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Literature Review

Professional Development is a critical necessity in today’s educational

environment. Teachers are facing a quickly changing environment including new

technology, new research about teaching and learning and new political

pressures to perform. Teachers are being held accountable as never before for

student achievement, particularly with No Child Left Behind legislation (2002). In

addition, the legislation requires ‘highly qualified teachers’ (Bush, 2002). We

reviewed the literature on three facets of Professional Development: elements of

effective professional development, professional development supported by

technology, and professional development particular to technology integration.

We also studied the literature on Inspiration Software, a graphic organizing

software, relating to literacy, as this was a component of our treatment.

Effective Professional Development

In the review of literature on ‘effective’ professional development, it

becomes apparent that there is little consensus on a definition of ‘effective’.

(Guskey, 2003) In some cases effective means what teachers like,(Salpeter,

2003); in others it means professional development that causes achievement

gains in students,(Kent, 2004); while in yet others it connotes a change in

teacher behaviors, (Wenglinsky, 2002). All three of these definitions seem to be

shades of a similar concept. If teachers enjoy their staff development sessions,

they are more likely to implement. Implementation changes teacher behavior,



and if the implementations are done according to “best practices”, student

achievement is affected positively.

Teacher preferences that were noted repeatedly in the literature were “just

in time”, hands on, collegial, time effective. (Salpeter, 2003;Barnett, 2004;

Boudah, 2003) Teachers rate professional development as effective if they have

time to practice and prepare for implementation, if the subject matter is relevant

to their situation and if they feel they have support. (Kent, 2004; Salpeter, 2003;

Lee, 2005; Barnett, 2004.)

Changes in teacher behaviors and resulting student achievement through

professional development are summed up by Wenglinsky (2002):

… professional development seems to influence teachers' classroom

practices strongly. The more professional development teachers received

in hands-on learning, and indeed the more professional development they

received regardless of topic, the more likely they are to engage in hands-

on learning activities. And the more professional development teachers

received in working with special student populations, the less likely they

are to engage in lower-order activities.

Regardless of how effectiveness has been defined, there are some common

elements which have emerged:

1. Time: Teachers need time to practice and plan; Repeated exposure to the

material enhances implementation. Professional Development needs to fit

differing schedules.



2. Support: Implementation is more likely when participants can get help.

3. Collegiality: Implementation is more likely to be sustained with a

community of learners who collaborate.

Technology in Professional Development

Carol Fine, in NCREL’s Policy Briefs, states: “Technologies can support

and broaden professional learning communities and help teachers make better

use of their time. ….Teachers can access at their own pace and at their own

place.” When teachers leave a workshop, they should be able to access

supplemental reinforcements. In the review of literature on providing

professional development for effective technology use, research has shown the

importance of current professional development emphasizing new methods of

staff training. It is not enough to provide traditional sit-and-get or one-time

workshops. Many teachers attend technology workshops and leave either

frustrated or overwhelmed.

To help teachers incorporate technology in ways that support powerful

instruction requires an array of professional development experiences

quite different from traditional workshops and how-to training sessions.

(David, 1996, pg. 238).

The office of Educational Research and Improvement, (1994), suggests that

examples of these different experiences could be mentoring, on-going

workshops, additional technical support and assistance, and structured

observations.



Teachers need continued practice to become comfortable with technology.

(Kent, 2004; Salpeter, 2003; Lee, 2005; Barnett, 2004.) Time is valuable.

Allowing teachers the ability to access on-line support at their own leisure can

help alleviate the stress and barriers for using technology. The literature review

supports effective professional development programs that provide sufficient

hands-on time and follow-up support for teachers to master new content and

strategies. Teachers need additional time to practice and tryout new ideas and

reflect on what they are learning. This can’t possibly happen with traditional

one-time workshops. On-line support allows the teachers to learn at their own

pace. They can set their own schedule. Our study appears to be ground-

breaking work in that it specifically studies the effect of on-line support. However,

in a study of the South Windsor Public Schools (Kehrhahn, M. & Saylor, P.,

2003) key principles of current “best practices” in staff development were utilized.

One-shot workshops with sporadic follow-up were redesigned to reflect the need

for continuous training and ongoing technical support. They found that

“successful” professional learning occurred by having teachers participate in the

program design, by offering varying learning approaches, and by offering

coaching at the participants’ own paces. Their definition of successful appears to

be, “causing changes in teacher behavior”. With some extrapolation we feel it

can be asserted that on-line support can offer the different learning approaches

(tutorials, sample lesson plans, examples of student work, collaborative forums,

etc.) and the coaching described in the previously reported study. Instead of

reading “how to” manuals for new software/hardware, provide visuals like



interactive video tutorial lessons. Once the teacher leaves a workshop, they

tend to forget “how to” use the technology or even why they should. The

development of supplemental website resources with “how to” video tutorials can

reinforce traditional workshops, thus helping teachers become successful when

integrating technology in the classroom. In addition, they can access actual

lesson examples, student work, standards, etc.

