Long Term Development

Long-Term AthleticDevelopment and ItsApplication to YouthWeightliftingRhodri S. Lloyd, PhD, CSCS*D,1 Jon L. Oliver, PhD,2 Robert W. Meyers, MSc,2 Jeremy A. Moody, PhD,2

and Michael H. Stone, PhD, FNSCA3

1Faculty of Applied Sciences, University of Gloucestershire, Gloucester, United Kingdom; 2Cardiff School of Sport,Cardiff Metropolitan University, Cardiff, United Kingdom; and 3Department of Exercise and Sport Science, Center ofExcellence for Sport Science and Coach Education, East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, Tennessee

S U M M A R Y

CONSIDERABLE CONTROVERSY

AND MISGUIDED INFORMATION

HAS SURROUNDED THE INCLU-

SION OF WEIGHTLIFTING WITHIN

YOUTH-BASED STRENGTH AND

CONDITIONING PROGRAMS TO

DEVELOP STRENGTH, POWER, AND

SPEED. THIS ARTICLE REVIEWS THE

EVIDENCE TO SUPPORT ITS INCLU-

SION AS A SAFE AND EFFECTIVE

MEANS TO ENHANCE ATHLETIC

POTENTIAL. GUIDELINES ARE PRE-

SENTED TO PROVIDE COACHES

WITH A STRUCTURED AND LOGI-

CAL PROGRESSION MODEL,

WHICH IS ASSOCIATED WITH THE

THEORETICAL CONCEPTS UNDER-

PINNING LONG-TERM ATHLETIC

DEVELOPMENT. IT IS HOPED THAT

THIS REVIEW WILL SERVE AS A

USEFUL TOOL TO HELP STRENGTH

AND CONDITIONING COACHES IN-

TEGRATE WEIGHTLIFTING EXER-

CISES WITHIN TRAINING

PROGRAMS OF YOUNG ATHLETES

IN A SAFE AND EFFECTIVE MANNER.

INTRODUCTION

Weightlifting has long beenused in athletic training pro-grams to develop strength,

power, and speed in recreational andelite level athletes. Weightlifting refersto the official sport (that includes thesnatch and clean and jerk) and shouldnot be confused weight lifting, resis-tance training, or powerlifting (54).Although the training modality is oftenused within elite level sport (30,52), itsinclusion within youth-based trainingprograms has previously been ques-tioned over concerns surrounding thesafety and well-being of young athletes(2). However, recent literature suggeststhat injuries occurring as a direct resultfrom generic resistance training andspecific weightlifting activities in youthsis relatively low (10,20,21,31,45,50,55).Indeed, it is important for physicaleducators, sports coaches, and strengthand conditioning coaches to appreciateand rationalize the dichotomy thatexists between the risk and reward ofweightlifting exercises, as they do inmany other training modalities andtechnical preparation strategies. It issuggested by some of the leading sportsscience authorities, such as the NationalStrength and Conditioning Association(NSCA), Australian Strength and Con-ditioning Association (ASCA), UnitedKingdom Strength and ConditioningAssociation (UKSCA), and the BritishAssociation of Sport and Exercise Sci-ences (BASES), that in the presence of

suitably qualified personnel, resistancetraining in general is a safe and effectivepractice for young athletes to partici-pate (4,19,49,55).

MISCONSTRUED RISKS ANDUNDERVALUED REWARDS OFWEIGHTLIFTING MOVEMENTS FORYOUTHS

A major concern related to weightlift-ing movements for young athletes hasrevolved around the potential damageto the epiphyseal growth plate. Al-though it is true that this structuralcompound is weaker than the sur-rounding connective tissue, there is noevidence indicating that weightlifting,and more generally resistance training,is especially injurious to the epiphyses(49) or has a direct correlation withreductions in eventual growth height inyoung athletes (18,39).

Conversely, adaptations to the con-nective tissues and skeletal system thatcan be gained from weightlifting whenyoung athletes are appropriately su-pervised will better prepare them totolerate the impact and ground re-action forces that they are likely to

K E Y W O R D S :

weightlifting; long-term athletedevelopment; power; youths;pediatrics

Copyright � National Strength and Conditioning Association Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-scj.com 55

experience within a sporting environ-ment. Consequently, instead of think-ing of the risks associated with‘‘exposing’’ young athletes to weight-lifting, strength and conditioningcoaches, sports coaches, and physicaleducators should focus on the risks of‘‘not exposing’’ young athletes to thetraining mode to better prepare themfor competitive sporting situations.

