London - Coping With Austerity 2010

8/3/2019 London - Coping With Austerity 2010

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PrefaceW e w ou ld lik e to th an k a ll th e a uth ors w ho h av e w ritte n th e c ha pte rs in th isv olu me a s w ell a s th os e w ho c on trib ute d to o ur H EIF 4 fu nd ed e ve nts d urin gth e y ea r; th es e in clu de d J oh n L ett, H e le n H ill, R os em a ry M c Qu ee n, W illia mM cK ee , J en ny J on es , F ara z B ab er, D un ca n B ow ie , M ark T ho ma s, A nn eP ow er , K ate D av is , G e ne vie ve M a ck lin , G a vin S m art, N ic ky G av ro n,D ud le y M e ad , M ic ha el H eb be rt , H ele n B aile y, R o be rt G or do n C la rk , J oh nO 'B ri en , B a ro n es s J o V al en ti ne , G e or ge W . J on es , S te ph en H am m on d, K enL iv in gs to ne , N ic k R ay ns fo rd , A nn e S ofe r a nd M ik e T uffre y.F in ally w e a re g ra te fu l to G ill W ed la ke a nd M elis sa F ern an de z w ho p la ye d ac en tra l p art in a rra ng in g th e p ro gra mm e a t L SE L on do n a s w ell a s H EIF fo rt he ir c o nt in u in g s u p po r t.

L on do n: c op in gw ith a u ste rityA r e v i e w o f h o u s in g , p la n n in ga n d p u b l i c p o l i c y is s u e s in 2 0 1 0

Edi ted b y K ath S ca nlo n a nd B en K och an

P u bl is he d b y L S E L o nd onO c t ob e r 2 0 10


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P u b li sh e d b y L S E L o nd o nT h e L o nd o n S c ho o l o f E c on om ic s a n d P o li ti ca l S c ie n ceH ough to n S t re e tL on do n W C 2 A 2 A EUK

C o n t e n t s1 . I n t roduc t ionL S E L o nd o n

L S E L o nd o n a ck n ow le d g es f un d in g f or t he d e ve lo pm en t a n d p ro d uc ti on o f t hi s b o okf ro m H E IF 4 .

2 . T he ro le o f t he b oro ug hs in th e n ew re gim eTony T r ave rs3. T he ch an gin g n atu re o f th e L on do n P la nNan c y H o lma n

I n t h e c o ll ec ti on a s a w h o le : L o nd o n S c ho o l o f E c on om ic s a n d P o li ti ca l S c ie n ceO c to b e r 2 0 1 0 I n i n d iv id u a l c h a p te r s b e lo n g s t o t h e r e sp e c ti ve i n di vi d ua l a u th o r s n am ed t h e re i nO c to b e r 2 0 1 0

4 . S c en ario s a nd p la nn in g fo r a lte rn ativ e L on do n fu tu re s - o r m akin g ad ra ma o ut o f a s tra te gyI a n G o rd o n

B r it is h L i br a ry C a t a lo g u in g i n P ub li ca t io n D a t a .A c a ta lo g ue r ec o rd f or t hi s b o ok i s a v a il ab le f ro m t he B r it is h L ib ra ry .

5. D o L on do ne rs m ak e th eir o wn p la ns ?M i c ha e l E dw a rd s

I SBN 978 -0 -85328 -459 -86. T he im pa ct o f ch an gin g fin an cia l m arke ts a nd re gu la tio n o n th eL on do n e co n om yMa r k B o le a t

A ll r ig h ts r es e rv ed . N o p a rt o f t hi s p u bl ic a ti on m a y b e r ep ro d uc e d, s to re d i n a r et ri ev a ls ys te m , o r t ra n sm it te d , i n a n y f or m o r b y a n y m e a ns , w it ho u t t he p ri or p e rm i ss io n i n w r it -in g o f L S E L on do n a t t h e L on d on S ch oo l o f E co no m ic s.

7. L on do n's h ou sin g m a rk et : s ur viv in g t he c ris is ?Chr is t ine Wh i t ehead8. M o vin g t he d ec k c ha ir s? T he c ha lle ng es fa cin g L on do n's s oc ia l h ou sin gM i c ha e l H a r lo e

P r in te d i n G r ea t B ri ta in b y R A P S p id e rw e b L im i te d , L a nc a sh ir e 9 . T r an sp or t in L on do n: a sp ir at io ns a nd f in an cia l r ea lit ie sS t ep h e n G l ai st e r

T h e c ov e r p h ot o i s r e p ro d uc e d c o ur te s y o f t he O ly m p ic D e li ve ry A u th o ri ty O D A 2 00 8L ay ou t a nd d es ig n b y B e n K oc ha n a nd L S E D e sig n. 1 0. T he O ly mp ic le ga cy : a c as e s tu dy in c en tr al- lo ca l r ela tio nsK a th S c a nl o n

T h is p u bl ic a ti on , a s w e ll a s p a p er s a n d p re s en ta ti on s a s so c ia te d w it h t he s e e v en ts a rea v a il a bl e o n LSE London 's w eb -s it e :ht tp: / /www. lse.ac .uk / col lec t ions /LSELondon/Defaul t .h tm

11 . Conc lus ionsL S E L o nd o n12 . Con t r ibu t o r s

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http://www.lse.ac.uk/collections/LSELondon/Default.htmhttp://www.lse.ac.uk/collections/LSELondon/Default.htm


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1 . I n tr o d u c t io nL Sf L on do n

L SE L on do n's 2 00 6 c rit iq ue o f th e re vis io ns to th e la st L on do n p la n, L o nd o n: B ig g era n d B e tt er ?, r ais ed q ue st io ns a bo ut th e u nd er ly in g a ss um p tio n t ha t L on do n's e co no -m y w ou ld c on tin ue to g ro w a nd th at th is w ou ld b e g oo d fo r L on do ne rs . I t h ig hlig hte dt he i mp o rt an ce o f p ro v id in g h o us in g a n d p h ys ic a l i nf ra s tr uc tu re t o s up p or t t hi s g ro w than d to ad dress e xis tin g n ee ds. Fo ur ye ars la te r, the re is a n ew dra ft p la n, a ne wM a yo r w ith p ote nt ia lly g re ate r p ow e rs a nd s er io us e co no m ic u nc erta in ty , w h ic h ra is -e s c on sid era ble q ue st io ns a bo ut c on tin uin g g ro wt h. P ub lic s pe nd in g c ut s c ou ld je op -a rd iz e s om e o f th e p ro gra mm es th at a dd re ss b oth e xis tin g a nd n ew n ee ds .T his v olu m e lo ok s a t h ow th e e m erg in g n ew p la nn in g a nd g ov er na nc e a rr an ge m en tsa dd re ss th es e is su es , a nd p uts f or wa rd id ea s a bo ut h ow th e in cr ea sin g u nc er ta in tie sc an b e m a na ge d. P riv ate -s ec to r a ct iv ity a nd p ub lic fu nd s m a y b e in s ho rt s up ply , b utth e r eq uir em e nts o f L on do n's p op ula tio n - in -m ig ra nts a s w e ll a s e xis tin g r es id en ts --a re u nlik ely t o le ss en . M e etin g th eir n ee ds w ill d em a nd n ew s tra te gie s a nd fin an cia la rra ng em e nts . C u rre nt p ro je ctio ns s ug ge st t ha t th e n um b er o f h ou se ho ld s in L on do nw ou ld g ro w b y w ell o ve r 30 ,0 00 a y ea r, w hic h is u nlik ely to b e a ffe cte d b y th e re ce s-s io n. T his w ill p ut a dd itio na l s tra in o n t ra ns po rt s erv ic es a nd h ou sin g p ro vis io n, b ot ho f w h ic h a re lik ely to b e a ffe ct ed b y fu nd in g c uts .T he L on do n e co no m y h as a ctu ally h eld u p r em a rk ab ly w e ll d ur in g t he r ec es sio n, w ithfe w er s ig ns o f a us te rity in te rm s o f j ob lo ss es th an a lm o st a ny wh er e e ls e in th e c ou n-tr y. A sim p le in dic ato r is th at e m plo ym e nt in L on do n a ctu ally r os e b y 1 30 ,0 00 (o r 3 % ),b etw ee n 2 00 7 a nd 2 009 , a cco rd ing to th e m ost u p to da te figu re s from th e L ab ou rF orce S urvey , w he re as it se em s to ha ve fa lle n in eve ry o the r E ng lish reg ion b y ana ve ra ge o f 2 %. L on do n's s tro ng er p erfo rm an ce w as m os t n ota ble in c on stru ct io n,c on su m er s er vic es (d is tr ib utio n a nd c ate rin g) a nd p ub lic s erv ic es . In th e c ore f in an -c ia l/bu sin ess s erv ice se cto r the re w as ne t jo b grow th , a s in a ll exc ep t on e o the rreg ion , b ut a t a ra te s lig ht ly be low th e na tio na l a ve ra ge . A s w as th e ca se in o the rr eg io ns , jo bs in m a nu fa ctu rin g in L on do n d ec lin ed a nd th e p ro po rtio na te d ec lin e w as

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w o rs e. H o we ve r, L on do n w a s b ette r p ro te cte d fr om p ote nt ia l jo b lo ss es b ec au se o f itsla rg er s ha re o f e x pa nd in g b us in es s s erv ic es a nd a s m alle r e xp os ure to p ote ntia l m a n-u fa ct ur in g d e cl in e . I t a ls o d id m u ch b e tt er i n t he p re d om i na n tl y p u bl ic t ra n sp o rt /c o m -m u n ic at io n a n d e d uc at io n /h e al th /g o ve rn m e nt s e ct or s.

P la nn in g f or a r an ge o f s ce na rio sL on do n's g ov ern me nt h as c ha ng ed s in ce 2 00 6, a nd s o h as th e e co no mic a nd fin an -c ia l e nv iro nm e nt in w h ic h it o p era te s. S er io us d ou bt s a bo ut th e p la n's g ro w th a ss um p -tio ns re m ain b ut c urre nt u nc er ta in tie s re qu ire m o re s op his tic ate d p olic y r es po ns esth an w e a dv oc ate d fo ur y ea rs a go , s ug ge sts Ia n G ord on , w ho p uts fo rw ard th e c as efo r a m ore c on sid ere d d ev elo pm en t s tra te gy . H e s ug ge sts th at th e c om ple x a rra y o ffa cto rs in flu en cin g L on do n's fu tu re re qu ire s a le ss s in gle -m in de d p ers pe ctiv e th an isc urr en tly o ff er ed b y th e M a yo r's d ra ft p la n. H e a rg ue s fo r th e u se o f s ce na rio s. T he sew ou ld g o b ey on d th e 'p la n, m on ito r a nd m an ag e' a pp ro ac h, w hic h o nly m ak es s en seif it is p os sib le to fo rm ula te a c le ar fo re ca st o f h ow th e w orld w ill c ha ng e a nd w ha t th ea p pr op ri at e p o li cy r es po n se s a re . T h e s c en a ri os a p pr oa c h, i n c o nt ra s t, r ec og n iz e s t here al u nc erta in tie s in he re nt in c on te mp la tin g L on do n's fu tu re - a nd th e n ec es sity tofa ce u p t o th es e a t th e p la n- ma kin g s ta ge r at he r th an r ely in g o n o pe ra tio na l fle xib ili-tie s t o c ha ng e c ou rs e, w h en c ir cu m sta nc es a bs olu te ly n ec es sita te t his . E xa m ple s o fth es e u nc er ta in tie s in clu de th e fu tu re c ou rs e o f th e e co no m y, w it h it s b oo m a nd b us tc yc le s; th e p os sib le e co no mic a nd s oc ia l im pa ct o f th e G ov ern me nt's in te nt to lim itn on -E uro pe an in -m ig ra tio n; a nd L on do n's p ote ntia l v uln era bility to c uts in p ub lice xp en ditu re . In th is c on ne ctio n, h e a sk s h ow th e c urre nt ro un d o f c uts re la te s to th elo ng er -te rm p rio rit is at io n o f 's oc ie ty ' o ve r 's ta te ' w ith th e m o ve fr om t he 'b ig s ta te ' t ot h e ' bi g s o c ie t y' .P ro m otin g d eb ate a ro u nd t he P la nT he M a yo r a nd b oro ug hs c an no t a lo ne d et er min e L on do n's fu tu re s ha pe ; c iv il s oc ie -t y i s a n e s se n ti al , a n d i nc re a si ng ly a c ti ve , p a rt ic ip a nt . M i ch a el E d wa rd s i n h is c h ap te ra dv oc at es a f un da m en ta l d eb ate a ro un d th e L on do n P la n. H e c ha lle ng es th e n eo -lib -e ra l o rth od ox ie s th at a llo w s pa ce in p ub lic life o nly fo r a c on se ns us v ie w o f th e w or lda nd o f t h e c ity . H e p oin ts o ut th at e ve n th ou gh in eq ua litie s a nd e xp lo ita tio n h av e w o rs -e n ed , f or m al p o li ti cs i s a l m os t e n ti re ly d e vo id o f s e ri ou s c on fl ic t a n d p o li ti ca l p a rt y p o li -c ie s d if fe r i n r el at iv el y t ri vi al w a ys . M i ch a el E d wa rd s s u gg e st s t ha t K e n L iv in g st on e 'sP la n w as o rie nte d to , o r s ev ere ly c on stra in ed b y, th e n ee ds a nd d em an ds o f p ro pe r-ty a nd c orp or ate in te re sts . T hu s it s up po rte d th e g ro wt h o f t he c en tr al o ffic e d is tric ta nd a llo w ed th e m a rk et t o d ete rm in e th e 'v ia bility ' o f d ev elo pm e nt p ro je cts . I n h is c ri-tiq ue o f th e la te st d ra ft L on do n P la n, w hic h re fle cts h is w ork w ith s ev era l c itiz en s'o rg a ni za ti on s , M ic h ae l E d w ar ds c a ll s f or a g re a te r c omm i tm e n t t o t ac k li ng i ne q ua li ti esw h ic h a re e x tr em e i n g lo b al c it ie s , a n d e n vi ro n me n ta l s us ta in a bi li ty .

