from first
speaker’s language to another speaker’s language. The example of this
phenomenon is Asia Minor Greek that has many borrowing words from Turkish.
Those borrowing words have different structure from the original one. The
transferring process are including area of phonology, morphology, syntax, and even
lexical semantics. They adapt the word to their original language sound, word, andsentence structure (Thomason, 2001, p. 11).
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_contact
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2.2 ARTICULATORY PHONETICS Phonetics is the study of speech sound, while articulatory phonetics is the
study of how the sound is pronounced or produced (Yule, 2010, p. 26). Here, the
term of articulatory phonetics is devided into consonants and vowels. Both of
consonants and vowels do not refer to the letter, but they are type of sounds
(Fromkin, Rodman, & Hyams, 2011, p. 235). Mostly, the change of new words are
different in vowels rather than consonants. Consonants are produced by closuring
the vocal tract blocks air comes from the lungs (Fromkin, Rodman, & Hyams,
2011, p. 235).Vowels are produced without blocking the airflow from the lungs out
of the mouth (Fromkin, Rodman, & Hyams, 2011, p. 246). The production of
vowels are differed by the position of tongue and lips. English has many vowels as
we can see in: peat, pit, pet, pate, pat, put, putt, poke, pot, part, and port (Finegan,
1999, p. 90).
Figure 3. English Vowels Chart (Yule, 2010, p. 34).
Figure 4. Indonesian Vowels Chart
http://blog.aanugraha.web.id/ipa-indonesian-vowels-chart/
Front Front Central Back
i
High u
ɪ ʊe ə o
ɛ ɔ
ʌ
Low æ a ɑ
http://blog.aanugraha.web.id/ipa-indonesian-vowels-chart/http://blog.aanugraha.web.id/ipa-indonesian-vowels-chart/
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2.3 WORD FORMATION Word formation is a word creation. Sometimes, it deals with semantics. A
new word that has been created has the different meaning from the original one
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_formation). In the term of language contact, the
borrowing or mixing words will have not only a change in meaning, but also a
change of word structure. The change exists since the recipient speakers adapt the
new word into their own language. Here, the word formation is caused by
phonological, morphological, and another processes. In phonological process, a
new word is created by adapting recipient speakers’ phonological system. In
morphological process, a new word is created by adapting word structure of
recipient speakers’ language. The last, a new word is categorized happens because
of a process that can not be in both of phonological (sound system) and
morphological processes (word structure). There are some types of word formation
that will be explained in this study. They are borrowing, compounding, affixation,
blending, clipping, acronyms, coinage, and onomatopoeia.
2.3.1 Borrowing Borrowing is taking a new word from another language (Yule, 2010,
p. 54). The process of borrowing are categorized into two: direct and
indirect borrowing. If the word is borrowed as it is, without any
changes; it is called by direct borrowing. The example of direct
borrowing is the use of word “omelette” in English. “Omelette” is
actually French. In another case, the word that is borrowed has some
different structure of word, because of morphological process when the
word is transferred; this term is called by indirect borrowing. The
simplest example of indirect borrowing is the word “coffee”; kahveh
(Turkish) > kahva (Arabic) > koffie (Dutch) > coffee (English)
(Katamba, 2005, p. 133).
2.3.2 CompoundingCompounding is the process of combining two words into a single
fom of word. The two separate word are combined without changes. For
example, the word “book” and “case” are combined into “bookcase” in
English (Yule, 2010, p. 55). Compounding in English results noun in
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_formationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_formationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_formation
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common. As we can see in blueprint, red tape, White House, soft-ball,
new year , etc (Katamba, 2005, p. 50).
2.3.3 AffixationAny morphemes that added into a root is called by affixes. The
addition of the morpheme can be before or after the root. Affix that is
put before the base is called by prefix; while affix that is put after the
base is called by suffix. Some words contain of affix that is added inside
it, this kind of affix is called by infix (Katamba, 2005, pp. 38-39). We
can find prefix as in the word “mislead”, the prefis is “mis-“. In the
word “disrespectful”, we can find both of prefix and suffix. The prefix
is “dis-“, and the suffix is “-ful” (Yule, 2010, p. 59).