Technology Integration

As a nation over the past five years, there has been a high value placed

on integrating technology into the classroom setting. Gloria Bush, (2005), states:

The value of integrating technology into class curriculum is

emphasized in Title II-D of the No Child Left Behind Act, which calls

for the combining of technology resources and systems with

educator training and curriculum development to fulfill the primary

goal of enhancing learning and increasing student achievement. A

secondary goal of this federal initiative is to cross the digital divide

by ensuring that all students are technologically literate by the end

of eighth grade.

The literature available for review on how to integrate technology with

curriculum appears to be limited, and deals primarily with how to use the

internet at different levels. However, a few key issues arise in the literature

that is available. For example, according to Holum, A. & Gahala, J., 2001,

1. Professional development must be on-going



2. Faculty must have access to technology tools

3. Professional development should focus on how to use technology

tools in ways that are relevant to the teacher

With technology integration, especially, teachers do not absorb all of the

critical information with a one-time workshop. Also, as they become more familiar

with an application, teachers become more ready to expand its use. Therefore, to

continue to expand the use of technology, they need to have opportunities

available to them frequently, at just the right level. (Cook, C.J. & Fine, C., 1997)

Teachers also need to see a link between the technology and the curriculum for

which they are responsible (Byrom, E., 1998). Teachers need to begin with the

curriculum and then see how technology can enhance teaching and student

learning.

Literacy

As cited numerous times, No Child Left Behind legislation, (2002),

emphasizes literacy as a part of “focusing resources on proven educational

methods.” It places funding on several reading initiatives as key parts of the

legislation. As such, moving all students to a “proficient” level of literacy, which

includes reading, writing, and comprehending, by 2014 is a top priority. While our

treatment focus was on a method of effective professional development, we used

literacy scaffolding through graphic organizers as the content.



Scaffolding Literacy With Graphic Organizers

Scientifically based research cited in the literature review demonstrates

that a research base exists to support the use of graphic organizers for improving

student learning and performance. IARE (Institute for the Advancement of

Research in Education) contracted with Inspiration Software to provide findings

on research regarding graphic organizers to promote literacy.

Using databases such as ERIC, IARE conducted key word searches to

locate scientifically based research (29 studies) on graphic organizers and

theories supporting their use.

Four areas of literature were reviewed:

1) Learning theories that support Graphic Organizers (EX: dual coding theory,

schema theory, and cognitive load theory)

2) Benefits of graphic organizers on student achievement.

3) The use of graphic organizers for thinking and learning skills.

4) The use of graphic organizers in classroom work

As cited in the Institute of Advancement of Research In Education study (2003),

IARE drew the following conclusions from the literature review:

1. Use of graphic organizers are effective in improving reading

comprehension

2. Students using graphic organizers show achievement benefits across

content areas and grade levels. Benefits are also seen with students with

learning disabilities.



3. Graphic organizers enhance skills such as developing and organizing

ideas.

4. Use of graphic organizers aids students in retention and recall of

information.

Further, there are two Cognitive Learning Theories supporting graphic

organizers:

1. Dual coding theory maintains we code information both verbally and

nonverbally. Such dually coded information is easier to retain and recall.

2. Schema theory explains Graphic Organizers can help student’s link

existing knowledge organized in schemas to the new knowledge.

One student researcher and a meta-analysis of 23 studies concluded that

graphic organizers moderately affect vocabulary test scores (IARE, 2003)

Two quasi-experimental student researchers focused on the use of graphic

organizers as a part of the writing process for second and their grade students.

Their reported results revealed that students’ writing skills improved.

The body of research reviewed suggests that the use of graphic

organizers strengthens connections, and enhances understanding, organization

and retrieval of information, thus assisting in literacy achievement (IARE, 2003)

Inspiration Software as a Graphic Organizing Tool

As the research indicates, graphic organizers stimulate learning and retention

by the use of symbols, images, text, and sound. Further research examined in

the literature indicates the effectiveness of using Inspiration to organize reading

and writing (Anderson-Inman, L., & Horney, M., 1997.) This study indicates:



1. There was a strong relation between ideas and events when students

could use visual techniques to plan writing assignments. Students, who

had difficulty writing cogent essays, could visual an outline by using visual

thinking tool.

2. Findings also suggested that the use of a tool like Inspiration could be

helpful in working with students who have trouble with organizing what

they read and write.

3. Using a tool like Inspiration increased students willingness to spend time

working out connections in the material present in class and in readings.

Thus, students were actually spending more time planning their writing

assignments.

Lynne Anderson-Inman and her colleagues at the Center for Electronic

Studying, University of Oregon (1997), found that by using the Inspiration

software program, teachers could facilitate brainstorming, synthesizing

information, and organization more effectively and successfully. Students could

arrange material using the software’s menus and palettes. Further, they found

that teachers could use these graphic organizers to assess the level of student

comprehension. Also, using a technology tool like Inspiration, students can

make changes and revision more rapidly and neatly, allowing them to focus on

the meaning-making process rather than on mechanics.



In summary, using Inspiration can motivate and stimulate learning for those

students who have lost much of the pleasure of learning. They can visually

demonstrate to themselves that they are learning and making progress in

transferring what they take in and what they put out in their own writing. This is

practical empowerment and more meaningful that any encouragement that

comes from an external source.