Researchers have identified an addi-tional range of risk factors prevalent toweightlifting (and resistance training ingeneral), including unsafe environmentand equipment, excessive load andvolume of training, and limited restintervals (25,49). However, as theauthors confirm, these risk factors canbe reduced or eliminated with appro-priate supervision and instruction fromsuitably qualified coaches. As a mini-mum, coaches should have attaineda relevant strength and conditioningqualification (e.g., NSCA CertifiedStrength and Conditioning Specialist,UKSCA Accredited Strength and Con-ditioning Coach awards, or USAWeightlifting certification).

These qualifications only suggest a suit-able level of knowledge or competency,and therefore it is essential that thecoach has the relevant pedagogicexperience and communication skillsto work with young athletes of varyingabilities and personalities. This is espe-cially true when considering the plan-ning of weightlifting training sessions,given the acceptance that strength andconditioning programs designed foradults (in terms of loading, frequency,and intensity) should never be super-imposed on children owing to clearphysiological differences (19,44,46,49).

A growing body of evidence now existsto question the previous concernssurrounding the participation of youthsin weightlifting activities (20,24,25).Although minimal recent research ex-amining the safety of youth weightlift-ing exists, it has been established inretrospective analysis that weightliftingis safer than many other competitivesports and activities (31). Conversely,there seems to be no evidence to prove

that when performed correctly underthe supervision of appropriately quali-fied personnel, weightlifting carries agreater risk of injury than other activitiesthat youths regularly participate in(24,31). Importantly, research nowshows that young athletes participatingin weightlifting activities can demon-strate significant gains in strength withfew reports of injury (10,22,50).

Specifically, Pierce et al. (50) high-lighted that during a year long periodof weightlifting competitions and train-ing sessions, injuries incurred directlyfrom weightlifting resulted in no loss oftraining days in a sample of 70 boysand girls (aged 7–16 years), whoregularly completed maximal andnear-maximal lifts in competition. Inaddition to the increases in loads liftedby the individuals, the lack of reportedinjuries further informs the potentialgains and relatively low risks associatedwith youth weightlifting. Anotherstudy by Byrd et al. (10) monitoredweightlifting performance of youngathletes (aged 12–15 years) over timeand reported significant improvementsin absolute and relative load lifted forthe snatch and clean and jerk and totalload when lifts were combined. Im-portantly, over the course of 534competitive lifts and all training ses-sions, there were no injuries reportedthat required medical attention orforced the athlete to miss training(10). This provides evidence for theeffectiveness of the training modewhen coached and supervised byappropriately trained personnel.

It is now recognized that a well-struc-tured weightlifting program can elicitpositive training adaptations in youngathletes for strength and power (8,9,11).Currently, there is a lack of publishedresearch investigating the effectiveness ofweightlifting on actual sports perfor-mance in adolescent athletes. However,the snatch, clean and jerk, and theirderivative lifts, do replicate the kineticand kinematic patterns inherent to lowerlimb locomotion, where force applicationagainst the ground via triple extension ofthe ankle, knee, and hip is essential(12,32). The adaptations in strength and

power that result from weightlifting (34)would suggest potential transfer tosporting movements such as sprinting,accelerating, decelerating, and jumping.

However, weightlifting should not onlybe viewed from a performance enhance-ment perspective but also from an injuryprevention standpoint. Previous litera-ture examining the loading duringlanding activities has shown that theground reaction forces can be up to7 times body mass (14,42). Whenexamining the weightlifting exercises inmore detail, although the initial lift fromthe ground to shoulder height (clean) orto above the head (snatch) involvesprimarily concentric muscle activity, thecatch phase of each lift involves drop-ping underneath the bar to support theload in either a front squat position forthe clean or an overhead position for thesnatch (Figure 1). During the catchportion of each lift, the primary muscleaction of the lower limbs will involveeccentric contraction, synonymous withthe muscle actions involved duringlanding activities. Properly performedcatch phases produce a smaller impactforce and are more controllable thantypical jump landings (29). Given thereduced prelanding neuromuscular effi-ciency demonstrated by younger chil-dren (47), and the high incidence ofnoncontact anterior cruciate ligamentinjuries in young women (15), it isspeculated that weightlifting could beused as an effective injury preventionstrategy by strengthening the movementkinematics inherent to landing, cutting,and deceleration.