T h e M a y or 's i nc r ea si ng p o w er sT he s tru ctu re o f L on do n m e tro po lita n g ov ern m en t c on tin ue s to e vo lv e. S in ce o ur 2 00 6re po rt , th e r ole o f t he M a yo r h as b ee n s tre ng th en ed a nd c ou ld b e f ur th er re in fo rc ed ifth e p ro po sa ls o f th e c urre nt in cu mb en t a re a do pte d. T his w ou ld e na ble th e M ay or tota ke a m ore s tra te gic a pp ro ac h to th e m an ag em en t o f L on do n's re so urc es , b ut th ep ro po sa ls h av e b ro ug ht te ns io ns w it h t he b oro ug hs . T on y T ra ve rs tr ac es t he s to ry o fth e r ee m er ge nc e o f L on do n g ov er nm e nt, d es cr ib in g th e e st ab lis hm e nt o f th e G re ate rL on do n A uth or ity w ith a n e xe cu tiv e M ay or a t its h elm . In 2 00 7 its p ow ers o ve r p la n-n in g a nd h ou sin g is su es w ere e xte nd ed , a nd e arlie r th is y ea r c urre nt M ay or B orisJ oh ns on p ut fo rw ard p ro po sa ls to th e n ew C oa lit io n G ov ern me nt to e xte nd h is ro lef ur th er. T his c ou ld in vo lv e ta kin g o ve r s ev er al o f th e fu nc tio ns m a na ge d b y th e s oo n-t o- be -a b ol is h ed G o v er nm e n t O ff ic e f or L o nd o n, a s w e ll a s o th e r r eg e ne ra ti on f un d in gp ro gra m me s m a na ge d b y n atio na l a ge nc ie s. In ev ita bly , s om e o f th e p ro po sa ls h av ebrou gh t c on flic t w ith th e 33 L on do n b orou gh s, w ho ha ve de ma nd ed tha t po wer b es hif te d d ow nw ard s to th em . T he M ay or h as in te rp re te d th e C on se rv ativ e-L ib era lD e mo cr at c oa litio n's a pp ro ac h to lo ca lis m a s s ug ge stin g a m a jo r s hift o f p ow e rs fr omW h it eh all t o C ity H a ll. T he b oro ug hs , o n th e o th er h an d, h op e to u se t he o pp or tu nityp ro vid ed b y th e G o ve rn m en t's p ro po se d D e ce nt ra liz at io n a nd L oc alis m B ill to r ed uc eth e M a yo r's p ow e r o ve r t he m .T he d ra ft r ep la ce m en t L on do n P la nT he re la tio ns hip b etw ee n M ay or a nd b oro ug hs is a d elic ate o ne . O ur la st re po rt d is -c us se d th e d ire ctiv e a pp ro ac h to p la nn in g o f th en -M ay or K en L iv in gs to ne , w ho seo ve ra ll o bje ctiv e w a s to s ec ure L on do n's r ole a s a 'g lo ba l c ity ', a nd d es crib ed h ow th isa pp ro ac h s om e tim e s a lie na te d th e b oro ug hs . T he n ew M a yo r is s ee kin g g re ate r p ow -e rs b ut in h is d ra ft L on do n P la n p ro m ote s a m o re c on se ns ua l a pp ro ac h, n ot tr um p et-in g a s in gle v ie w o f L on do n. N an cy H olm an p ra is es s om e im po rta nt is su es o f d eta ilin th e n ew p la n a ro un d d es ig n s ta nd ard s a nd q ua lity o f life is su es , b ut s he q ue stio nsw he the r the p la n o ffe rs a s tra te gic v ie w for th e ca pita l. S he w arn s tha t th e lac k o fd ir ec tio n c ou ld r es ult in p ie ce m ea l p la nn in g, a s b or ou gh s w it h m o re p ro sp ero us p op -u la tio ns c ou ld m o re e as ily r es is t s tr at eg ic p la nn in g p rio rit ie s th at d id n ot 'p la y w e ll' a th ome .

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E n s ur in g a m e a s ur e d r e sp o n se t o t he f in a n ci al c r is isT he s ha pe a nd s pe ed o f t h e re co ve ry fr om th e g lo ba l fin an cia l c ris is w ill a ffe ct L on do nd ee ply . T he b an kin g c ris is in 2 00 7 s en t s ho ck w av es th ro ug h th e e co no my a nd is a nun de rly ing ca use of th e pu blic sp en din g cu ts n ow in tra in . It w ill ta ke so me tim eb efo re t he p os itio n is fu lly s ta bilis ed . M a rk B ole at is c on ce rn ed t ha t t he r es po ns e o fp o li ti ci an s a n d r eg u la to rs t o t he c ri si s c o ul d h a ve a s ig n if ic a nt e ff ec t o n t he f ut ur e s iz e ,s tr uc tu re a n d l oc a ti on o f f in a nc ia l s e rv ic es . L o nd o n i s t he w o rl d' s l ea d in g i nt er na ti on -a l f in an cia l c en tr e, a nd c on ve rs ely t he f in an ce s ec to r is a k ey p art o f t h e L on do n e co n-o m y a nd a s ig nific an t e m plo ye r. P olic y m a ke rs a nd r eg ula to rs s ho uld n ot e nd an ge r itb y o ve rr ea ctin g. H e s ug ge sts t ha t t he ir p rio ritie s s ho uld b e to e ns ure th e re tu rn o f s ta -b ility (w he re p ro gre ss h as b ee n m ad e), a nd to p ut in p la ce m ea su re s to e ns ure th ats uc h a c ri si s d o es n o t r ec u r. C r af ti ng e ff ec ti ve r eg u la ti on i n a d if fi cu lt p o li ti ca l c li m at ea nd in t he fa ce o f s ub sta ntia l p ub lic a ng er a bo ut w h at h ap pe ne d w ill b e fa r f ro m e as y,a nd w ill r eq uir e b ra ve , ra th er th an p op ula r, p olit ic ia ns . M a rk B ole at c alls fo r s m ar te rra th er th an m o re o ne ro us r eg ula tio n w hic h d oe s n ot a ffe ct L on do n's w or ld w id e c om -p etitiv en es s a s a fin an cia l c en tre . R e gu la to ry re qu ire m en ts a re b ein g tig hte ne d b utB rita in re co gn iz es th at it c an no t b e to o o ut o f s te p w ith th e re st o f th e w orld . T he rea re r ea so na ble g ro un ds fo r b elie vin g th at , w h en t he c ris is is o ve r, L on do n w ill s till b eo ne o f t he w o rld 's le ad in g fin an cia l c en tre s - a nd m a y e ve n b e e xp an din g.M e e ti ng h o u si ng n e e dTh e prov is ion o f a de qu ate ho us in g is k ey to Lo nd on 's fu tu re suc ces s. D urin g theb oo m p erio d, th e n um be r o f h om es b uilt in cre as ed b ut b are ly k ep t u p w ith g ro wth inth e n um b er o f h ou se ho ld s. W ith th e re ce ss io n, th e n um b er o f n ew d we llin gs h as fa ll-e n s ha rp ly - a nd C hr is tin e W h ite he ad w a rn s in h er p ie ce th at c on st ru ctio n is lik ely top ic k u p s ig nific an tly o nly in th e m ed iu m te rm . H ou se bu ild in g in L on do n h as e xp eri-e nc ed g re ate r v ola tility th an th e re st o f th e c ou ntry , b ut it n ow lo ok s ra th er s tro ng erth an e ls ew he re - th ou gh it w ou ld b e a ffe cte d w ors e th an th e re st if th ere w ere a d ou -b le d ip in the econom y. The changes in the p lann ing sys tem proposed by theG o ve rn m en t, in clu din g a s hift t o a n u ntr ie d f in an cia l in ce ntiv e s ys te m , c ou ld le ad tog re ate r s ho rtfa lls in th e h ou sin g s up ply e sp ec ia lly in th e S ou th E as t. T he lo ng erte rmtre nd s in p ric es a nd a ffo rd ab ility in L on do n h av e s o fa r h ard ly c ha ng ed a s a re su lt o fth e fin an cia l c ris is . S om e e sta blis he d h ou se ho ld s m ay h av e m ore o pp ortu nit ie sb ec au se th ey h av e h ou sin g e qu ity , b ut fir st- tim e b uy er s a nd t en an ts b oth fa ce c on tin -u in g a f fo r da b il it y p r ob lem s .

L on do n fe els th e s ho rta ge o f s oc ia l h ou sin g e ve n m o re in te ns ely th an o th er E ng lis hre gio ns b ec au se o f its h ig he r in cid en ce o f h om ele ss ne ss a nd o ve rc ro wd in g in b othp ub lic a nd p riv at e s ec to rs , a s M ic ha el H a rlo e s ay s. T he lim it ed a m ou nt o f s oc ia l h ou s-in g d ev elo pe d in th e la st 2 0 y ea rs a nd th e lo ss o f h om e s t hr ou gh rig ht -to -b uy h av e le dto e xtr em e p re ss ur e o n e xis tin g p ro vis io n. A va ila ble s oc ia l r en te d h ou sin g h as g on ein cre as in gly to th e m os t n ee dy , re su lt in g in c on ce ntra tio ns o f d ep riv atio n o n m an ye sta te s. S oc ia l h ou sin g a llo ca tio ns in L on do n h av e d ro pp ed b y m o re t ha n h alf s in ce1 99 1, w h ils t 6 .8 % o f a ll L on do n h ou se ho ld s a re o ve rc ro w de d. T his is th e h ig he st p er -c en ta ge o f a n y E ng lis h r eg io n. A lm o st 1 3% o f h ou se ho ld s in s oc ia l re nte d h ou sin g a reo ve rc ro w de d, re fle ctin g t he lo ss o f la rg er s to ck fro m th e s ec to r d ue t o th e r ig ht t o b uya nd th e la ck o f n ew b uild re pla ce me nt. A nd 1 0% o f h ou se ho ld s in th e p riv ate re nte ds ec to r a re o ve rc ro wd ed , a s th os e o n lo w a nd m od era te in co me s d ou ble u p to s ha reh ig h h ou sin g c os ts . M ic ha el H arlo e p oin ts to a s ig nific an t g ro wth in s oc ia l h ou sin gc on stru ctio n in th e e arly p art o f th is c en tu ry , b ut s ay s th e s pe nd in g c uts n ow in tra inm e an th e s ec to r w ill f ac e fo rm id ab le c ha lle ng es . T he o utlo ok is b le ak fo r th e p ro vis io no f de cen t a ffo rda ble h om es fo r ho us eh old s w ith a low or m ode ra te inc om e a nd in-m ig ra nts w h os e la bo ur is n ec es sa ry to s up po rt L on do n's e co no m y. P erh ap s t he b es th op e is tha t the M ay or 's n ew h ou sing p ow ers ca n s ecu re a m ore effec tive u se o fs ca rc e p u bl ic r es o ur ce s a c ro s s t he m e tr op o li s.T r a n sp o r t r e q u ir e m e n t sD e ve lo pm e nts in t ra ns po rt w ill h elp d ete rm in e th e d ir ec tio n o f L on do n's fu tu re d ev el-o pm en t. T he k ey tra ns po rt is su e in L on do n is h ow to p ro vid e fo r th e in cre as e in p op -u la tio n a nd th e a ss oc ia te d r is e in e m plo ym e nt , a nd in p ar tic ula r, w h et he r th e re qu ire dfu nd in g c an b e f ou nd . T he 2 01 0 M a yo r's T ra ns po rt S tra te gy a ntic ip ate s p op ula tio ngrow th o f 1 .3 m illion pe op le - ab ou t 1 6% - a nd a n e xtra 750,00 0 jo bs in L on do n b y2 031 . T his is e xp ec te d to p ro du ce a n in cre as e in d aily (m ain m od e) trip s fro m 2 4 to2 7 m illio n. M ea nw hile , ro ad a nd ra il c ap ac it ie s a re a lre ad y in ad eq ua te a nd th ererem ain s a s ign if ican t ba ck lo g o f rehab ilita t ion w ork on loca l ro ads and theU nd ergrou nd . A cco rd ing to S tep he n G la is te r, the 20 10 stra te gy is ad eq ua te toa dd re ss th e d em a nd fo r p ub lic tra ns po rt . I t r elie s, h ow ev er , o n th e c on tin ua tio n o f th ere la tiv e fin an cia l p le nty , w hic h th e G re ate r L on do n A uth or ity e njo ye d fo r its f irs td ec ad e. L on g- te rm fu nd in g c om m itm e nts w e re m a de to m a ny o f th e s ch em e s, b ut th er ec es sio n a nd fo rth co m in g c ut s in n atio na l p ub lic s pe nd in g a re n ow c on sp ir in g t o p utth e d eliv er y o f th e s tra te gy a t c on sid era ble ris k a nd m a ny o f th e p ro je cts a re lik ely t ob e s ev ere ly d ela ye d. S te ph en G la is te r p re ss es th e c as e fo r ro ad im pro ve me nts . H ep oin ts o ut th at in L on do n th e p riv at e c ar a cc ou nts fo r 6 0% o f a ll p ers on al m e ch an is ed