2.3.4 BlendingThe process of combining two separate words in English also
happens in blending. Here, blending and compounding are different one
another. If compounding joins two words without any changes, blending
only combines a front part of a word then joins it to the end of another
word. The example of this process is the word “gasohol” that comes
from “gasoline” and “alcohol” (Yule, 2010, p. 55).
2.3.5 Clipping Clipping is a kind of reduction, it happens when a word that has
more than one syllable is reduced in order to make it shorter. The
example of clipping is the word “facsimile” that becomes a new word
“fax” (Yule, 2010, p. 56). According to Katamba, clipping is divided
into fore-clipping and back clipping. Fore-clipping happens when a
front part of a word is reduced, for example a word “bus” that comes
from the word “omnibus”. While back-clipping is the process of back
part of the word reduction, the example is the word “lab” that has an
original word “laboratory” (Katamba, 2005, p. 125).
2.3.6 AcronymsWhen a new word comes from initial letters of a set of other words, it is
included in the process of acronyms. Usually, acronyms are pronouncedas new single word as we can see in the word “zip” (zone improvement
Blends are hybrid words. They are compounds made in anunorthodox by joining chunks of word-forms belonging to two
distinct lexemes. (Katamba, 2005, p. 128).
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plan) (Yule, 2010, p. 58). In another case, the shortened new words can
not be pronounced as a word, they have to be pronounced in each letter.
This term is called by abbreviations. We can see the example of this
abbreviation in “LA” as Los Angeles (Katamba, 2005, p. 127). To
Finegan, the term of this kind of shortening is not called by
abbreviations, but an initialism (Finegan, 1999, p. 50).
2.3.7 CoinageCoinage is the invention of totally new words. Trademark or the
name of commercial product is included in coinage. “Google” is the
example of this process. When the new words come from a name of
person or place, it is called by eponyms. This process can be seen from
the word “Atlas”. “Atlas” is the name of fictitious character, the today it
is used for the name of a book map (Yule, 2010, pp. 53-54).
2.3.8 OnomatopoeiaOnomatopoeia is a word that mirrors its meaning. Often, people will
use a word like “bang!”; the word actually represents its aspect of
meaning. People use that word in order to imitate the sound of a noise (a
shoot of gun). So, onomatopoeic words are used when a person wants to
imitate a kind of sound. We can see another example of this process in
the word of “miaow”. It is actually the sound produced by a cat. People
use onomatopoeic words to refer an animal or a noise (Katamba, 2005,
pp. 27-28).
3. RESEARCH METHOD Both of the authors use qualitative method of research in this study. The
method is used because it is suitable since the goal of this study is to describe types
of word formation and find the characteristics. The source of the data is blogs that
Indonesian fashion bloggers commonly use to interact or communicate or even
share their fashion style. Blog is considered as textual form because it contains of
posts (writings of the bloggers). The authors find 70 colloquial words in some
blogs.
The main instrument of this data analysis is both of authors themselves.
Since this study does not involve a direct participant (using non-participantobservation for the data collection technique) by asking them to interact, the
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authors take a big role in using the blogs in order to find the proof of colloquial
words exist among them. Besides, the authors also use the third edition of
Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary to provide transcript of the original
words in English that Indonesian fashion bloggers commonly borrow or mix. The
authors also use second edition of A Comprehensive Indonesian-English Dictionary
by Alan M. Stevens and A. Ed. Schmidgall-Tellings to identify the non-standard
form of Bahasa Indonesia that most of Indonesian fashion bloggers use.
The way that the authors use in this analysis are: 1. Identifying the data,
finding the colloquial words; 2. Classifying the data into some types of word
formation; 3. Analyzing the data into phonological, morphological, or another
processes of word formation; 4. Describing factors that influence the word
formation processes; 5. Cocluding , includes finding the result of the study.
4. FINDING AND DISCUSSION In this section, the authors will explain all of eight types of word formation
processes occur in the language used by Indonesian fashion bloggers. They are
borrowing, compounding, prefix, blending, clipping, acronyms, coinage and
onomatopoeia. The authors also provide the characteristics of their word formation
processes.