LONG-TERM ATHLETEDEVELOPMENT ANDWEIGHTLIFTING FOR YOUTHS

Following the emergence of the long-term athlete development (LTAD)model (5) and its acceptance by a rangeof sporting organizations (3,9,16),strength and conditioning coaches areencouraged to expose young athletes tospecific training stimuli at various stagesof development, where they are mostsusceptible to accelerated adaptation(5). The model has been designed tocombine successful training methodsalongside a greater scientific basis of

VOLUME 34 | NUMBER 4 | AUGUST 201256

Weightlifting for Youth

pediatric exercise science (5). Specifi-cally, the model attempts to accommo-date for variations in biological age, byobjectively assessing rates of change instature and body mass (5). Such anapproach enables children to be trainedin accordance with their biologicalstatus as opposed to chronologicalage, and it is speculated that withexposure to the correct training stimulusduring ‘‘windows of opportunity,’’young athletes can reach a greaterphysiological ceiling potential (5). Thesewindows are typically pre- and post-pubertal for strength, speed, suppleness,stamina, and skill, and exist in relation tothe onset of peak height velocity (PHV)(5). PHVrefers to the maximum velocityof growth in stature during a growthspurt and has been used to characterizedevelopments in performance relative tothe adolescent growth spurt (40).

The prepubertal window is associatedwith age-related neural developments,whereas the postpubertal window isa result of altered sex hormone concen-trations, leading to greater muscle massand force producing capabilities (27).Despite an overreliance on anecdotalevidence, and a lack of peer-reviewedscientific research to support the exis-tence of windows of opportunity (27),

the LTAD model at least offers a struc-tured approach to youth athletic de-velopment. Indeed, windows ofopportunity may present unique train-ing opportunities to maximize strength,power, and speed gains for youngathletes, and thus the LTAD model orvariations can serve as an acceptablefoundation for training young athletes.

Because of the unique physiologicalprocesses associated with the variousdevelopment stages of childhood andadolescence, and to reflect the differentphases of the LTAD model (5), thisarticle will review some of the trainingconsiderations inherent to the follow-ing key phases: prepubertal, circapubertal, and postpubertal.

PREPUBERTAL TRAININGFOCUS—‘‘FUNDAMENTALS’’ AND‘‘LEARNING TO TRAIN’’

Higgs et al. (33) indicate that physicalliteracy involves the development ofcompetency in fundamental movementskills (FMS; walking, running, andjumping) and fundamental sport skills(catching, hopping, and galloping),which when combined, allows theyoung athlete to skillfully move in arange of sporting situations. Previousresearch has stated that between the

ages of 6–8 years and 10–12 years,periods of peak brain maturation occursin children (51), and that childrenundergo accelerated adaptation of theneuromuscular system (8). It is largelyaccepted that by this time a number ofthe neural pathways for FMS will bedefined, which would suggest that froma weightlifting perspective, the prepu-bertal years pose a critical timeframe inwhich to introduce and reinforce a widevariety of techniques. This is reinforcedby previous literature that stated thestarting age for weightlifting training insome Eastern European countries isapproximately 10 years of age and thisapproximate age is being used by somecoaches in the United States (54). Withrespect to the LTAD model, this time-frame would encapsulate the FUNda-mentals and Learning to Train stages(5). Weightlifting exercises possessa heightened coordinative demand incomparison with more basic resistancetraining techniques (26), and thereforeexposing children to weightlifting tech-niques when brain and neuromuscularsystem maturation rates are at theirhighest, would seem logical. As a con-sequence of technical development (andthe lack of adequate testosterone con-centrations to build lean muscle mass),strength and conditioning coachesshould expect improvements instrength and power in prepubertalchildren during these stages owing tomore effective and efficient neurologicalqualities (7).

CIRCA PUBERTAL TRAININGFOCUS—‘‘TRAINING TO TRAIN’’

As children approach PHV, strengthand conditioning coaches should beaware of the likely disproportionategrowth rates of muscle and skeletaltissue within both males and females.During this period, those responsible forthe athletic development of youngathletes should be aware of the potentialphysical discomfort that children mayexperience during rapid stages of non-linear growth. Additionally, coachesshould be aware of potential break-downs in motor coordination as a con-sequence of learning to use longer limbs,a process that is often referred to as

Figure 1. Front squat position for the clean (left), and an overhead squat position forthe snatch (right).

Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-scj.com 57

‘‘adolescent awkwardness’’ (48). How-ever, it should be stressed that if externalloadings need to be reduced during thisphase, an element of focus on technicalcompetency should still be retainedwithin the program. This period ofnatural development would coincidewith the early stages of the ‘‘Trainingto Train’’ phase of the LTAD model (5).

POSTPUBERTAL TRAININGFOCUS—‘‘TRAINING TO COMPETE’’AND ‘‘TRAINING TO WIN’’

Approximately 12–18 months afterPHV, children will normally experi-ence peak weight velocity (PWV) (6),which is a phase of developmentcharacterized by rapid increases inmuscle mass as a result of increasingsex hormone concentrations (27).These hormonal changes will resultin developments in muscle size (in-crease muscle fiber size) and structure(increased muscle pennation), andconsequently an increased musclecross-sectional area resulting in greaterforce producing capabilities (38).

Providing that the young athlete candemonstrate correct and consistentweightlifting technique, it is suggestedthat to further develop athletic poten-tial, greater external loads are intro-duced to provide a progressivelyoverloading stimulus. In relation to theLTAD model, this stage of developmentis synonymous with the latter period ofthe Training to Train phase, and thebeginning of the Training to Competeand Training to Win phases (5). By theend of the Training to Compete andTraining to Win phases, male andfemale athletes are older than 18 yearsand would no longer be classified asadolescent (56). However, it should benoted that LTAD models must beflexible to accommodate for individualdifferences in physiological maturationrates, and should not be limited by anathlete’s chronological age. The 3-timeOlympic gold medallist, Naim Suley-manoglu, set his first weightlifting worldrecord at just 15 years old, and had hebeen limited to specific stages of anLTAD model, his achievements inweightlifting may have been curtailed.Effective strength and conditioning

coaches should identify such athletesand allow them to progress more rapidlythrough the stages of an LTAD model tomaximize their athletic potential.

COACHING WEIGHTLIFTINGPROGRESSIONS TO YOUNGATHLETES

The snatch and clean and jerk arecomplex multijoint exercises that re-quire an intricate sequence of move-ments to move the bar from the floor toabove the head in 1 (snatch) or 2 (cleanand jerk) movements. When teachingthese lifts to young athletes, it isimperative that the strength and condi-tioning coach uses a structured andlogical approach. At all times, especiallyin the infancy of learning the lifts, focusshould be placed on technical compe-tency, as opposed to load lifted. This isunderlined by the suggestion that youngathletes should always start by perform-ing the lifts with a wooden dowel ora long piece of PVC piping instead ofa weightlifting bar (26).

Once technical proficiency can bedemonstrated, only then is it recom-mended that the young athlete uses ayouth-sized weightlifting bar, whichtypically weighs 5-10 kg. Coachexpertise and experience should thenbe used to decide on when the athleteis ready to use a full-size weightliftingbar. Figure 2 shows the progressionfrom technique work with a dowel tolifting with a full-size weightlifting bar.

For the purposes of this article, itwas deemed pertinent to formalize acomprehensive progression model(Figure 3) that corresponded with thedevelopmental stages aligned with theLTAD model (5). It is the intention thatthis model will provide coaches witha strategic approach to developingweightlifting technique in young ath-letes. It should be noted that ifa strength and conditioning coachbegins to work with an athlete whohas not completed the earlier stages(e.g., a 15-year-old who has not beenexposed to the Fundamental Weight-lifting Skills or Learning Weightliftingstages), the athlete should enter themodel at the earliest stage as opposed

to beginning at the stage that corre-sponds to their chronological age.

Because of the age-related neural devel-opments, it is speculated that theseathletes might transition between thestages of the model more quickly,progressing through to the stage ofthe model that is more aligned withtheir chronological age. In accordancewith previous work that has proposeda progression schematic for plyometrictraining (36), the model containsapproximated age ranges for each phasereflecting the differential rates of matu-ration for males and females. Regardlessof age or gender, a young athlete mustdemonstrate technical proficiency offundamental weightlifting skills beforeattempting more complex movements.