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trip s, a nd in o ute r L on do n 76 % - a nd a la rg e p ro po rtio n o f th es e c an no t b e d iv erte do n to p ub lic tra ns po rt. H e d oe s s ug ge st th at a L on do n-w id e ro ad u se r c ha rg e c ou lda dd re ss th e f un din g s ho rtf all b ut w o uld ta ke s ev era l y ea rs t o im p le m en t.S ec ur in g b en ef its f ro m th e 2 01 2 O ly m pic sO ne is su e w e d id n ot c ov er in th e p re vio us re po rt w as h ow L on do n w ill d ea l w ith th eO ly m pic s. E as t L on do n h as b ee n s ub je ct ed t o a w id e a rra y o f r eg en er at io n in it ia tiv esfo r a t l ea st th e la st 4 0 y ea rs . F iv e o f i ts b oro ug hs w ill h os t th e m ain e ve nts o f t he 2 01 2O ly m pic s, w h ic h w ill s ee a n in ve st me nt o f a r ou nd 9 b illio n in s po rts s ta dia a nd r ela t-e d fa cilitie s. L on do n's b id e m ph as iz ed th e 'le ga cy ' o f th e G a me s, a nd in p ar tic ula r t here ge ne ra tio n o f th e h os t b or ou gh s, w hic h a re a m on gs t t he m o st d ep riv ed in E ng la nd .T ow er H am le ts h as th e h ig he st p ro po rt io n o f fa milie s w ith c hild re n d ep en de nt o nh ou sin g b en efit a nd H ac kn ey h as th e th ird -h ig he st in co me s up po rt c la im an t ra te .E du ca tio na l a tta in me nt in a ll fiv e b oro ug hs , in te rm s o f a ch ie vin g fiv e G CS Es A -Cg ra de s, is th e lo w es t in L on do n. K at h S ca nlo n d es cr ib es th e e ffo rts o f lo ca l a uth ori-tie s to w ork w ith c en tra l g ov ern me nt to a dd re ss th es e is su es . A lth ou gh th ey s ee k tom a ke b ette r u se o f e xis tin g p ub lic f un ds , t he la ng ua ge o f t he se jo in t in itia tiv es h ig h-lig hts th e c ou nc ils ' lim ite d p ow er s to s ec ure lo ca l e co no m ic b en efit s fr om th e G a me s.L on do n a s a w h ole w ill p ro ba bly b en ef it fr om th e G a me s, w h ic h w ill r es ult in th e re cla -m atio n o f v as t tra cts o f fo rm er in du stria l la nd . B ut b ec au se th e e as t L on do n lo ca la u th o ri ti es , l ik e a ll l oc a l c o un c il s, r ec e iv e t he b u lk o f t he ir i nc o me f ro m c e nt ra l g o ve rn -m en t g ra nts , th ey w ill n ot e arn a p en ny in e xtra ta x re ve nu e fro m th e in cre as e in lo ca le co no m ic a ct iv ity . I n c o ntr as t, lo ca l g ov ern m en ts in c itie s s uc h a s A tla nta (h os t o f th e1 99 6 s um m er G a me s) a nd V an co uv er ( 20 08 w in te r G a me s) o pe ra te w ith m o re a uto n-o my th an L on do n b oro ug hs a cro ss a ra ng e o f s erv ic e a re as a nd , m os t im po rta ntly ,a re fre e to le vy ta xe s a nd d ete rm in e h ow to s pe nd th em . T he y re ce iv ed a s ig nif ic an tr ev e nu e b o os t i n t he f or m o f s a le s t ax e s, h o te l t ax , e tc . f ro m t he a d di ti on a l v is it or i nf lu xd urin g th e G am es b ut th is w ill n ot b e th e c as e in L on do n.

2 . T he ro le o f th e b oro u g h s in th e n e w re g im eT o ny T ra v er s

Th e L on do n b oro ug hs - a s ho rt h is to ry

Re f e re nc eK o ch a n B ( ed ) ( 20 0 6) L o nd o n: B ig g er & B e tt er ? L S E L o nd o nht tp : //www. lse .ac .uk /co l lec tions/LSELondon/pd f /Londonb iggerbe t te r .pd f

L on do n's 3 2 b oro ug h c ou nc ils , w hic h s ta rt ed life in 1 96 5, o w e th eir o rig in to a n um b ero f p re de ce ss or m u nic ip alitie s w h ic h h ad e m erg ed in th eir m o de rn fo rm in th e p er io dfro m th e e nd o f th e 1 9th c en tu ry o nw ard s. T he 1 2 in ne r L on do n b oro ug hs th at e xis tto da y w ere c re ate d b y m erg in g 2 8 'm etro po lita n b oro ug hs ' w hic h h ad e xis te d a s as ec on d tie r w ith in t he L on do n C o un ty C o un cil a re a s in ce 1 89 9.G iv en th e re gu la rity o f s tru ctu ra l re fo rm w ith in B ritis h g ov ern me nt, th e b oro ug hs 'lo ng ev it y is e xtr ao rd in ary . In t he 4 5 y ea rs s in ce 1 96 5, th ere h av e b ee n th re e d is tin ctfo rm s o f 'u pp er tie r' g ov ern me nt in L on do n. F ro m 1 96 5 to 1 986 th e G re ate r L on do nC o un cil e xis te d w h ic h w a s r es po ns ib le fo r s tr at eg ic p la nn in g, tr an sp ort , s oc ia l h ou s-in g th e fire s erv ic e a nd , in in ne r L on do n, e du ca tio n. B etw ee n 1 986 a nd 2 00 0 th erew as n o e le cte d L on do n-w id e tie r o f g ov ern m en t. C e ntra l g ov er nm e nt, a pp oin te d b od -ie s a nd b oro ug h jo in t c om m itte es to ok r es po ns ib ility fo r m e tr op olita n s erv ic es . F ro m2 00 0 o nw ard s, th e G re ate r L on do n A uth ority - c on sis tin g o f a m ay or a nd a ss em bly ,h as b ee n re sp on sib le f or s pa tia l p la nn in g, tr an sp ort , e co no m ic d ev elo pm e nt , th e fires erv ic e a nd , to s om e e xte nt, t he p olic e.T he 4 5 y ea rs s in ce th e G LC a nd th e b oro ug hs w ere c re ate d h av e b ee n tu rb ule nt fo ra n um be r o f r ea so ns . T he L on do n e co no my h as c ha ng ed ra dic ally , fro m o ne th at w ass ti ll s ub s ta n ti al ly b a se d o n m a n uf ac tu ri ng t o o n e t ha t i s a lm o s t e n ti re ly c o nc e rn e d w it hs erv ic es . A uth or itie s in th e e as te rn p ar t o f th e c ity , n ota bly T ow er H a mle ts , N e wh ama n d B a rk in g & D ag en ha m h av e s ee n th e L on do n D oc ks s hr in k to n oth in g. T he c on -s tru ctio n o f C an ary W ha rf, 'D oc kla nd s' m ore g en era lly a nd n ow th e 2 01 2 O ly mp icG a me s w ill h av e t ra ns fo rm e d t he o ld E as t E nd in to s om e th in g v ery d if fe re nt.I n t he s am e p er io d, th e d em o gra ph y o f L on do n h as a ls o c ha ng ed d ra m atic ally . In th e1 96 0s , L on do n's p op ula tio n w a s in d ec lin e. F ro m a bo ut 7 .6 m illio n in th e m id -1 96 0s ,it f ell to 6 .7 m illio n b y 1 98 6 b efo re in cr ea sin g to 7 .7 5 m illio n in 2 01 0. T his c ha ng e h asm e an t th e b oro ug hs (p ar tic ula rly in in ne r L on do n) h av e fo un d th em s elv es h an dlin gr ap id d ec lin e fo llo w ed b y a s ha rp r is e.

1 2 1 3
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In te rn atio na l im m ig ra tio n h as a ls o a ffe cte d a ll L on do n c ou nc ils . T he e arlie st w a ve o fm ig ra nts , la rg ely fro m th e N e w C o mm o nw e alt h, a rr iv ed fro m th e la te 1 94 0s o nw ar dsf ro m th e C ar ib be an , In dia a nd P ak is ta n. T he ir n um b er s w e re r ela tiv ely m o de st. T he ys et tle d fir st in K en sin gto n, W e stm in ste r a nd o th er p ar ts o f in ne r L on do n b ef or e m o v-in g o n to B re nt, L am be th a nd s om e p arts o f o ute r L on do n. B oro ug h c ou nc ils fo un dth em s elv es h av in g to m a na ge b oth h ou sin g a nd d is cr im in at io n is su es a s c on ce ntr a-tio ns o f m ig ra nt re sid en ts in cre as ed . In th e p erio d a fte r 1 99 7, th ere h as b ee n a fu r-th er a nd f ar la rg er w a ve o f in te rn at io na l m ig ra tio n t o L on do n w h ic h h as b ro ug ht p eo -p le fro m a w id e ra ng e o f c ou ntrie s in to th e c ap ita l. T od ay , o ve r o ne th ird o f t he c ity 'sp o pu la ti on a re o v er se a s- bo rn , w it h s ub s ta n ti al m i gr an t p o pu la ti on s i n m o s t b o ro u gh s .P olitic al L on do n h as b ee n th e s ub je ct o f m an y d iffe re nt p re ss ure s o ve r th e p erio ds inc e 1965 , la rge ly be ca use the p olitic al pa rtie s h ave th em se lves re sp on de d toc ha ng in g s oc ia l a nd e co no m ic r ea lity . In th eir e ar ly y ea rs , t he b or ou gh s w e re h ea vi-ly d om in ate d b y th e C on se rv ativ e a nd L ab ou r p art ie s, w ith th e L ib era ls a v ery s ma llf or ce . T he re w e re a fe w r ate pa ye rs a nd in de pe nd en ts , p ar tic ula rly in o ut er L on do n,b u t n o s ig n if ic a nt m i no r p a rt y p re s en c e.In th e 1 97 0s , th e L ab ou r P arty b eg an to c ha ng e a s th e 'N ew L eft' e sta blis he d its elf ,p us hin g a sid e tr ad itio na l c ou nc illo rs in f av ou r o f y ou ng er, m o re ra dic al, o ne s. A n um -b er o f b or ou gh s, in p art ic ula r L am b eth , S ou th w ar k a nd I slin gto n b ec am e a ss oc ia te ddu rin g the 1980s w ith th is new fo rm of Labou r adm in is tra tio n , as d id the KenL iv in gs to ne -le d G re ate r L on do n C ou nc il. A m on g C o ns erv ativ e c ou nc ils , t he re w a s af or m o f T ha tc he rit e ra dic alis m t ha t le d W a nd sw o rth a nd W e stm in st er , in p ar tic ula r, top urs ue c on tr ac tin g o ut a nd o th er p olic ie s d es ig ne d to d eliv er v ery lo w lo ca l ta x le ve ls .B oth m a jo r p artie s h ad p ro ble m s w ith th e m o re o utla nd is h v er sio ns o f th eir p olitic s a sp ra ctis ed in a n um b er o f L on do n b oro ug hs .A lth ou gh th e C on se rv ativ e a nd L ab ou r p artie s h av e re ma in ed th e b ig ge st p olit ic alfo rces in Lo nd on , the re h as be en a m ajo r sh ift aw ay fro m th e tw o m ajor pa rtie s. Inth e 1 96 8 b oro ug h e le ctio ns , th e c om b in ed C o ns er va tiv e-a nd -L ab ou r v ote w a s 8 8.3p er c en t. In 2 00 6 it w as 6 2.7 p er c en t, b ut in 2 01 0, b ols te re d b y th e g en era l e le ct io n,it m ov ed b ac k to wa rd s 70 p er c en t. T he L ib era l D em oc ra ts h av e s ee n th eir v ote g ro wa cro ss L on do n to o ve r 2 0 p er c en t in b oro ug h e le ctio ns , w ith a m ajo r p re se nc e in th es ou th w es t o f th e c ity . S ma lle r p artie s h av e d ev elo pe d a nd , u ntil 2 00 6, to ok a g ro w-in g s ha re o f th e v ote .S in ce th e e arly 1 99 0s , th e b oro ug hs h av e b ee n c ha ra ct er is ed b y m o de ra tio n, im p ro v-in g p ub lic s erv ic es a nd r ela tiv ely h ig h le ve ls o f p ub lic s atis fa ctio n. A s L on do n's p op -