4.1. FINDING
4.1.1 BorrowingIn borrowing, Indonesian fashion bloggers seem adopt the words from
English while adapt them in Bahasa Indonesia. This kind of word formation results
some change in both of consonants and vowels. The change is categorized into
three types: substitution, addition, and deletion. Borrowing is included as word
formation caused by phonological process; it deals with the adaptation of
Indonesian phonological system or relates to how the sound is pronounced.
a. Substitution Substitution is the change or replacement of consonants or vowels in the
new words that have been created. From the whole 19 words that are categorized in
borrowing, the authors consider some of them experience the process ofsubstitution.
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No Word. Meaning Vowel Consonant
1
apdet Update
/ʌ/ /a//apdet/ /ʌpdeɪt/
3hai Hi
/ɪ/ /i//hai/ /haɪ/
6
komen comment
/ɒ/ or
/ɑ/ /ɔ//kɔmen/
/kɒm.ent/ or
/kɑ.ment/
7
mai My
/ɪ/ /i//mai/ /maɪ/
8det Dad
/æ/ /e/ /d/ /t//det/ /dæd/
9
poto Photo
/əʊ/ or
/oʊ/ /o/ /f/ /p//poto/
/fəʊ.təʊ/ or
/foʊ.t ̬oʊ/
11
oren Orange
/ɪ/ /e//ɔren/ /ɒr.ɪndʒ/ or /ɔr-/
12
leptop Laptop /æ/ /e/
/leptɔp/ /ˌlæp.tɒp/ or /-tɑp/
/ɒ/ or
/ɑ/ /ɔ/
13
repiew Review
/ɪ/ /e/ /v/ /p//repiew/ /rɪˈvjuː/
14
OHEMJI O.M.G /əʊ/ or
/oʊ/ /o//ohemji/ /əʊ or oʊ. em. dʒi/
15
okei Okay
/əʊ/ or
/oʊ/ /o/
/okei/ /ˌə ʊ ˈkeɪ/ or /oʊ-/ /ɪ/ /i/
16
simpel Simple
/ɪ/ /i//simpəl/ /ˈsɪm.pl ̩/
17
opsional Optional
/ɒ/ or
/ɑ/ /ɔ/
/ʃ/ /s//ɔpsiɔnal/ /ɒp.ʃ ə n. ə l/ or /ɑp-/ /ə/ /a/
18 lipstik Lipstick /ɪ/ /i/
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/lipstik/ /ˈlɪp.stɪk/
19
absen Absent /æ/ /a/
/absen/ /ˈæb.s ə nt/ /ə/ /e/
There are 15 words have replacement of consonants or vowels or even both
of them. Bahasa Indonesia has 5 letters represent vowels (a, i, u, e, o), but it has
eight distinct sounds. They are /a/, /i/, /u/ /e/, /ə/, /o/, and /ɔ/. That is why, when
Indonesian fashion bloggers face various kind of vowels sound in English, they
seem hard to convert them as well. They still use vowels sound of Bahasa
Indonesia. it can be seen from word “apdet”, “hai”, “komen”, “det”, “poto”, “oren”,
“opsional”, and “absen”. There are 9 changes of English vowels when Indonesian
fashion bloggers borrow those words.
In the word “apdet” that comes from “update”, vowel /ʌ/ is changed into /a/.
It happens because Bahasa Indonesia has no various sound of letter a. So, when
Indonesian adopt the word, they will imitate the vowels sound just the way they
have. The second is the word “hai” that comes from the word “hi”. The vowel that
is changed is /ɪ/. Letter i in Bahasa Indonesia also has no various kind of sound
rather than /i/. The word “komen” from “comment”, has the change of /ɒ/ or /ɑ/
into /ɔ/. They use the vowel of /ɔ/ because letter o has two various sound, /o/ and
/ɔ/, and /ɔ/ is suitable to pronounce “comment” when they acquire it. The fourth is
the change of /æ/ into /e/ in the word “det” that comes from “dad”. In bahasa
Indonesia, the sound /æ/ is similar to the sound of /e/. Letter e has two various
sound, /e/ and /ə/. It is impossible from them to pronounce /ə/ as /e/, because it is
not close and the sound is quite different. The fifth is the change of sound /əʊ/ or
/oʊ/ into /o/ in the word “poto”. Then we have other changes of vowels such as /ɪ/
into /e/ (oren from orange); /ə/ into /a/ (of “nal” in the word “opsional” that comes
from “optional”); /æ/ into /a/ and /ə/ into /e/ (absen from absent). All of the changes
in vowels happen because vowels sound in Bahasa Indonesia are not as many as
English have.