STAGE 1: FUNDAMENTALWEIGHTLIFTING SKILLS (MALES6–9 YEARS, FEMALES 6–8 YEARS)

This stage is relevant for children whodemonstrate the emotional maturity tolisten to and follow instructions (36).Emphasis within this stage should beplaced on developing movement pro-ficiency and fundamental weightliftingskills (FWS) within an environment thatdevelops agility, balance, coordination,and kinaesthetic and spatial awareness.A recent review has highlighted theimportance of FMS development forchildren and adolescents (37), and it isgenerally accepted that FMS mastery isimportant for physical, social, andcognitive development (37). It is sug-gested that the strength and condition-ing coach should not view every exercisewithin this stage as having to be specificto weightlifting. Conversely, for youngchildren, learning to manage bodyweight through fun-based activities suchas gymnastics, climbing, and crawlingactivities (Figure 4) will all help condi-tion the child for later technical speci-ficity. In addition to developing generalstrength, strength endurance, metabolicconditioning, flexibility, and mobilityshould all be targeted within the youngathlete’s training program (54). Withappropriate exercise selection, thestrength and conditioning coach shouldbe able to expose the child to such keymovement competencies, such as lower



limb triple extension, scapula stabiliza-tion, thoracic extension, and corestrength development, in a relativelyunstructured manner. Although thearray of exercises appropriate for chil-dren at this stage is vast, Table 1 providesan overview of the possible exercises

that can be integrated within a trainingprogram aiming to develop a range ofkey physical competencies linked to theweightlifting movements. It should benoted that although the table has beenseparated according to body parts forclarity, many of the exercises would

place multiple demands upon the youngathlete, thereby developing a broaderrange of physical literacy. Furthermore,training sessions within this phaseshould take a less structured approach,with the use of innovative games, toincorporate the desired movement

Figure 2. Bar size progressions for young athletes: wooden dowel (left), junior bar (middle), full-size bar (right).

Figure 3. Weightlifting long-term progression model.


patterns without the expense of a funand motivating environment for theyoung athlete. It is possible to coacheffectively and make significant progres-sions in posture and control even in suchunstructured environments.

STAGE 2: LEARNINGWEIGHTLIFTING (MALES 9–12YEARS, FEMALES 8–11 YEARS)

As the young athlete matures andapproaches an age where more struc-tured training is appropriate, the focus oftraining sessions can become morespecific to weightlifting movements.During this stage, the athlete should beintroduced progressively to the differentphases of each lift (Table 2), withtechnical competency serving as theprimary goal at all times. In the authors’experience, children naturally learnquickly during this stage and can de-velop these skills at a fast rate; however,it must be stressed that the strength andconditioning coach should not treatyoung athletes like miniature adultsand should not progress the child to lift

heavier external loads at the expense oftechnical proficiency, thus increasing theinjury potential for the child.

STAGE 3: TRAININGWEIGHTLIFTING (MALES 12–16YEARS, FEMALES 11–15 YEARS)

The Training Weightlifting stage is adevelopmental stage, whereby strengthand conditioning coaches must payattention to key growth and matura-tional processes. During this stage, it isexpected that young athletes will expe-rience rapid growth in limb lengths,which may cause discomfort and/ormomentary loss in motor coordination(48). Consequently, it is imperative thatduring this phase, coaches monitorgrowth rates and are sensitive to suddeninterruptions in technical competency.

Coaches may wish to use a maturityoffset estimate to monitor the develop-ment of their athletes that will indicatephysical maturity in relation to theonset of PHV (43). The maturity-offsetestimate predicts the biological age of

an individual in years from PHVand canbe calculated by using chronologicalage, standing height, sitting height, andleg length within regression analyses(43). The benefit of such an approach isthat it involves simple and noninvasiveprocedures, which should be availableto all coaches. However, caution iswarranted when implementing thematurity offset, owing to the measure-ment error associated with the measureof 61 year 95% of the time (43).

Alternatively, if working with the sameathletes over a prolonged period oftime, coaches in cooperation with aphysician may simply monitor growthrates of the stature, limbs, and trunk toidentify when a growth spurt is begin-ning, is at its peak, and is coming towardan end. During this stage, programcontent may fluctuate between techni-cal competency and external loading;however, the safety of the athlete mustbe paramount at all times. As childrenapproach the end of this stage, it is likelythat they will have experienced PHV

Figure 4. Basic fundamental weightlifting skill exercises: start and end position of a �superman� exercise (top, left to right), and startand end position of a �crawling� exercise (bottom, left to right).



and will be undergoing PWV, whichrefers to the maximal rate of change inbody mass during a growth spurt,typically owing to increased muscle mass(40). As such, the athlete can be exposedto heavier external loads, as PWVnaturally leads to lean muscle mass de-velopment owing to increases in muscle-building hormonal concentrations (40).It is important to minimize the potentialof long-term dysfunction by coaching theathlete, and not being misled by excep-tional sports performances produced byathletes within this age group.