Conclusion

With the increased political pressure for highly qualified teachers

producing measurable student achievement outcomes, professional development

must be of the highest quality, effecting change in teacher behavior. This

literature review suggests that teacher behavior change can occur when

professional development is relevant, timely, research based and on-going with

support. Present models of professional development such as short term

workshops do not fit the criteria for effecting pedagogical change. Our present

study, The effect of on-line support on teacher- implementation of Inspiration

Software for scaffolding literacy , looks at how a supporting website may be an

effective method for professional development in the 21st Century.



REFERENCES

Professional Development

Barnett, E., (2004). Characteristics and Perceived Effectiveness of Staff

Development Practices in Selected High Schools in South Dakota

[Electronic version]. Educational Research Quarterly, 28: 2, 3-18.

Boudah, D. (2003). Implementing and Sustaining Strategies Instruction:

Authentic and Effective Professional Development or "Business as

Usual"? [Electronic version]. Exceptionality, 11:1, 3-23.

Bush, G. W. (2002). Fact Sheet: No Child Left Behind Act. Retrieved August

2005 from

http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/01/20020108.html.

Guskey, T. (2003). Professional Development and Teacher Change [Electronic

version]. Teachers & Teaching, 8: 3/4, 381-391.

Guskey, T. (2003). What Makes professional development effective? [Electronic

version]. Phi Delta Kappan, 84:10, 748.



Kent, A. (2005) Improving teacher quality through professional development

[Electronic version]. Education, 124:3, 427-435.

Lee, H.(2005). Developing a professional development program model based on

teachers needs. [Electronic version]. Professional Educator, 27:1/2, 39-49.

Salpeter, J. (2003). Professional Development: 21st Century Models [Electronic

version]. Technology & Learning, 84:10, 748.

Sparks, D. and Hirsh, S. (2000). Strengthing professional development

[Electronic version]. Education Week, 19:37, 42.

Wenglinsky, H. (2002) How schools matter: the link between teacher classroom

practices and student academic performance [Electronic version]

Education Policy Analysis Archives, 10:12, Retrieved October 4, 2005

from http://epaa.asu.edu/epaa/v10n12



Technology in Professional Development

Bush, G. (2004). Professional development [Electronic version]. THE Journal,

31:12, 20.

Byrom, E. (1998). Factors that affect the effective use of technology for teaching

and learning: Lessons learned from the SEIR*TEC intensive site schools. South

East Initiatives Regional Technology in Education Consortium website.

Retrieved October 4, 2005 from

http://www.serve.org/seir-tec/publications/lessons.html

David, J. L. (1996). Developing and spreading accomplished teaching: Policy

lessons from a unique partnership. [Electronic version]. In C. Fisher, D.C.

Dwyer, & K. Yocam (Eds.), Education and technology: Reflections on

computing in classrooms (pp. 237-245). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Office of Educational Research and Improvement, U.S. Department of Education.

(1994). Technology and education reform. Retrieved June 2005, from



http://www.ed.gov/pubs/EdReformStudies/EdTech

North Central Regional Educational Laboratory. Cook, C.J. and Fine, C. (1997).

Critical Issue: Finding time for professional development. Retrieved May

14 2005, from

http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/educatrs/profdevl/pd300.htm

North Central Regional Educational Laboratory. Knuth, R. and Rodriguez, G.

(2000). Critical Issue: Providing professional development for effective

technology use. Retrieved June 1, 2005 from

http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/methods/technlgy/te1000.htm

National Staff Development Council. Kehrhahn, M. and Saylor, R. (2000).

Teachers skills get an upgrade. Retrieved May 14, 2005 from

http://www.nsdc.org/library/publications/jsd/saylor241.cfm



Technology Integration

Bush, G. (2004). Professional development [Electronic version]. THE Journal,

31:12, 20.

Byrom, E. (1998). Factors that affect the effective use of technology for teaching

and learning: Lessons learned from the SEIR*TEC intensive site schools. South

East Initiatives Regional Technology in Education Consortium website.

Retrieved October 4, 2005 from

http://www.serve.org/seir-tec/publications/lessons.html

North Central Regional Educational Laboratory. Cook, C.J. and Fine, C. (1997).

Critical Issue: Finding time for professional development. Retrieved May

14 2005, from

http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/educatrs/profdevl/pd300.htm

North Central Regional Educational Laboratory. Holum, Ann & Gahala, J., (2001,

October). Critical Issue: Using Technology to enhance literacy instruction,

(Retrieved May 14, 2005 from

http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/content/cntareas/reading/li300.htm,



Graphic Organizers and Inspiration

Institute of Advancement of Research In Education (IARE). (2003, July). Graphic

organizers: A review of scientifically based research. Retrieved June

2005, from http://www.inspiration.com/vlearning/research/index.cfm

Anderson-Inman, L., & Horney, M. (1997). Computer-based concept mapping:

Enhancing literacy with tools for visual thinking. [Electronic Version].

Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 40(4), 302-306.

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