u la tio n a nd e co no mic o utp ut h as g ro wn , th e b oro ug hs h av e b ee n a ble to s tim ula tea nd g uid e m ajo r p ro je cts s uc h a s th os e a t K in g's C ro ss , P ad din gto n a nd th e S ou thB an k. C ou nc ils h av e c re ate d a ro le fo r th em se lv es in re la tio n to th e O ly mp ic G am esa n d, i n p a rt ic u la r, t he l eg a cy .T he C ity o f L on do n h as no t b ee n m ention ed so fa r. W ith its or ig in s p re -d ating th eN o rm a n in va sio n in 1 06 6, t he C ity is a n a nc ie nt c orp or at io n w ith im m en se p ow e r a ndw ea lth . It s urv iv ed th e 1 96 5 re org an is at io n, w hic h c re ate d th e 32 b oro ug hs a nd ,in deed , assum ed a ll o f th e pow ers o f th e new counc ils . It a lso kept a num ber o fr es po ns ib ilitie s ( no ta bly its o w n p olic e fo rc e) th at e xc ee de d th os e o f th e b oro ug hs .T he C ity h as f ro m t im e to tim e p la ye d a m e dia tin g ro le b etw e en b lo cs o f C o ns erv ativ ea nd L ab ou r c ou nc ils w ith in th eir re pre se nta tiv e b od ie s. It h as a ls o b ee n c ap ab le o fm od ern is in g its a pp ro ac h to th e d ip lo ma cy re qu ire d w ith in L on do n g ov ern me nttos ec ur e its o w n lo ng -te rm s ur viv al. T he C ity re m ain s a n a ctiv e e le m en t in L on do n b or -o ug h a ctiv itie s, w hile m an ag in g to re ta in a n in de pe nd en ce th at m ak es it s om ew ha td if fe re n t f ro m t he r es t.A fte r 4 5 y ea rs , th e L on do n b oro ug hs a pp ea r re la tiv ely s ec ure in th eir p la ce a s th ec ap ita l's 'lo ca l' s ph er e o f g ov ern m en t. T he ir a ve ra ge p op ula tio n s iz e is s im ila r to th ato f th e d is tric ts in o th er m e tr op olita n a re as , a nd is s lig htly la rg er t ha n th e a ve ra ge u ni-ta ry c ou nc il. T he y a re fa r b ig ge r in p op ula tio n te rm s th an W els h o r S co tt is h u nita rya uth or itie s. T he re a re o cc as io na l c alls to re du ce th e n um be r o f b oro ug hs th ou gh n og ov ern m en t h as y et a pp ea re d e nth us ia st ic a bo ut a fu ll r efo rm . B y f ar th e m o st im p or-ta nt c ha ng es a ffe ctin g t he b or ou gh s s in ce 1 96 5 w e re th e a bo litio n o f th e G L C in 1 98 6a nd th e c re atio n o f th e G LA in 2 00 0. W e tu rn n ex t to th e c on se qu en ce s o f t he G LA .T he im p ac t o f th e G re at er L on do n A uth or ityT he c re atio n o f th e G re at er L on do n A uth ority (G L A) w a s p rim a rily in te nd ed to re st or ec ity -w id e g ov ern me nt to th e c ity . T he L ab ou r P arty , in o pp os itio n, h ad o pp os ed th eabo lit ion o f the G LC , as had the L ibe ra l D em ocra ts . T he G LA w as to cons is t o f ad ir ec tly -e le cte d e xe cu tiv e m a yo r a nd , to o ve rs ee t he a ct iv itie s o f th e m a yo r, a s ep a-r ate ly -e le cte d a ss em b ly . T he b oro ug hs w ou ld c on tin ue a s b efo re , th ou gh th e a rriv alo f th e G L A w a s to h av e s ig nific an t im p lic atio ns fo r th emT he M a yo r w ou ld o pe ra te a s m all a dm in is tra tio n r es po ns ib le f or f ou r 'fu nc tio na l b od -ie s': T ra nsp ort fo r L on do n (T fL ), the L on do n D eve lop me nt A ge nc y (LO A), th eM etro po lita n P olic e A uth or ity (M PA ) a nd th e L on do n F ire & E m e rg e nc y P la n ni ngA uth or ity (L FE PA ). E ach of the se in stitu tio ns w ou ld ha ve a b oa rd , a ll o r som e o f

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w ho se m em be rs w ou ld b e a pp oin te d b y th e M ayo r - inc lu din g b orou gh m em bers ins om e c as es . P olic y w ou ld b e d ete rm in ed b y th e M ay or in a s er ie s o f s tra te gie s, th em os t im po rta nt o f w h ic h w as a 's pa tia l p la n' (w hic h c am e to b e k no wn a s th e L on do nP la n) w ith in w hic h th e b oro ug hs w ou ld h av e to fit th eir o wn p la nn in g p olic ie s. T heM a yo r w a s to s et t he b ud ge ts f or a ll fo ur fu nc tio na l b od ie s.C rea ting a ne w city -w id e au tho rity w as w elcom ed b y the bo ro ug hs an d th e C ity o fL on do n. T he re w a s a w id ely -p erc eiv ed v ac uu m in t he c ap it al's g ov er nm e nt ( Wh ite &Y ou ng 1 99 6). S om e o f th e G L A's p ow e rs , e g tr an sp or t, e co no m ic d ev elo pm e nt, p la n-n in g a nd t he p olic e h ad b ee n tr an sfe rr ed fro m W h it eh all, w hile o th er s s uc h a s th e f irea nd e me rg en cy s erv ic es h ad b ee n ru n b y a b oro ug h jo in t c om m itte e o nly d urin g th ep erio d a fte r 1 986 . T he b oro ug hs lo st v ir tu ally n on e o f th eir o wn re sp on sib ilitie stho ug h, as w ith ea rlie r sy ste ms o f L on do n g ov ernm en t, th ere w as so me co nce rna bo ut th e w ay th e n ew m ay or w ou ld u se p la nn in g p ow ers . T he L on do n P la n a llo we dth e m a yo r t o d ete rm in e p olic ie s to w ar ds la nd u se , d en sit ie s, ta ll b uild in gs a nd s oc ia lh ou sin g t ha t w er e o f in te ns e in te re st t o th e b or ou gh s.K e n L iv in g st on e 's a d m in is tr at io n p re p ar ed a L o nd o n P la n w h ic h b e ca m e a d is ti ll at io no f h is s tra te gy fo r t he c ap ita l, e m bra cin g t he o bje ctiv es o f b oth h is s ep ar at ely e vo lv edtra ns po rt a nd e co no m ic d ev elo pm e nt s tr at eg ie s (S yre tt 2 00 6). T he L on do n P la n w a sa m o de rn v er sio n o f t he G re ate r L on do n D e ve lo pm e nt P la n, w h ic h h ad b ee n e vo lv edby the G LC for a lm ost the w ho le o f its ex is te nce . E le me nts o f the G LO P ha d be ens ha rp ly o pp os ed b y a n um b er o f b or ou gh s.T he P la n o utlin ed a s tra te gy th at w ou ld s ee L on do n's p op ula tio n a nd e co no my g ro wa s q uic kly a s p os sib le . T he M a yo r b elie ve d L on do n w a s a 'g lo ba l c it y', c om p etin g w ithc en tre s s uc h a s N ew Y ork a nd P aris fo r d om in an ce in fin an cia l & b u s in e s s s e rv i ce s ,c ult ur al in du st rie s a nd to ur is m . K en L iv in gs to ne u se d h is 's tr on g m a yo r' le gitim a cy tos et u p a n um b er o f c om m is sio ns a nd in stitu tio ns w h ic h w er e to c on sid er p olic y a re aso r is su es o f c on ce rn to th e m ay or. T he re w ere s uc h in itia tiv es in h ou sin g, c ultu re ,p ub lic h ea lth a nd d es ig n. T he b oro ug hs w ere c on su lte d fo rm ally a bo ut th e L on do nP la n a nd o th er p olic ie s d ev elo pe d b y C ity H all, b ut th ey w ere b y n o m ea ns im po rta ntp art ne rs in th e L iv in gs to ne a dm in is tr at io n. O n is su es lik e th e in tro du ctio n o f t he c on -g es tio n c ha rg e in 2 00 3, a t ra m wa y in w e st L on do n a nd t he p ro po rtio n o f 'a ffo rd ab le 'o r s oc ia l h ou sin g t o b e p ro vid ed a s p art o f m a jo r d ev elo pm e nts , L iv in gs to ne p us he dth ro ug h p olic y in th e fa ce o f b oro ug h o pp os itio n.T he b oro ug hs w er e r ep re se nte d b y t he A ss oc ia tio n o f L on do n G o ve rn m en t, w h ic h in2 00 6 w a s re na m ed 'L on do n C ou nc ils '. T he p ow e r o f t he o ffic e o f m a yo r, p artic ula rly

a s o pe ra te d b y K en L iv in gs to ne , p ro ba bly h ad th e e ff ec t o f r ein fo rc in g th e w illin gn es so f th e 3 3 L on do n a uth or itie s to w ork to ge th er a s a c olle ctiv e. A s h ad o fte n b ee n th ec as e d urin g th e e xis te nc e o f t he L on do n C ou nty C ou nc il a nd th e G LC , b oro ug hs g en -era lly h ad m ore in co mm on w ith e ach othe r tha n w ith th e m etro po lita n au th or ity -r eg ar dle ss o f p art y a ffilia tio n. O n ce th e G L A h ad b ee n c re ate d, b or ou gh s fo un d th em -s elv es h av in g to re ac t to th e m ay or 's p olic ie s o n is su es s uc h a s h ou sin g, w as te d is -p os al a nd h ig hw ay s, w he re th ere w as s ig nific an t o ve rla p o f p ow ers b etw ee n th e tw ole ve ls o f g ov er nm e nt. L iv in gs to ne n ev er h id h is d is da in fo r th e b oro ug hs o r th eir le ad -e rs ' c ap a ci ti es ( Pr os pe c t 2 0 07 ).A p erio d o f s ha rp e co no mic g ro wth b etw ee n th e in ce ptio n o f th e G LA a nd th e e nd o f2 00 7 a llo we d th e L iv in gs to ne L on do n P la n to h av e a v is ib le e ffe ct o n th e c ity a nd itssky line . O nce the P lan h ad b ee n fu lly im ple me nted , b orou gh s w ere req uired toac cep t h ig he r de ns ity de ve lo pm ent tha n th ey w ou ld ha ve a pp ro ve d p re viou sly .E nc ou ra ge m en t w a s g iv en b y t he M a yo r's 'a rc hite ctu re a nd u rb an is m u nit ' to a n um -b er o f ta ll b uild in gs . 'M ix ed u se ' d ev elo pm e nts w er e d em a nd ed , in clu din g a s la rg e as h ar e o f ' af fo rd a bl e' a n d s o ci al h o us in g a s p o ss ib le . H ig h er s ta n da rd s o f ' su s ta in a bl e'a r ch i te c tu r e we r e r e qu i re d .L on do n b oro ug hs h ad t o a cc om m od ate th e a ctiv itie s o f t h e G L A a nd t he m a yo r's p ow -e rs to in flu en ce th eir o wn p la nn in g p olic ie s. U ntil 2 00 8, th is m ea nt a cc ep tin g th eL iv in gs to ne 'w orld v ie w' th at L on do n s ho uld e xp an d a s fa st a s p os sib le , u sin g fo re -ca sts o f th is po pu la t ion a nd eco nom ic g ro wth to co nv ince c en tra l go ve rn me nt toin ve st in t he c ap ita l's tra ns po rt a nd o th er in fr as tru ctu re . T he C ity o f L on do n's d om i-n an ce of g lob al fin an cia l a nd b us in es s serv ice s w as a ke y e le me nt in th is v is io n:L on do n w as to b ec om e a c ity in cre as in gly d om in ate d b y g la ss to we rs , m as siv e n ewre sid en tia l b lo ck s a nd g ra nd p ro je cts . T he c ap tu re o f t he 2 01 2 O ly mp ic G am es w as ,in m a ny w a ys , t he p in na cle o f th is a pp ro ac h to g ov ern m en t.B oro ug hs , b ein g v ery d if fe re nt in t er ms o f t he ir h is to ry , p olitic s a nd e co no m ie s, r ea ct-e d d iffe re ntly t o th e L iv in gs to ne v er sio n o f L on do n. S om e o f th e r ic he r a uth or itie s inth e c en tre a nd w es t h ad p op ula tio ns th at re sis te d m uc h n ew d ev elo pm en t a nd w erep ar tic ula rly u nw illin g t o a llo w g la ss to w ers to s pro ut in th eir m id st. B ut in t he C ity a ndto th e e as t th ere w as a fa r g re ate r w illin gn es s to e mb ra ce e co no mic g ro wth a nd th en e w d e ve lo p m en ts i t b ro u gh t.T he 'T ha me s G ate wa y' w as p ro mo te d b y b oth th e M ay or a nd c en tra l g ov ern me nt a sa key a rea fo r e xpans ion , w hile bo roughs in the w es t opposed the expans ion o fH ea th ro w A irp ort. C ity H all, a s it h ap pe ne d, w an te d to s hift p ro sp erity to th e e as t o f

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th e c ity a nd d id n ot w an t to e xp an d th e a irp ort, s o th ere w as a t le as t s om e s ym m etryb etw e en L iv in gs to ne 's a sp ir at io ns a nd th os e o f th e b oro ug hs , e ve n if t h er e w e re m a nyd is a gr ee m e nt s a s w e ll .T he b oro ug hs a cc om m od ate d th e G LA , a s th ey h ad a cc ep te d th eir n ew ro le s w he nth e G LC w as a bo lis he d in 1 986 . F or m an y d ay -to -d ay b oro ug h a ctiv it ie s s uc h a s th ep ro vis io n o f s oc ia l c are , lo ca l e nv iro nm e nta l s er vic es , lo ca l p la nn in g a nd e du ca tio n,th e M a yo r h ad fe w o pp ortu nit ie s t o m e dd le in th eir a ffa irs . D e sp it e L iv in gs to ne 's w ill-in gn es s to p ro mo te th e re org an is atio n o f th e b oro ug hs fro m 3 2 a uth orit ie s to fiv e,W hiteh all sho we d n o e nth us iasm to ta ke suc h a prop os al ser iou sly . In th e p eriodim m ed ia te ly a fte r its c re atio n, th e G L A a nd th e b or ou gh s m a na ge d to c o-e xis t w ith ou ts er io us b lo od -le tt in g. H o we ve r, th e r ela tio ns hip w as o ne th at c ou ld a lw a ys c ha ng e.Sub - re g i ona l s t ruc ture sB ec au se e ac h L on do n b oro ug h g ov ern s o nly a s ma ll p art o f th e c ity , th ere h as b ee na lo ng -r un nin g d eb ate a bo ut th e n ee d fo r g ov ern m en t a t th e m e tro po lita n le ve l. T heG LC a nd th e G LA h av e, in tu rn , b ee n th e c ity -w id e g ov ern me nt tie r fo r L on do n a ndth ere a pp ea rs a s ettle d c on se ns us th at t he 'G re ate r L on do n' a re a e st ab lis he d b y th e1 96 3 L on do n G o ve rn m en t A ct s ho uld b e th e a dm in is tr ativ e 'm e tro po lita n' v er sio n o fth e c ity . O f c ou rs e, th ere a re th os e w ho b elie ve th ere n ee ds to b e a 're gio na l' le ve l o fg ov ern me nt c ov er in g n ot o nly L on do n b ut a ls o p arts o f th e S ou th E as t a nd E as t.F or a n um ber o f ye ars , th ere h as b ee n a d eb ate ab ou t the ne ed fo r 'su b-re gion al'a re as w ith in L on do n. C e ntra l L on do n h as lo ng b ee n s ee n a s a d is tin ct a nd w e ll-k no w ng eo gra ph ic al d iv is io n o f th e c ity , b ut h as h ad it s lo ca l g ov er nm e nt p ro vid ed b y s ev er -a l b orou gh s, no tab ly W estm in ste r, C am de n an d th e C ity . Fo r th is a re a, C en tra lL on do n P art ne rs hip ( 19 97 t o 2 00 8) a nd n ow C en tr al L on do n F orw a rd h av e p ro vid eda v olu nta ry , p artn ers hip -b as ed , m ec ha nis m fo r jo in t w ork in g o f th e s ev en c en tra lL on do n lo ca l a ut ho ritie s. W e st L on do n a nd E as t L on do n e ac h h ad b us in es s-le d p ar t-n e rs h ip s t ha t p re -d a te d t he c e nt ra l L o nd o n a rr an g em e nt s.