STAGE 4: PERFORMANCEWEIGHTLIFTING (MALES 16+YEARS, FEMALES 15+ YEARS)

The final stage represents the periodwhereby the young athlete can beexposed to more advanced trainingprogram design, focused on both tech-nical expertise and external loading. Itshould be noted that although earlierstages are more technique focused,training during these times should stillbe structured and follow a periodized

plan. During the Performance Weight-lifting phase, and to ensure that themovement velocity is appropriate to thedesired training goal (i.e., speed-strength or strength-speed), motioncapture devices and accelerometersmay be used to monitor bar velocityand power outputs (35) to ensure themaintenance of repetition velocity andrate of force development. Additionally,the use of video analysis is encouragedto monitor technique as technicalinconsistencies become less obvious.

WEIGHTLIFTING PROGRAMDESIGN FOR YOUNG ATHLETES

When designing weightlifting pro-grams for young athletes, the variablesof volume, intensity, repetition veloc-ity, frequency, and recovery must beconsidered to ensure optimal athleticdevelopment, and minimize injury risk.The authors wish to stress that thefollowing recommendations should beapplied within the context of theindividual needs of the athlete, andthat the following training variables

should at all times be individualizedwithin a training program. See Table 3for a summary of suggested trainingprescription guidelines.

VOLUME

For young athletes entering the FWSstage, the volume of exercises wouldcommonly be higher in comparisonwith the later stages owing to therelatively lower impact forces and jointloadings experienced during basicbodyweight movements. The purposeof the FWS stage is to provide childrenwith a wide range of movement stimuli,and therefore for a given exercise,coaches are advised to prescribe ap-proximately 2–4 sets of 6–12 repetitions.This should provide the child withsufficient exposure to aid motor controldevelopment while serving as a suitablevolume for physical conditioning.

For the purposes of concentrationretention and physical literacy devel-opment, it is suggested that a rangeof exercises should be given within

Table 1Example of exercises to develop fundamental weightlifting skills

Upper limb Trunk Lower limbPre-weightlifting

power developmentMobility Stability Mobility Stability Mobility Stability

Arm circles Scapulapush ups

Partner medicineball rotations

‘‘Deadbugs’’ ‘‘Inch worms’’ SL balances CMJ and stick

Arm swings(multi-directional)

Bunny hops Partner medicineball ‘‘over andunders’’

‘‘Superman’’ Spidermancrawls

Forward lunge SL CMJ and stick

Wall slides anddoorframeslides

Forwardcrawling

Sitting T-spinerotations

Partner/bandsquats

Under andoverscage walks

Reverse lungeto balance

CMJ for maximumheight

Wide arm OHsquat/lunge

Sidewayscrawling

Spidermancrawl withrotation

Crawling‘‘Superman’’balances

Arabesque Lateral lunge CMJ with shrug formaximum height

Y, T, W, L’s Backwardcrawling

Lunge withrotation

Partner/wallbracing

Super widemonsterband walks

SL squatand reaches

Box jumps

Behind neckpressing

Mini-bandhand slides

Foam rollersupportedside-lyingextension-rotations

Medicine ballbalancewalks

Split squat Multi-directionalmini-bandwalks

OH medicineball toss

CMJ = countermovement jumps; OH = overhead; SL = single leg.


a single session (6–10). However, itshould be noted that if children areexposed to very basic introductoryweightlifting exercises within this stage

(i.e., an overhead squat with woodendowel), then multiple repetitions mightbe counterproductive for motor con-trol development. Instead, it is

recommended that children performsingle repetitions and are providedwith real-time feedback to ensure safeand correct movement development.

Table 3Suggested guidelines for training session prescription

Training variable Fundamentalweightlifting skillsa

Learningweightlifting

Trainingweightlifting

Performanceweightlifting

Suggested age ranges (y) Males: 6–9,Females: 6–8

Males: 9–12,Females: 8–11

Males: 12–16,Females: 11–15

Males: 16+,Females: 15+

Volume (total repetitionsb) 36–24 30–24 24–15 18–6

Total number of exercises per session 6–10 3–6 3–6 2–5

Intensity (%1RM) Body weight 30–50 50–85 85–100

Repetition velocity (speed of movement) Moderate–fast Moderate–fast Fast–maximal Maximal

Frequency (sessions per week) 1–2 1–2 2–4 2–5

Recovery (hours in between sessions) 72 72–48 48 48–24

aThe values for FWS do not necessarily equate to designated weightlifting progressions, but rather broad-ranging exercises to develop physicalliteracy.

bThe total number of repetitions can be divided between different configurations of sets and repetitions based on the goal of the trainingsession, and phase of the periodized plan.