Besides the replacement of vowels, some word in the table also have
replacement of consonants. It can be seen from the word “det”, “poto”, “repiew”,
and “opsional”. There are 4 changes of consonants sound. In the word “det” from
“dad”, Indonesian fashion bloggers simply change /d/ into /t/. /f/ is substituted into
/p/ in the word “poto” that comes from “photo”. The third is the substitution of /v/
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into /p/ in the word “repiew” from “review”. Then we have other changes of
consonant such as /ʃ/ into /s/ (opsional from optional). Here, we can see that they
simply use the easier sound in articulating a word. /t/, /p/, and /s/ are simpler to
pronounce rather than /d/, /f/, /v/, and /ʃ/.
b. AdditionAddition is a process of inserting a new sound in the new words created.
Commonly, Indonesian fashion bloggers add more vowels than consonants in their
colloquial words. It can happen because the words in English that they borrow
sometimes contain of consonant clusters, so that they need putting a vowel between
those consonants in order to articulate it easier.
No. Word Meaning Vowel Consonant
2
gugling -
gugel googling – google
/ə//gugəl/ /gu.gl ̩/
5
emol mall
/ə//əmɔl/ /mɔl/ or /mɑl/
10 betewe Btw /e/
13
repiew Review /i/
/w//repiew/ /rɪˈvjuː/ /e/
14
OHEMJI O.M.G
/h//ohemji/ /əʊ or oʊ. em. dʒi/
17
opsional Optional /i/
/ɔpsiɔnal/
/ɒp.ʃ ə n. ə l/ or
/ɑp-/ /ɔ/
From the table, we can see that there are 6 words that are included in
addition. There are some words contain of vowels or consonants in addition or even
both of them. The sound /ə/ appears in both words “gugling” (gugel) and “mol”
(emol). The sound /ə/ appears in “gugel” because in the original word (google),
there are consonant clusters exist based on the transcript, that is why /ə/ appears in
the middle of the consonant clusters. While /ə/ in “emol” exists because /m/ is
bilabial then they tend to sound it as it is easier for them. /e/ exists in both of“betewe” and “repiew”. The next is /i/ “opsional” and “repiew”, and /ɔ/ in
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“opsional”. Besides the addition of vowels sound, there is the addition of
consonants sound as shown in the table, they are /w/ and /h/.
c. DeletionDeletion is reduction of vowels or consonants or both of them in a new
word that has been adopted. There are 7 words have the process of deletion as
tabled below:
No Words Meaning Vowel Consonant
1
apdet Update
/ɪ//apdet/ /ʌpdeɪt/
4
tren Trend
/d//tren/ /trend/
6
komen comment
/t//kɔmen/
/kɒm.ent/ or
/kɑ.ment/
11
oren Orange
/dʒ//ɔren/ /ɒr.ɪndʒ/ or /ɔr-/
13
repiew Review
/u/ /j//repiew/ /rɪˈvjuː/
17
opsional Optional
/ə//ɔpsiɔnal/ /ɒp.ʃ ə n. ə l/ or /ɑp-/
19
absen Absent
/t//absen/ /ˈæb.s ə nt/
The segments of /d/ and /t/ in “tren” (from trend), “komen” (from
comment), “absen” (from absent) are omitted because the original words that are
derived in Bahasa Indonesia are voiceless. So, those sounds are not pronounced
when Indonesian fashion bloggers apply the words; the /n/ is more dominant. while
/dʒ/ in “oren” is deleted because most sounds in Bahasa Indonesia rarely use that
sound. Mostly, Indonesian will pronounce /dʒ/ as /j/. There are also segments of
vowels deleted, they are /ɪ/, /u/, and /ə/.
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4.1.2 Compounding
No. Word Meaning
1
Mekap make up
/mekap/ /ˈmeɪk.ʌp/
2 Catwalk Catwalk