T he L on do n P la n e mb ed de d fiv e s ub -re gio ns : c en tra l, n orth , s ou th , e as t a nd w es t,e ac h e mb ra cin g b etw ee n fiv e a nd s ev en b oro ug hs . In 2 00 8, th e P la n w as a me nd edto c re ate fiv e w ed ge -s ha pe d s ub -re gio ns , e ac h o f w hic h in clu de d o ute r, in ne r a ndc en tr al b oro ug hs . W ith in t his la tte r p atte rn , th e C e nt ra l A ctiv itie s Z on e e m bra cin gp art s o f a ll fiv e s ub -re gio ns w a s g iv en a n e nh an ce d s ta tu s to a llo w c o- or din ate d p la n-n in g w ith in th e c it y c en tr e. R ev is io ns to th e L on do n P la n p ro po se d b y B or is J oh ns onw ill g o b ac k t o a n orth , s ou th , e as t, w e st a nd c en tr al p atte rn o f s ub -re gio ns .

S ub -re gio ns w ere , in p art, in te nd ed to p ro vid e z on es w ith in w hic h th e M ay or c ou lda do pt p artic ula r p la ns fo r t he f utu re e co no m ic d ev elo pm e nt o f t he c ity . T he y h av e a ls ob ee n u se d b y b oro ug hs , b us in es se s a nd o th er o rg an is atio ns a s th e b as is fo r jo in t' pa rt ne rs h ip ' a ct io n i n r el at io n t o l oc a l e c on o mi c a c ti vi ti es , s ki ll s a n d l oc a l p la n ni ng .L on do n b oro ug hs a pp ea r c on te nt to p la ya p ar t in th es e s ub -r eg io na l e ntitie s, w o rk -i ng w it h b u si ne ss e s, u n iv e rs it ie s , c e nt ra l g o ve rn m e nt a n d o th e r p a rt ne rs . I ne v it ab ly ,o ute r b oro ug hs a ls o h av e r ela tio ns hip s lo ok in g a w ay fro m L on do n to th e d is tr ic ts a ndc o un ti es t ha t s u rr ou n d t he c ap it al .T he crea tion o f 'm ulti a rea ag re em ents ' an d oth er, m ore fo rm al, a rran ge men tsb etw e en n eig hb ou rin g c ou nc ils w e re e nc ou ra ge d b y L ab ou r b etw e en 2 00 5 a nd 2 01 0.T he C oa lit ion G overnm ent h as tak en th is in itia tive fo rw ard b y p ro po sin g 'Lo ca lE n te rp ri se P a rt ne rs h ip s' w h ic h w i ll b e a b le t o b id f or r es ou rc e s f ro m a ' re g io n al g ro w thfu nd '. F iv e L on do n b oro ug hs (N ew ha m, T ow er H am le ts , H ac kn ey , W alth am F ore sta nd G re en wic h) h av e fo rm e d a H o st B oro ug hs U n it to a llo w th es e a uth or itie s to w o rkjo in tly o n s ec urin g lo ng te rm lo ca l b en ef its fro m th e O ly m pic G a me s in 2 01 2.I t i s u nc le ar h ow fa r b or ou gh s a re w illin g to s ub or din at e th eir p ow er s to s ub -re gio na lg ro up in gs o f th is k in d. T hu s f ar , th er e is little e vid en ce t ha t t he w o rk d on e b y p ar tn er-s hip s, h ow ev er im po rta nt, g oe s b ey on d th e a na ly sis o f c om m on p ro ble ms , p olic yp ap ers a nd p ro mo tio na l d oc um en ts . T he n ee d to c ut e xp en ditu re in th e y ea rs fro m2 0 11 -1 2 o n w ar ds , c o up le d w it h W h it eh a ll e n co u ra g em e n t f or m o re 'p la c e- ba s ed ' j oi ntw or kin g, m a y e nc ou ra ge g re ate r s ub -r eg io na l a ctiv ity in th e y ea rs a he ad .T h e r ef or m s o f 2 00 7F ollo win g th e le gis la tio n c re atin g t he G L A in 1 99 9, t he G re ate r L on do n A uth orit y A ct2 00 7e xte nd ed d ev olu tio n b y in cre as in g th e p ow ers a nd d utie s g iv en to th e M ay or.T he firs t change m eant the G LA w as g iven re spons ib ility fo r the a lloca tio n o fr es ou rc es f or s oc ia l a nd 'a ffo rd ab le ' h ou sin g, p re vio us ly in t he h an ds o f th e H o us in gC orp ora tio n (s ub se qu en tly th e H om es a nd C om m un itie s A ge nc y). T he M ay or w asg iv en e xtra p ow ers to in te rv en e in b oro ug hs ' h ou sin g p la ns if th ey d id n ot c on fo rm toh is h ou sin g s tra te gy . S ec on dly , th e M a yo r's p la nn in g p ow e rs w e re e xte nd ed to g iv eh im d ev elo pm e nt c on tro l p ow e rs o ve r la rg er- sc ale d ev elo pm e nts . U n de r t he se n ewp ow ers , th e M ay or w ou ld b e a llo we d to g iv e p la nn in g p erm is sio n fo r m ajo r s ch em ese ve n if th e lo ca l b oro ug h re je cte d th em . T ha t is , th e M ay or c ou ld o ve r-rid e b oro ug hdec is ions .

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Th ird ly , th e M ayo r w as m ade ch air o f a ne w Lo nd on W aste an d R ecyc ling B oa rd , aq ua ng o-ty pe b od y th at g av e th e G L A lim ite d in flu en ce o ve r th e s erv ic e. F ou rt hly , th eM ay or w as g iv en p ow ers to d ire ct th e p olic y o f th e fire a uth or ity , w hic h h ad n ot b ee np ro vid ed fo r u nd er th e o rig in al le gis la tio n. F ifth ly , s tra te gic d ire ctio n o ve r s kills a ndtra in in g fu nd in g w as tra ns fe rre d to th e G LA , w ith th e M ay or to c ha ir a n ew L on do nS kills a nd E mp lo ym en t B oa rd . L as tly , th e M ay or w as g iv en th e p ow er to m ak e a dd i-tio na l a pp oin tm e nt s t o th e b oa rd s o f f u nc tio na l b od ie s a nd th e o pp ortu nit y to c ha ir th epo l ic e au t ho ri ty .U nd er th e o rig in al le gis la tio n th e A ss em bly 's p ow ers w ere m ain ly to s cru tin is e th eM a yo r's a ctiv it ie s a nd w ith a t wo -th ird s m a jo rity , it c ou ld a m en d th e M a yo r's a nn ua lb ud ge t. T he 2 00 7 A ct, a llo we d it g re ate r c ap ac ity to h old c on firm ato ry h ea rin gs fo rs en io r m ay ora l a pp oin tm en ts , th ou gh n o 'v eto ' p ow er w as g iv en . T he A ss em bly w asa ls o g iv en th e p ow er to s et its o wn b ud ge t a nd a d uty to p ub lis h a n a nn ua l re po rt. O nth e o th er h an d, th e re sp on sib ilit y to a pp oin t th e a dm in is tra tiv e s ta ff o f th e G L A, a pa rtf ro m t he M a yo r's c lo se st a pp oin tm e nts , w a s t ra ns fe rre d to th e C h ie f E xe cu tiv e.T he 2 00 7 re fo rm s re du ce d th e b oro ug hs ' p ow ers a nd in flu en ce . M os t n ota bly , th eM a yo r's a dd it io na l d ev elo pm e nt c on tro l p ow e rs , w ill in ev ita bly h av e s ha pe d t he w a yth e b or ou gh s m a ke th eir o w n p la nn in g d ec is io ns - f or fe ar t he m a yo r w o uld o ve r-r id eth em . T he e xte ns io n o f m ay ora l h ou sin g p ow ers w as a ls o u nw elc om e in to wn h allsb ec au se it g av e th e M a yo r g re at er c ha nc e t o in te rv en e in t he a llo ca tio n o f re so ur ce sf or a ffo rd ab le a nd s oc ia l h ou sin g. H o us in g re so urc es a nd a llo ca tio n p olic ie s h ad lo ngb ee n a p oin t o f c on te ntio n b et we en L on do n b or ou gh s a nd c ity -w id e a uth orit ie s.In cr ea sin g th e M a yo r's p ow e rs o ve r t he f ire a ut ho rity a ls o s hift ed th e b ala nc e s om e -w h at b et we en t he b oro ug hs (w h o p ut fo rw a rd in div id ua ls to b e a pp oin te d t o h alf o f th ep os itio ns o n th e fire a uth ority ) a nd th e M ay or. B y a llo win g th e M ay or a g re ate r s ay inp olic y-m ak in g w ith in th e L on do n F ire a nd E me rg en cy P la nn in g A uth ority , th e b or-o ug hs ' in flu en ce w a s m a rg in ally r ed uc ed . M o re g en er ally , s tr en gth en in g th e M a yo r'sp ow e rs to m a ke a pp oin tm e nts a nd c ha ir L on do n-w id e b od ie s h ad th e e ffe ct o f a g g ra n-d is in g th e o ffic e o f M ay or, th ou gh w ith ou t a ny c om pe ns atin g in cre as e in b oro ug hs 'powers .

b or ou gh s, a s d es crib ed e arlie r, w a s o fte n d is m is siv e a nd u nc om fo rt ab le . T he fo rm e rM a yo r ra n h is a dm in is tra tio n tig ht ly a nd w ith litt le ro om fo r d is se nt. J oh ns on , b y c on -tr as t, w as le ss e xp er ie nc ed in t he b us in es s o f g ov er nm e nt, b ut o pe ra te d w ith a m o reg en tle a nd b en ig n s ty le .In th e p erio d im m ed ia te ly a fte r th e 2 00 8 e le ctio n, th ere w ere e xp lo ra tio ns to te st ifL on do n's s ys te m o f g o v er nm e nt c ou ld b e m a de th e s ub je ct o f s om e fo rm o f 'c ity c ha r-te r' th at c ou ld p ro vid e a lo ng erte rm b as is fo r a 'c on st itu tio na l' s ettle m en t b et we enc en tra l g ov ern me nt a nd th e G LA a nd , in th e s am e d oc um en t, b etw ee n th e G LA a ndth e b oro ug hs . A rr an ge m en ts o f th is k in d e xis te d in t he U n ite d S ta te s a nd c ou ld , p re -s um a bly , h av e b ee n c re ate d in B rita in . H ow e ve r, th e d eta il a nd le ga lis tic p re cis io nreq uired by a form al cha rte r p ro ved too m uch to d elive r. Ins tea d a m ore in fo rm ala gre em en t, b ac ke d u p b y tw ic e-y ea rly m ee tin gs , w as p ut in p la ce fo r th e M ay or a ndt he b o ro u gh s t o p u rs u e j oi nt o b je c ti ve s .H o we ve r, th e r ela tio ns hip b et we en J oh ns on a nd th e b or ou gh s h as n ot b ee n w ith ou tits p ro ble m s. In p ar tic ula r, th e M a yo r's 2 01 0 d ec is io n t o b id f or a dd itio na l p ow e rs fo rth e G LA cau gh t the b orou gh s un aw are a nd su bse qu en tly crea te d d em an ds fro mL on do n C ou nc ils fo r a n a pp ro ac h to c en tra l g ov ern me nt th at w ou ld g iv e a dd itio na lp ow ers to th e b oro ug hs a s w ell a s to C ity H all.B oris J oh ns on h as s ta rte d th e p ro ce ss o f re vis in g th e L on do n P la n. S ep ara te ly , th eC a me ro n g ov ern m en t e le ct ed in M a y 2 01 0 h as a nn ou nc ed it w i ll a bo lis h re gio na l s pa -tia l s tr ate gie s ( RS Ss ) t hr ou gh ou t E ng la nd , e xc ep t in L on do n. T he se tw o d ec is io nsm ea n a q ue stio n-m ark n ow h an gs o ve r th e fu tu re o f t he P la n. L on do n b oro ug hs p ri-v ate ly s ee th e d ec is io n to a bo lis h R SS s a s h av in g im plic atio ns fo r th e c ap ita l: w hys ho uld t he b oro ug hs b e in a d iffe re nt p os itio n fro m th e m e tro po lita n d is tr ic ts in o th erm a jo r c itie s, w h ere th er e w ill b e n o 'r eg io na l' p la nn in g? T he r ev ie w o f p ow e rs to ta kep la ce d urin g th e a utu mn o f 2 01 0 w ill b e re qu ire d to d ec id e o n th e fu tu re o f c ity -w id ep la n ni ng i n L o nd o n.T he L on do n b orou gh e le ctio ns o f 20 10 sa w the L ab ou r P arty w in nin g co ntro l o f 1 7a uth or itie s, a nd th us c on tro l o f L on do n C o un cils . T his m e an s a C o ns er va tiv e M a yo rn ow fa ce s a m ajo rity o f L ab ou r b oro ug hs . T he re is little e vid en ce th us fa r th at th isp olitic al c on ju nc tio n w ill m a ke th e re la tio ns hip a ny m o re p ro ble m at ic t ha n t he o ne th ate xis te d b etw ee n 2 00 6 a nd 2 00 8 w he re a L ab ou r M ay or o pe ra te d in a c ity w he re th eC o ns e rv at iv es c o nt ro ll ed a lm o s t h a lf o f t he b o ro u gh s . T h e q u al it y o f r el at io n s b e tw e enth e M ay or a nd th e b oro ug hs a pp ea rs to d ep en d m ore o n th e te mp era me nt a nd c ha r-a cte r o f th e k ey p la ye rs th an th eir p olit ic s. T he u nd er ly in g b ala nc e o f p ow e r b et we en