Table 2Suggested top-down progression model for weightlifting exercises (appropriate for Learning Weightlifting, Training

Weightlifting and Performance Weightlifting)

Snatch Clean Jerk

Behind neck press Front squat Military press

Overhead squat Vertical jump and landing mechanics Push press

Overhead squat behind neck press Drop clean Push jerk

Vertical jump and landing mechanics Power position-jump shrug Overhead split squat

Drop snatch Power position-second pull Split jerk footwork line drill

Power position-jump shrug Hang high clean pull Split jerk footwork line drill with dowel

Power position-second pull Hang cleana Split jerk

Hang high snatch pull First pull Clean and jerk

Hang snatcha Clean from below kneeb

First pull Clean from low block

Snatch from below kneeb Clean from floor

Snatch from low block

Snatch from floor

aStage at which the ‘‘transition’’ phase is introduced to the individual.

bStage at which the double knee bend is introduced to the individual.



When prescribing training volume forthe Learning Weightlifting stage, thecurrent article proposes performingmultiple sets of 3–5 repetitions, volumesthat have previously been suggested asmost effective for young athletes tolearn the snatch and clean and jerk (26).However, within each set, individualrepetitions should be interspersed withfeedback because incorrect form withinthe first repetition of a set will typicallylead to poor technique for the re-mainder of the set. Table 3 shows thatwith an increase in training age aschildren move from Learning Weight-lifting through to Performance Weight-lifting, total volume for a given exerciseand total number of exercises withina single session both reduce; however,these are in accordance with a concom-itant increase in training intensity.

INTENSITY

For children entering the progressionschematic, body weight will serve as theprescribed training intensity. This is toensure that young athletes do notattempt loaded exercises before move-ment competency can be demonstrated.However, it is suggested that someloading may be necessary to ‘‘feel’’ thebar, even in children, when consideringlearning proficient weightlifting tech-nique. On entering the LearningWeightlifting phase, it is suggested thatthe intensity of training sessions shouldbe based upon percentages of theathlete’s 1 repetition maximum (1RM).

Despite previous concerns, maximalstrength testing in children (albeitusing fixed-resistance training ma-chines) has been proven to be safeand reliable, provided appropriateprotocols are implemented (23). Al-ternative means to predict resistancemay include the Daily AdjustedProgressive Resistance Exercise orthe Oddvar Holten Diagram Curve;however, the 1RM method is mostcommonly used. It should be acknow-ledged that methods of predicting1RM values from higher repetitionranges possess less accuracy, inparticular when repetition rangesexceed 10 (23). The decision on whichmethod to use should be based on the

training age, ability, and experience ofthe young athlete; however, coachesand young athletes should at all timesensure that safety is paramount. Usingpercentages of 1RM loads is deemedpreferable as opposed to an athletelifting the most weight they can fora given set of repetitions (e.g., 10RM),to avoid constantly training the ath-lete to failure. Previous reviews havehighlighted that such an approachruns the risk of decreasing restinglevels of testosterone and increasingresting cortisol concentrations (albeitfor adult populations), which arecounterproductive for strength andpower gains (53,57). Especially whenworking with young athletes, it isrecommended that intensity is neverincreased at the expense of technicalcompetency. Table 3 shows thattraining intensity increases in accor-dance with increasing training age,with athletes in the PerformanceWeightlifting category regularly liftingloads of 85–100% 1RM.

REPETITION VELOCITY

Due to rate of force development beingintegral to explosive weightlifting per-formance (34,54), it is imperative thathigh repetition velocity is maintained.For this reason, it is suggested thatcoaches should integrate fast velocitymovements within every stage of theprogression model. Although certainexercises within the FWS phase mayrequire slow, controlled movements,an element of high-velocity move-ments should still exist with basicvertical jumps serving as a suitableexample. As athletes progress throughthe progression model, and enter theTraining Weightlifting and Perfor-mance Weightlifting phases, the coachshould expose the athlete to heavyloads ($80% 1RM) to maximize poweroutput, maximal strength, musclecross-sectional area, and maximal neu-ral activation (13). For experiencedathletes in the Performance Weightlift-ing stage, the use of supramaximalloads may also be used to furtherstimulate maximal motor unit recruit-ment (e.g., first pulls performed witha 120% 1RM load). However, to

expose the neuromuscular system toa range of stimuli across the force–velocity spectrum, and to avoid over-training symptoms (28), it is suggestedthat such loadings are used for briefperiods of time within an overallperiodized program.

FREQUENCY

In accordance with previous literature,it is proposed that training frequenciesfor youths should not exceed 2–3one-hour weightlifting sessions perweek (26). However, to maintain per-formance quality and athlete enthusiasm,it is reasonable to suggest that multiplesessions of shorter duration (i.e., 3–5, 30-to 40-minute sessions per week) could bean alternative approach, especially withyounger athletes. As athletes progresstoward the end of the progressionmodel, training frequency may rise upto approximately 5 sessions per week,dependent on the training block withina periodized training program. However,the volume loads associated with suchprograms would only be conducive toindividual athletes of the appropriatetraining age, and such frequencies shouldnever be superimposed on athletes ofa young training age.

RECOVERY

Due to weightlifting exercises andtheir derivative lifts being whole-body, multijoint multi-muscle move-ments (32), the need for adequateintra- and intersession rest is essential.As is common with generic resistancetraining methods for youths, anintersession rest period of 48 hoursis recommended (19); however, forathletes within the PerformanceWeightlifting phase, the minimum restperiod may on occasions be reduced.Although children may not showsymptoms of delayed onset of musclesoreness because of their reducedbody mass and increased pliability ofmuscle tissue (17), they will likelyrequire more recovery time betweenconsecutive training sessions to adaptto training-induced physiologicalstresses, and to allow for naturalgrowth processes to occur (1,46).Therefore, it may not be as easy to


monitor training readiness thereforein youths, and consequently it isrecommended that the strength andconditioning coach should always usea common sense and flexible ap-proach to training program design.

One option available to the coachcould be the use of the Profile ofMood States questionnaire, whichhas proven useful for assessing andpreventing overtraining in youngathletes (41). However, such ques-tionnaires do not reflect the extent offatigue at a neuromuscular level,rather they provide only perceptionsof fatigue. Consequently, neuromus-cular monitoring, possibly via mea-surement of the reactive strengthindex (ratio of jump height andground contact time) during a re-bound-based test, could be a relativelysimple method of quantifying actualneuromuscular fatigue (36). Regard-less of the monitoring tool selected,coaches should be aware of thesymptoms of overtraining, such as:decreased performance, persistentfatigue, susceptibility to upper re-spiratory tract infections, disruptivesleep patterns, mood swings, andsudden weight loss (1,41).

SUMMARY AND PRACTICALAPPLICATIONS

The current article has reviewed thesuitability of weightlifting for long-term athletic development. Despiteprevious misconceptions, weightlift-ing for youths is a safe and effectivetraining modality to enhance physicalliteracy, muscular strength, and ex-plosive power. This article has alsospeculated on potential injury pre-vention benefits that weightliftingmay provide to young athletes andconfirms that the previously reportedrisk factors can be reduced or elimi-nated with appropriate supervisionand instruction from appropriatelyqualified coaches. It would appearthat pre-pubertal age-related neuraldevelopments and postpubertal matu-rity-related increases in sex androgenconcentrations might offer suitablewindows of adaptation to maximizeathletic gains through weightlifting.

The progression model providedwithin the article offers coaches a log-ical and sequential development toolto follow, which is in accordance tothe theories of long-term athleticdevelopment. The training prescrip-tion guidelines included within themodel should always be integratedwith the needs of the individualathlete in mind, and at no stage shouldstrength and conditioning coachestreat children like miniature adults.

Rhodri S. Lloyd

is the ProgramDirector for theSport Strength andConditioning de-grees at the Uni-versity ofGloucestershire.

Jon L. Oliver isa lecturer in Sportand ExercisePhysiology at theUniversity ofWales InstituteCardiff.

Robert W.

Meyers is a se-nior lecturer inStrength and Con-ditioning, Reha-bilitation andMassage at theUniversity of

Wales Institute Cardiff.

Jeremy Moody

is Program Direc-tor of the Strengthand Conditioning,Rehabilitation andMassage degrees atthe University ofWales InstituteCardiff.

Michael H.

Stone is theExercise andSports ScienceLaboratoryDirector in theDepartment ofKinesiology,Leisure, and Sport

Sciences at East Tennessee StateUniversity.

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Long Term Development