A c h an g e o f M a yo rT he 2 00 8 m ay ora l e le ctio n p ro du ce d a c ha ng e o f c on tro l a t C ity H all. L ab ou r's K enL iv in gs to ne w a s re pla ce d b y th e C on se rv ativ e B oris J oh ns on . T he g ov ern m en t s ty le so f th e tw o m e n c ou ld h ard ly h av e b ee n d iff er en t. L iv in gs to ne 's re la tio ns hip w ith th e

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th e M a yo r a nd t he b oro ug hs , o r t he d if fe re nt n ee ds o f 'in ne r' a nd 'o ute r' b oro ug hs , a rep ro ba bly a s m u ch o f a n is su e in m a yo r-b or ou gh re la tio ns a s p art y p olitic s.O ute r L on do n is su esB oris J oh ns on 's v ic to ry in th e 2 00 8 m ay ora l e le ctio n o cc urre d, in p art, b ec au se o f ala rg e in cre as e in C o ns er va tiv e v otin g in o ute r L on do n. K en L iv in gs to ne o ut-p olle dJ oh ns on in in ne r L on do n, b ut h ug e n um be rs o f v ote s fo r J oh ns on in o ute r b oro ug hss uc h a s B ex le y, B ro mle y a nd H illin gd on le ft th e C on se rv ativ e w ith a c om fo rta blem a jo rity . C o mm e nt ato rs s ug ge st ed t his re su lt w a s p artly c on ne cte d to p er ce ptio ns o fL iv in gs to ne a s a 'Z on e 1 m a yo r'.O ne o f J o hn so n's e arlie st a ctio ns w as to s et u p a n O ute r L on do n C om m is sio n (O LC )w h os e te rm s o f r ef er en ce w e re to "id en tify th e e xte nt to w h ic h o ute r L on do n h as u nre -a li se d p o te n ti al t o c o nt ri bu te t o L o nd o n's e c on o m ic s u cc e ss , i de n ti fy t he f ac to rs w h ic ha re h old in g it b ac k a nd r ec om m en d p olic ie s a nd p ro po sa ls f or th e fu tu re d ev elo pm e nto f o ute r L on do n to th e M ay or fo r in clu sio n in th e L on do n P la n a nd o th er G LA groups tr ate gie s a nd g uid an ce " ( Ex ec ut iv e S um m ar y, p ar ag ra ph 1 ).T he O L C's re po rt (T he M a yo r's O u te r L on do n C om m is sio n R e po rt 2 01 0) p ub lis he d inJ un e 2 01 0 in clu de s a la rg e n um be r o f re fe re nc es to th e a ctiv itie s a nd im po rta nc e o ft he b o ro u gh s . I n r ec o gn it io n , p e rh a ps , o f t he c e nt ra li ty o f a u th o ri ti es s u ch a s C r oy d onto th e re ge ne ra tio n a nd s uc ce ss o f th eir a re a, th e C om m is sio n e nv is ag ed th e M ay orw o rk in g c lo s el y w it h t he o u te r b o ro u gh s t o d e li ve r e co n om i c a n d s o ci al i mp ro v em e nt s.E mp lo ym en t g ro wth in o ute r L on do n h ad v ar ie d s ub sta ntia lly in th e p erio d 1 98 9 -2 00 7. In n in e o ute r b oro ug hs , to ta l e mp lo ym en t h ad d ec lin ed - b y a s m uc h a s 2 7.1p e r c en t i n B a rk in g & D ag en ha m . T he n ee d fo r e co no m ic r eg en er atio n in m a ny o ute rb o ro u g hs wa s s e lf -e v id e n t.Th e b orou gh s' in flu en ce w as c lea r in s uch sta tem ents w ith in th e fin al re po rt as"H o us in g o utp ut is p ar tly a fu nc tio n o f t he d en sity o f d ev elo pm e nt . H o we ve r, s im p lyra is in g d en sit ie s a cro ss th e b oa rd is n ot a s olu tio n to in cre as in g o utp ut, m uc h le sss us ta in in g th e d is tin ct q ua lit ie s o f s ub urb an L on do n" (T he M ay or's O ute r L on do nC om miss ion R ep ort 2 01 0). O uter b orou gh s h ave lon g w ante d the po wer to s top' cr amm in g ' o n s u bu rb a n s it es .In it s r ec om m en da tio ns , th e C o mm is sio n w a s a ga in re alis tic in a cc ep tin g th e d if fic ul-ty o f c re atin g 's up er -h ub s' o f d ev elo pm e nt in o ute r L on do n. T he r ep or t n ote d: " It w a sth ou gh t th at a b en efit o f [s up er h ub s in o ute r L on do n] m ig ht b e th eir p ote ntia l to p ro -v id e fu rth er a gg lo me ra tio n e co no mie s a nd s o ju st ify th e s ub sta ntia l in ve stm en t

re qu ire d to s up po rt th em . H ow ev er, it w a s s oo n re alis ed th at if th e c on ce pt w as to b ew id ely 'o wn ed ' b y b oro ug hs , e ve n if th e p ote ntia l g ro w th to s us ta in th em m ig ht c om eforw ard in the fu tu re th ey w ou ld ne ed to be d ev elo pe d w itho ut ha vin g a n eg ativei m pa c t o n e x is ti ng b u si ne s s l oc a ti on s " ( pa ra 4 .4 ).A lth ou gh C it y H a ll w a s s ee n a s h av in g a r ole in th e s pa tia l p la nn in g, s ub -r eg io na l a ndp ro m otio na l a sp ec ts o f o ute r L on do n's e co no m ic fu tu re , th e p re -e m in en ce o f t he b or -o ug hs ' r ole is c le ar . T he C o mm is sio n re co m me nd ed in te ns if ic at io n o f s om e a re as ino ute r L on do n a nd th at a n o n-g oin g f or um b e c re ate d to fo cu s o n o ute r L on do n is su es .T he O LC 's im po rta nc e is p ro ba bly th at it h elp ed fo cu s th e m in ds o f c en tra l L on do n-fo cu se d p olitic ia ns a nd o ff ic ia ls o n th e fa r la rg er a re a o f o ute r L on do n. In p artic ula r,it re min de d p olic y-m ak ers th at m an y o ute r b oro ug hs , p artic ula rly to th e e as t o f th ec ap ita l, h ad c on tin ue d to fa ll b eh in d (a t le as t r ela tiv ely ) d ur in g th e lo ng p erio d o f e co -n om ic g ro wth a fte r 1 992 . T he q ue stio n n ow is : h ow fa r c an th e o ute r b oro ug hs m ain -ta in th e fo cu s o f th e M ay or a nd h is fu nc tio na l b od ie s o n th e la rg e s ub urb an a re as o ft h e c it y?P ro po sa ls f or f ur th er r ef or mD uring the sum mer o f 2010, in response to gove rnment p la ns to abo lish theG o ve rn m en t O ff ic e fo r L on do n, M a yo r B or is J oh ns on m a de a n um b er o f p ro po sa ls fo rth e fu rt he r r efo rm o f L on do n g ov ern m en t. T he se c ha ng es w e re g en era lly in te nd ed t os hift p ow ers fro m c en tra l g ov ern me nt to C ity H all. T he p ro po se d re fo rm s a re s um -m a ri se d a s f ol lo w s:

H o u si ng a n d r eg e ne ra ti on : H o me s a nd C o mm u nit ie s A ge nc y p ow e rs in L on do nto b e d ev olv ed to th e G LA groupO ly m pic P ar k l eg ac y: T he O ly m pic P ark L eg ac y C o mp an y to b e re co ns titu te d a sa M a yo ra l D e ve lo pm e nt C o rp or atio n (M D C ), r ep or tin g d ir ec tly t o th e M a yo rR oya l P arks A ge nc y (R PA ) R es po ns ib ility fo r th e R oy al P ark s to b e d ev olv edfrom W hiteha ll to the M ayo r, to ensure c le ar dem oc ra tic a ccountab ility toL on do ne rs . I ts f un din g s ho uld b e tra ns fe rre d to th e G LASki l ls: T he M ay or, a nd th e L on do n S kills a nd E mp lo ym en t B oa rd (L SE B) w hic hh e c ha irs , to g et th e p ow er to a pp ro ve th e a llo ca tio n o f th e a du lt s kills b ud ge t inL on do n. C e ntr al g ov er nm e nt e xp en ditu re o n s kills a nd e m plo ym e nt in L on do n t oh av e re ga rd to th e L S E B s t ra tegy

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R a i l f ra n c h is e s : T he M a yo r a nd S ec re ta ry o f S ta te f or T ra ns po rt to a w ar d jo in tlyth e ra il fra nc his es fo r th os e s ub ur ba n r ail lin es w h ic h a re la rg ely c on ta in ed w ith inth e b ou nd arie s o f g re ate r L on do n. T he M ay or s ho uld h av e a fo rm al ro le in m on -i to r in g t h e f ra n c hi se s .P o rt o f L on do n A ut ho rit y ( PL A) : T he P LA to b e d ev olv ed to th e G LA to in te gra teits ro le w ith th e M ayo r's T ran sp ort S tra te gy an d th e Lo ndo n P lan . T he M ayors ho uld a pp oin t th e P LA B oa rd , w ith K en t a nd E ss ex g iv en th e rig ht o f re pr es en ta -t ion.

e nh an ce d ro le f or th e A ss em b ly in s tr at eg y d ev elo pm e nt. L on do n A ss em b ly to b es ep ara te d fro m th e G LA s o th at it is s ee n a s in de pe nd en t.W a s t e : Th e go vernm ent to co ns ide r op tion s fo r s tre ng th en ing the ro le o f th eL on do n W a ste a nd R e cy clin g B oa rd (L W aR B ) in d eliv erin g e ff ic ie nt a nd e ff ec tiv ew a ste m a na ge m en t fo r L on do n.E ne rg y a nd c lim a te c ha ng e: C o ns id era tio n to b e g iv en to m e ch an is m s th at c and eliv er a m o re c o- or din at ed a pp ro ac h to t he d eliv ery o f c lim a te c ha ng e a nd a lte r-n at iv e e ne rg y p ro gra m me s in L on do n.Hea lth: T he M a yo r to h av e a r ole in a llo ca tin g fin an cia l r es ou rc es fo r p ub lic h ea lt hi n L o nd o n ( ex c lu d in g c li ni ca l s e rv ic e s) .

S om e o f th es e p ro po sa ls h ad th e f ull s up po rt o f th e b oro ug hs , w h ile o th ers p ro vo ke dd em an ds fo r a s hift o f p ow er n ot o nly fro m W hite ha ll to C ity H all b ut a ls o d ow nw ard sto th e b or ou gh s. T he k ey s ph er es o f p olic y w he re th ere w as d is ag re em e nt w e re s um -m ariz ed in a le tte r w rit te n b y th e M ay or, th e b oro ug hs a nd th e L on do n A ss em bly toE ric P ic kle s, M P , S e cr et ar y o f S ta te fo r C o mm u nitie s a nd L oc al G o ve rn m en t (F ur th erD e vo lu tio n to L on do n). T he p ro ble m a re as w e re :O ly m pic P a rk L eg ac yT he M ay or's b id to c re ate a M ay ora l D ev elo pm en t C orp ora tio n (M D C) w as o pp os edb y b oth th e b oro ug hs a nd th e A s se mb ly . T he b oro ug hs w an t jo in t c on tro l o f t he M D Cif it is c re ate d. T he A ss em b ly b ro ad ly s up po rts th is p os it io n.PlanningA lth ou gh p la nn in g w as n ot s ee n b y th e M ay or a s a p rio rity fo r re fo rm , th e b oro ug hsp ro po se d th at th e s ca le o f d ev elo pm e nt 'th re sh old s' a bo ve w h ic h p ro po sa ls fo r d ev el-o pm en t m us t b e re fe rre d to th e M ay or s ho uld b e s ub sta ntia lly ra is ed . S ec on dly , th eb or ou gh s h av e p ro po se d th at t he M a yo r's r ig ht to a ct a s d ev elo pm e nt c on tr ol a uth or -ity ( un de r re fo rm s b ro ug ht in b y t he p re vio us g ov er nm e nt in 2 00 7) s ho uld b e r em o ve d.T he M ay or c ou nte re d b y s ta tin g th at s uc h re fo rm s w ou ld , in e ffe ct, re mo ve h is p la n-n in g p ow e rs a nd t hu s w is he s h is e xis tin g p ow e rs to re m ain .F or wa rd p la n o f d ec is io nsT he A ss em bly p ro po se d th at th e M ay or s ho uld b e re qu ire d to p ro du ce fo rw ard p la nsth at it (th e A ss em bly ) w ou ld b e a llo we d to 'c all in '. T he A ss em bly h as a ls o p ro po se d

T r a ff ic c o n tr o l: T he M ay or to b e g iv en g re ate r p ow er to a ffe ct tra ffic c on tro l o nT ra n sp o rt f or L o nd o n ( Tf L) r oa d s.Pol i c ing: T he M etro po lita n P olic e A uth ority 's (M PA ) fu nc tio ns to b e d iv id edb etw ee n th e M ay or a nd th e A ss em bly w ith th e M ay or ta kin g o n e xe cu tiv e fu nc -tio ns a nd th e A ss em b ly ta kin g o n th e s cr utin y f un ctio n. A p olic in g b oa rd fo r L on do nw ou ld b e c re ate d, u nd er th e M ay or's c on tro l. T he H om e S ec re ta ry a nd th e M ay orw ou ld jo in tly a pp oin t th e M e tr op olit an P olic e S erv ic e ( MP S) C o mm is sio ne r, w h ow ou ld in tu rn a pp oin t th e s en io r te am in th e M PS .A r ec on st it ut ed G L A g ro up : T he G L A g ro up to b e r eo rg an is ed to im p ro ve its e ffi-c ie nc y a nd e ffe ct iv en es s, w ith th e L OA 's fu nc tio ns fo ld ed in to th e G LA w ith th eL O A c ea sin g to e xis t.Resi l i ence : R e sp on sib ility fo r re silie nc e is su es in L on do n to b e d ev olv ed fr om th eG o ve rn m en t O ffic e fo r L on do n to th e M a yo r.S t a tu t or y s t ra t eg i es : T he M ay or to be g iven free do m to p ro du ce th e p la ns an ds tr at eg ie s o f h is c ho ic e, r at he r t ha n b ein g r eq uir ed to p ro du ce a d oz en s ta tu to rys tr at eg ie s. T he re s ho uld b e a s in gle c on su lta tio n p erio d fo r a ll s tr at eg ie s.G e ne ra l p ow e r o f c om p et en ce : In lin e w it h th e g ov ern m en t's p la ns to in tro du cea g en era l p ow er o f c om pe te nc e fo r lo ca l a uth or itie s, th e M ay or to h av e g re ate rfre ed om t o d eliv er p ub lic s erv ic es p ro vid ed in t he c ap ita l.F i n a n c ia l f l e x ib i li t y : T h e d e ta il ed r in g -f en c in g o f c e nt ra l g o ve rn m e nt g ra n ts w it h-in a re as s uc h a s p olic e to b e d is co ntin ue d.

O th er p ote ntia l c ha ng es p ut fo rw a rd b y th e M a yo r in clu de d:T he L on do n A ss em b ly : G re ate r p ow ers fo r th e M ay or to b e m atc he d b y g re ate rpow ers fo r th e London Assem bly to ho ld the M ayo r to account. A poss ib le

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th eir p ow ers to v eto th e M ay or's b ud ge t s ho uld b e e xte nd ed to h is c ap ita l s pe nd in gp la n. T he M a yo r h as r eje cte d b oth p ro po sa ls .T he b oro ug hs ' p ro po sa l to s ub sta ntia lly re du ce th e M ay or 's p la nn in g p ow ers a re b yf ar th e m o st im p orta nt e le m en t in t he d eb ate o ve r 'lo ca lis m ' a s it a ffe cts L on do n. T hem a yo r h as in te rp re te d t he C o ns erv ativ e-L ib era l D e mo cr at c oa litio n's a pp ro ac h tolo ca lis m a s s ug ge stin g a m ajo r s hift o f p ow ers fro m W hite ha ll to C ity H all, th e b or-oughs a re us ing the oppo rtun ity p ro v ided by the Gove rnment's proposedD ec en tra liz atio n a nd L oc alis m B ill, to b e in tro du ce d d urin g th e a utu mn o f 2 01 0, tore du ce th e M a yo r's p ow e r o ve r t he m .T his s ta nd -o ff b etw ee n th e M ay or a nd th e b oro ug hs is n ot u nc ha ra cte ris tic o f th elo ng er-te rm re la tio ns hip b etw ee n th e c ity -w id e a nd 'lo ca l' tie rs o f g ov ern me nt inL on do n. Th e b orou gh s ha ve n ever b een ke en o n the G LC or the G LA be ing a ble tou se a le ga lly -e nfo rc ed s tra te gic p la nn in g d oc um en t to d ire ct th eir lo ca l p la nn in g.S im ila rly , th e le ad er sh ip o f s uc ce ss iv e m e tro po lita n g ov ern m en ts in th e c ap ita l h asw is he d to u se s uc h p la nn in g m ec ha nis ms to in flu en ce th e s ha pe a nd d ire ct io n o f th ecity.

Conclus ionsL on do n g ov ern me nt h as ra re ly re ma in ed u nre fo rm ed fo r m an y y ea rs a t a tim e. In th eha lf-cen tu ry s ince the H erb ert C om miss io n w as s et up , the re h av e be en s eve ra lre vie ws a nd a n um be r o f re fo rm s. It is u nlik ely th at a ny o th er m ajo r c ity in th e w orldh as b ee n th e s ub je ct o f s o m uc h a na ly sis , d eb ate a nd c ha ng e. T he re fo rm s o f 2 00 0w e re r ad ic al. T he y in tro du ce d in to th e B ritis h p olit ic al s ys te m t he c on ce pt o f a n e xe c-u ti ve , d ir ec tl y e le c te d , m a yo r.K en Y ou ng , a lo ng -te rm c om m en ta to r o n L on do n g ov ern me nt, h as a rg ue d th at K enL iv in gs to ne 's v ie w s a bo ut t he L ab ou r g ov er nm e nt's p ro po sa ls to e xte nd t he M a yo r'sp ow ers in 2 00 7 a mo un te d "to a p ow erfu l c as e fo r tra ns fo rm in g h is o ffic e in to th at o f as tr on g m e tr op o li ta n d e ci si on -m a ke r" ( Yo u ng , 2 0 06 ). T h e M a yo r' s p ro p os a ls s u gg e st -e d a d rift , a cc ord in g to Y ou ng , fro m "m etro po lita n m an ag em en t a s a n eg otia tio np ro ce ss , to o ne o f th e e xe rc is e o f e xe cu tiv e a uth or ity ". S tro ng e xe cu tiv e m od els o fm e tr op olit an m a na ge m en t " te nd to p ro du ce d ee p c on flic ts t ha t, in t im e , e ro de th eirs up p or t a n d l ea d t o t he ir d is s ol ut io n ".T hu s, a cc ord in g t o Y ou ng , L iv in gs to ne w as in ev ita bly ta kin g a " ro ute b ac k to p as t c on -f lic ts ". B or is J oh ns on is p la nn in g to b uild o n L iv in gs to ne 's e xte nd ed p ow e r. T he b or-o ug hs a re n ow p us hin g b ac k a nd a tt em p tin g to w e ak en t he M a yo r's p la nn in g p ow e rs .

T he lo ng s w ee p o f L on do n h is to ry s ug ge st s Y ou ng 's p es sim is m c ou ld b e w ell p la ce d.O n th e o th er h an d, th e w orld ha s ch an ge d from th at o f e ven the 1 970s or 1 980s .In te rn atio na l p re ss ure s fo r e co no mic a nd s oc ia l c ha ng e, c om m on ly re fe rre d to a s'g lo ba lis atio n', h av e tu rn ed L on do n in to a v ery d iff er en t c it y fr om t ha t g ov er ne d b y th ep re de ce ss or L CC o r G LC . M uc h g lo ba l tra de m ov es th ro ug h L on do n. In te rn atio na lim migra tio n ha s tu rne d th e c ity in to on e of th e m ost cos mo po lita n in th e w orld .I nflu en ce s ra ng in g fr om te rro ris m to to ur is m h av e m e an t t ha t L on do n's m e tro po lita ngo ve rn me nt an d its bo ro ug hs h av e b eco me the p la ce w here the g lo ba l m eets th elocal.T he re is n o d ou bt th at b oro ug h-d riv en lo ca l a nd n eig hb ou rh oo d in te re sts re ma ins tr on g in th e c ity . C o nflic ts o ve r m a jo r p la nn in g d ec is io ns c an s pa rk f ie rc e d is ag re e-m e nts b etw e en th e M a yo r a nd p ar tic ula r b oro ug hs . E ve n m o re tr iv ia l is su es , s uc h a sb us la ne s o r tra ffic c alm in g c an p ro du ce a gg re ss iv e d is ag re em en t b etw ee n th e tw os ph ere s o f g ov ern m en t. T he c om p le xity o f th e w id er 'g ov ern an ce ' s ys te m in th e c ap -ita l, in vo lv in g d oz en s o f d iffe re nt b od ie s, u nd er min es p ub lic c om p re he ns io n o f w h o isr es p on s ib le f or w h at .L oo kin g b ac k fro m la te 2 01 0 to th e e vo lu tio n o f th e b oro ug hs s in ce th e c re atio n o f th eG LA in 2 00 0, it is re ma rk ab le h ow s uc ce ss fu l th e b oro ug hs h av e b ee n in s us ta in in gth eir a uto no m y a nd a uth or ity d ur in g a p er io d w h en a n ew a nd p ow er fu l d ire ctly -e le ct -e d e xe cu tiv e m a yo r h as g ro w n a nd p ro sp er ed . T he b oro ug hs u nd ou bte dly re pr es en tth e 'lo ca l' a nd 'n eig hb ou rh oo d' a sp ira tio ns o f th e c it y's e ig ht m illio n p eo ple . E qu ally ,th e M a yo r a nd G L A r ep re se nt th e c ity -w id e n ee d fo r in fr as tru ctu re a nd fo r th e p os si-b ility o f a ctio n a cro ss a w id er a re a th an o ne o r tw o b oro ug hs .T he b or ou gh s a nd th e M a yo r ( an d th eir p re de ce ss ors ) h av e d is ag re ed a bo ut p artic u-la r is su es a nd , in de ed , h av e fo ug ht o n d if fe re nt s id es w h en re fo rm s t o lo ca l g ov ern -m en t h av e b ee n p ro po se d, b ut th e c urre nt L on do n g ov ern me nt s ys te m a pp ea rs tob ala nc e th e 'lo ca l' a nd 'm e tr op olit an ' re qu ire m en ts o f a g re at c ity re la tiv ely w e ll. T heb or ou gh s a nd th e C it y o f L on do n a re s till th e b uild in g b lo ck s o f d em o cr ac y in L on do n.I t a p pe ars th ey w ill r em a in s o in th e f utu re .

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London : cop ing w ith auste rity London: cop ing w ith auste r ity

Re f e re nc e sF u rt he r D e vo lu ti on t o L on d on ', d a te d 2 3 J u ly 2 0 10 , u n pu b li sh e d l et te r s ig ne d b y t heM ay or o f L on do n, B or is J oh ns on , th e C ha ir o f L on do n C o un cils , J ule s P ip e a nd t heC ha ir o f th e L on do n A ss em b ly , D ee D oo ce y to R t H on E ric P ic kle s M P , S ec re ta ry o fS ta te f or C o mmu n it ie s a nd L oc al G o ve rn m en t; a v ai la bl e f ro m t he G re a te r L on d onA u th o ri ty o r L o n do n Co u nc il sG re a te r L on d on A u th o ri ty A ct ( 20 0 7) , C h ap te r 2 4 , T h e S ta ti on e ry O ff ic eH e bb er t, M a nd T ra ve rs , T . ( 19 88 ) T h e L on d on G o ve rn m en t H a nd bo o k, C a ss el lT he M a yo r' s O u te r L on d on C omm is si on R e po rt ( 20 1 0) G re a te r L on d on A u th o ri ty , J un eP r os p e ct , 2 7 A p ri l 2 0 0 7, I ss u e 1 3 3, ' In te r vi ew w i th K e n L iv in g s to n e 'S y re tt , S te ph e n " Go ve rn in g t he G lo b al C it y: E c on o mi c C h al le ng e s a nd L o nd o n's N e wI ns ti tu ti on a l A rr an g em e nt s" in L oc a l G o ve rn m en t S tu d ie s , V o lu m e 3 2, N u m be r 3 ,R o u tl ed g e , J u n e 2 0 06Whi te , J. & Y o un g , M . ( 19 96 ) G o ve rn in g L o nd on , I ns ti tu te o f C o mm un it y S tu d ie s

3 . T he c ha ng in g n a tu re o f th e L on do n P la n

N a nc y H olm a n

L on do n is in m an y w ay s a c ha otic p la ce . Its b ou nd arie s h av e b ee n h is to ric ally h ardto d efin e a nd its g ov er nin g s tru ct ure h as p ro ve d in effe ct ua l, u nlo ve d a nd a t tim es n on -e xis te nt. S o d ra win g u p a s tra te gic s pa tia l p la nn in g d oc um en t fo r a p la ce s uc h a sL on do n is c le arly n o e as y ta sk . T he firs t S pa tia l D ev elo pm en t S tra te gy (S DS ) fo rL on do n u nd er its n ew g ov ern me nta l a rra ng em en t w as p ub lis he d in 2 00 4 - o nly th eth ird s uc h p la n c ov erin g th e w id er L on do n re gio n a nd o nly th e s ec on d to h av e s ta tu -to ry w eig ht . G o rd on (2 00 3) a na ly se d its p re de ce ss or s in te rm s o f th e le ve l o f p ers on -a l v is io n a nd id en tity s ee n in e ac h. T he ic on ic 1 94 4 A be rc ro mb ie P la n w as c le ar lyth e w o rk o f a p ro fe ss io na l p la nn er c ha rg ed w ith d eliv erin g th e fo un da tio ns o f G re ate rL on do n's p os tw a r re co ns tr uc tio n. V is io na ry fo r its tim e, a nd c erta in ly a ss oc ia te ds tro ng ly w ith its a uth or , b ut th e p la n its elf d id n ot o ffe r a p artic ula rly p er so na l in sig htin to t he fu tu re o f th e c ap ita l a nd its s urro un din gs a nd c arrie d n o s ta tu to ry w eig ht. T he1 96 9 G re at er L on do n D ev elo pm e nt P la n w as th e firs t s ta tu to ry s tr ate gic p la n fo r th ec ity reg io n a nd re fle cted a far dr ie r, m ore tech nocra tic ap pro ach to p lan ning inL ondo n. It is p rag matic and obv iou sly the produ ct o f com pro mise , and is a lm ostd ev oid o f p ers on al a ut ho ria l v is io n. M a yo r K en L iv in gs to ne 's 2 00 4 L on do n P la n th atw as r ev is ed in 2 00 8 is a d iffe re nt a nim a l a lt og eth er. It is p artly a s tr ate gic s pa tia l p la na nd p artly th e m ay or 's p ers on al v is io n fo r L on do n's d ev elo pm en t. N ow M ay or B orisJ oh ns on , e le cte d in 2 00 8, is b rin gin g o ut h is o wn p la n. T his c ha pte r a im s to e xa m in eth e c urre nt d ra ft L on do n P la n ( 20 09 ) in th e c on te xt o f its h is to ric al lin ea ge , a nd to a skif, lik e L iv in gs to ne 's p la n, it re pre se nts th e m a yo r's v is io n, o r ra th er c an b e s ee n a s are tre at to a le ss u nifie d v ie w o f th e c ity 's d ev elo pm en t.P la ns in s ea rc h o f a s tr ate gic v is io n - T he L iv in gsto ne L on do n P la nC re atin g a s tro ng s tra te gic v is io n in a p la n th at m us t c o-o rd in ate a nd s ha pe a n a re ao f 1 ,572 s q k m w ith a n e stim ate d p op ula tio n o f 7.56 m illio n is n o e as y ta sk . In 1 96 9th e G re ate r L on do n C ou nc il (G LC ) p ro du ce d its firs t a tte mp t, T he G re ate r L on do n1D e ve lo pm e nt P la n. It w a s c ritic is ed in th e L ay fie ld R ep ort , w hic h s ta te d th at "th e G LC

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h a d o n ly m a na g ed ; .. . w i th t he g re a te s t d if fi cu lt y, a n d a ft er e x te n si on s o f t im e , ( to ) p ro -d uc e a p la n c on ta in in g re la tiv ely litt le in fo rm a tio n, d iffu se a im s a nd v ag ue p olic ie s"(q uo te d in F os te r & W hite he ad 1 97 3, p . 4 43 ). In p art th is w as d ue to th e s ta tu to ryn atu re o f p la nn in g in L on do n w he re lo ca l d ev elo pm en t p la ns a re w ritte n a nd im ple -m en te d b y th e 32 b oro ug hs a nd th e C orp ora tio n o f th e C ity o f L on do n. P ro du cin g ac o- or di na ti ng s tr at eg y t ha t o ff er s o v er al l v is io n a n d d ir ec ti on w it ho u t c a us in g i mm e a s-u ra ble o ffe nc e to th e lo ca l p la nn in g a uth oritie s is a p artic ula rly s lip pe ry p olit ic altig htro pe , a nd it h as b ee n th e u nd oin g o f a n um be r o f p la nn in g e ffo rts in L on do n.K en L iv in gs to ne 's L on do n P la n b y c on tra st, o ffe rs a p ers on al, c en tr alis ed a nd s tra te -g ic v is io n fo r L on do n's fu tu re - t he fir st s ec tio n o f th e d oc um e nt is e ntitle d 'M y v is io nf or L on do n'. G o rd on (2 00 3) n ote s th at t he le gis la tio n e sta blis hin g th e G L A r eq uir ed itto b ala nc e c on ce rn s a bo ut th e e co no m y, s oc ie ty a nd t he e nv iro nm e nt in a s us ta in ab lew a y. B ut h e a ls o p oin ts a st ute ly to a m e ta -n arr at iv e r un nin g t hr ou gh th e p la n, w hic hh elp s e na ble L iv in gs to ne to b uild u p le gitim ac y a nd p ow er. T he M ay or w as 'p la yin gth e tr um p c ard ' o f L on do n's p la ce a s a 'w or ld c it y' a nd la yin g a le gitim a te c la im to c en -tra l go vernm ent re sou rc es (G ord on 20 03). F or exa mple , p ag e 4 o f th e p lan sa ys" ... th e c en tra l m e ss ag e o f th is p la n ( is ) th at L on do n m u st fu lfil its p ote nt ia l a s a w o rldc ity in th e n atio na l in te re st a s w ell a s th at o f L on do ne rs " (G LA 2 00 4). T his id ea o f as us ta in ab le w orld c ity is re pe ate d th ro ug ho ut th e p la n, a nd a pp ea rs to b e s yn on y-m o us w ith th e M a yo r's v is io n fo r t he c it y r eg io n. T hro ug h h is p la n, L iv in gs to ne e st ab -lish es the d isco urse o f L on do n's ro le as a pr im ary m otor in the U K ec on om y. T hisa ffo rd s th e m ay or m ore p ow er th ro ug h b ette r c on ne ctiv ity w ith b us in es s-le d u rb anre gim es (T ho rn le y e t a l 2 00 5), a nd g iv es c en tra l g ov ern me nt a re as on to a llo ca ter es o ur ce s t o t he c a pi ta l.L on do n's 'w o rld c ity ' s ta tu s is n ot t he o nly s tro ng s tra te gic e le m en t ru nn in g th ro ug h-o ut t he p la n. S us ta in ab ility a nd s us ta in ab le d ev elo pm e nt is su es c on sid ere d in c ha p-te r 2 a re s ee n a s th e le ad in g e le me nts o f th e b ro ad d ev elo pm en t s tra te gy . It s ou gh tto p ro m ote g ro w th th at d oe s n ot e xc ee d L on do n's c urr en t b ou nd ar ie s o r e nc ro ac h o no pe n s pa ce s. L iv in gs to ne lin ke d s us ta in ab ility to a n e xp lic itly s pa tia l s tra te gy th ati nv o lv e d t he i nt en s if ic a ti on o f d e ve lo p m en t i n a re a s w it h g o od p u bli c t ra n sp o rt a cc e ss ,an d e xte nd ing de ve lop me nt e astw ards in to th e T ha mes G atew ay as pa rt o f w ide rr eg io n al p ri or it ie s . T h e p la n t he re fo re c on ta in s a p o ly c en tr ic d e ve lo p m en t s tr at eg y t ha ts ee ks to re la te a nd c on ne ct th e v ario us p arts o f L on do n in a m an ne r th at e ffic ie ntlyu s e s f in it e r e so u rc e s .

D eve lopm en t F ram ew orks and U nita ry D eve lopm ent P lan s (U DPs now Loca lD ev elo pm en t F ra me wo rk s - L DF s) w ere to b e ju dg ed . It is im po rta nt h ere to s tre ssth at th e L on do n P la n is th e S pa tia l D ev elo pm en t S tra te gy fo r L on do n a nd p ro vid es afra me wo rk fo r d ev elo pm en t d ec is io ns , a nd b oro ug hs m us t ta ke a cc ou nt o f its g uid -a nc e in d ra win g u p t he ir o w n lo ca l p la ns . T he se s us ta in ab ility c rite ria , w h ic h a re s eto ut in fu ll la te r in th is c ha pte r, tu rn th e lo os e a nd s om ew ha t p ro te an c on ce pt o f s us -ta in ab ility in to a m o re d efin ed a nd c on cre te s et o f c on ce pts w it h s pe cific d efin itio ns .I n s u mma ry , t he c ri te ri a:

o fa vo ur th e u se o f p re vio us ly d ev elo pe d la nd ;o fa vo ur p oly ce ntr ic d ev elo pm e nt in a re as w it h g oo d a cc es s to p ub lic tra ns po rt,e m p lo y me n t, s h op s , h o us in g a n d i nf ra st ru c tu re ;o e m p ha si se a v oi da n ce a n d m it ig a ti on o f r is k ( pr im a ri ly f lo o di ng );o re qu ire a ss es sm en t o f th e im pa ct o f d ev elo pm en t im pa cts o n n atu ra l, c ultu ra la n d h u m an r es o ur ce s ;o e m ph as is e th e c on tr ib utio n m ix ed -u se d ev elo pm e nt s m ig ht m a ke in c om m un itybu i ld ing .

B y in co rp ora tin g th es e c rite ria in th e s ta tu to ry p la n, L iv in gs to ne e ns ure d th at b or-o ug hs to ok t he m in to c on sid era tio n w h en re fle ctin g o n th e lo ca tio na l s uita bility a ndn atu re o f d ev elo pm e nt in th eir a re as .T his d ire ctio n t o b oro ug hs to ta ke s us ta in ab ility in to a cc ou nt w h en d ra w in g u p th eirL D Fs a nd c on sid erin g d ev elo pm e nt p ro po sa ls w a s th e fin al w a y in w h ic h th e L on do nP la n w a s u se d to c o- or din at e a nd c re ate a c en tra lis ed , 's ha re d' s en se o f v is io n f or th ec ap ita l's d ev elo pm e nt. T hro ug h th is m e ch an is m , th e M a yo r c ou ld n ot o nly c on tr ol a nds ha pe p olic y in L on do n o n a 'g ra nd ' s ca le b ut a ls o a t in div id ua l b oro ug h le ve l. T heM a yo r s ou gh t to d o t his th ro ug h p re sc rip tiv e p olic ie s s uc h a s th e s us ta in ab le d ev el-o pm e nt c rite ria a nd a ls o v er y s pe cific h ou sin g a ff or da bility a nd d en sity ta rg ets , p ar k-in g re gu la tio ns a nd a ta ll-b uild in gs p olic y - a ll o f w h ic h u ps et th e b oro ug hs e ith er c ol-le ctiv ely o r in div id ua lly . T he 2 00 8 v er sio n o f t he p la n in clu de s 3 00 in stru ctiv e p hra s-e s to th e b oro ug hs , s ay in g th ey 's ho uld ', 'w ill' o r 'm us t', g iv in g c en tra l d ire ctio n o ne ve ry th in g fr om u rb an re ge ne ra tio n, t o h ou sin g s up ply ta rg ets , to p ar kin g s ta nd ar dsa nd th e p ro vis io n o f c om b in ed h ea t a nd p ow e r h oo k-u ps in n ew d ev elo pm e nt.

T he L iv in gs to ne p la n f ur th er e la bo ra te d o n th e c on ce pt o f s us ta in ab le d ev elo pm e ntw ith a lis t o f su sta in ab ility c r ite r ia (P olicy 2 A.1) ag ain st w hic h S ub -R eg ion al

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H is to ry te lls u s th at a tte m ptin g c en tra l c on tr ol in L on do n is h ow e ve r a d an ge ro us ta sk .G era ld K au fm an , a ju nio r D ep artm en t o f th e E nv iro nm en t M in is te r in 1 975 , g av e av iv id a cc ou nt o f th e t en sio ns b etw e en th e c en tre (t he G L C) a nd th e b or ou gh s:

I d is co ve re d t ha t th e n or ma l, o r a t a ny r at e e xp ec te d, p ar ty a nta go nis m b etw e enL ab ou r a nd C on se rv ativ e" . wa s a s n oth in g to th e h os tility v er gin g o n lo at hin g th atco uld e xis t - no t o f co urse o n a p erson al ba sis - be tw een the Lo nd on b orou gh sa nd th e G re ate r L on do n C o un cil (q uo te d in P ilg rim , 2 00 6:2 26 ).

T his te ns io n w as c er ta in ly p re se nt in th e r ela tio ns hip b etw e en M a yo r L iv in gs to ne a ndthe Lo nd on b orou gh s. S om e pu nd its d esc rib ed th eir re la tio ns a s co mb ative an da dv er sa ria l, a nd s aid lo ca l c ou nc il le ad ers w e lc om e d th e m o re c on cilia to ry to ne s o fL iv in g st on e 's s u cc e ss o r B o ri s J o hn s on ( C oo p er & Dow l er 2 0 0 8) .L iv in gs to ne 's L on do n P la n w as c le arly a d oc um en t w rit te n to e mp ha sis e L on do n'sp la ce o n th e w orld s ta ge . It h ig hlig hte d L on do n's ro le a s a w orld c ity a nd s tre ss ed itsim po rta nc e fo r th e U K a s a w ho le . Th e M ay or w as ab le to us e th is argu me nt to ga r-n er s up po rt f ro m b us in es s a s w e ll a s in ve stm e nt f ro m c en tra l g ov ern m en t. F or e xa m -p le , h e s ec ure d fro m th e T re as ury a s ub sid y fo r L on do n b us es , s up po rt fo r th e 2 01 2O ly mp ic s a nd th e lik ely s up po rt o f C ro ss ra il. T his h elp ed p ro pe l h im to a p os iti

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