LSM3261_Lecture 10 Protection

8/3/2019 LSM3261_Lecture 10 Protection

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LSM3261 Life Form and Function

Zoology Lecture 3 -Protection in animals

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LSM 3261 Life Form Structure & Function

1st zoology lecture - Animal diversity and basic designs 2nd zoology Lecture - Animal symmetry

Organisation of the animal body;

Transmission of messages/materials within theanimal body Animal form and function in relation to:

No. 3 - Protection

No. 4 - Support & Locomotion No. 5 - Locomotion (Flight) No. 6 - Sensing the environment, Feeding; Other

adaptations

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To learn about various concepts and modes ofprotection in animals Sources: various.

Objectives

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Animals protect/defend themselves by:

1. Physical means

2. Chemical means

3. Behavioural means

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Physical Defense

1.1 Skin coating

1.2 Body Armour

Tube worms

Mollusc shell: arms war

Integument

Arthropod

Vertebrate

1. 3. AnimalArmament

Spines

Antlers and horns

Claws

Teeth, tusks, beaks

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1. PHYSICAL DEFENCE

Skin coating (epithelial tissue)Can be thickened for protectionSecretory cells produce secretions to help with protection:

Vertebrates

Skin glands produce mucus tohelp reduce moisture loss

Some secretory cells produce

poison to deter predator

Invertebrates

Secretory cells produce cuticle orpoisonous chemicals for protection

Larvae of some insects produce silkfor protection

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BODY ARMOUR

Soft-bodied animals retreat intoshelter/ protective structure. E.g.:

- Tubes of tube worms or keel worms- Corallite of hard coral polyp

- Mollusc shells

tube worm keel worms

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Molluscs

Thick shell of calciumcarbonate

Opening sealed with

protective plate(operculum) carried onfoot of animal

Torsion in gastropods

- Mantle cavity behindhead

- Quicker retreat for head

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Why the different types of opercula?

Top shell, Trochus Turban shell, Turbo

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Mollusca: Gastropoda:

Turbinidae

WildSingapore

Mata lembu

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Vermeij, 1974:

predator deterrence Strong shell sculpture,thickened with teeth

Obstructed or elongateapertures (vs rounded)

Low spires, thickinflexible operculum

High incidence in Indo-West Pacific cf. Atlantic

These externalstructures and thickenedshells - reduce predation

success - by whom?

Shell-crushing, shell-cutting, drilling and

aperture-intruding

How else to avoid?

Cf. freshwater snails

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What predates on

molluscs? Crabs - chela of calappid, grapsid, portunid,xanthid etc

Small shells, relative to the size of a crabpredator, are crushed by progressivelybreaking off larger segments of a shell's apex,while larger shells are peeled by inserting a

large dactyl molar into the aperture of a shelland progressively chipping away the lip of theshell. - Bertness & Cuningham, 1981

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Bertness &Cuningham, 1981

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Red eyed reef crab (Eriphia ferox) Stone or Thunder crab


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Red eyed reef crab (Eriphia ferox)

Spotted-belly forceps crab, Ozius guttatus

(Myomenippe hardwicki)

Reef box crab (Calappa hepatica)

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Di hi d th f ti l b i f


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Dimorphism and the functional basis ofclaw strength in six brachyuran crabs

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The crushers of the three molluscivorous xanthidsconsistently proved to be morphologically 'strong,'

Ocypode quadrata exhibited an extremedimorphism - suggesting that factors unrelated to a

speedstrength dichotomy (e.g. sexual selection)have shaped dimorphism of that species.

Claws of crabs specialising on heavily-armoured

molluscan prey have claws that are slower butmore powerful. Complex shell opening behaviouror specialised claw morphology can sometimescompensate for limited crushing power.

http://delicious.com/sivasothi/lsm3261+defence

Not a simple relationship

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http://delicious.com/sivasothi/lsm3261+defencehttp://delicious.com/sivasothi/lsm3261+defencehttp://delicious.com/sivasothi/lsm3261+defencehttp://delicious.com/sivasothi/lsm3261+defence


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What predates on

molluscs?

Fish - jaws or pharyngeal teeth of wrasses(Labridae), damselfish (Pomacentridae),parrotfish (Scaridae) and the surf- perches(Embiotocidae).

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Black Drum (Pogonias

cromis) Pharyngeal

Teeth By Ryan Moody

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Herichthys minckleyi,


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Trophically polymorphicCuatro Cinegas Biosphere Reserve,

Mexico

Lower pharyngeal jaw withpapilliform teeth, specialised

to shred plants (Hulsey, 2006)

Lower pharyngeal jaw with

molariform teeth, specialised tocrush molluscs (Hulsey, 2006).

Mexipyrgus churinceanus

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Schematic drawings of the pharyngeal jaws and associated branchial musculature inthe molluscivores P. cromis (left) and its non-durophagous relative, S. ocellatus (right)

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Integument formsprotective layers in

arthropods

Chitinous exoskeleton,fused or jointed with thin,

flexible joints

Plus calcium carbonate incrustaceans

Any problemsassociated with non-living exoskeleton?

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F i f h A h d I


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1. Protection of internal organs and tissues

2. Protective barrier against entry of pathogens,parasites, predators and pesticides.

3. Preventive barrier against water loss

4. Provides for the insect the sensory windows tothe outside world

5. Lines the tracheae, tracheoles, salivary glandsand portions of reproductive tract. All shedduring moulting.

6. Protective barrier for foregut and hindgut.

Functions of the Arthropod Integument

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Integument serves a protective function in allvertebrates: is the largest surface area for any organ. Same structure in all groups:

Epidermis (skin, five layers): closely packed cellswith little intercellular material. Barrier tochemical, radiation or microbial attack.

Dermis (two layers), thicker and tougher, mainlyextracellular material manufactured by scatteredcells. Physical protection a major function.

Hypodermis (subcutaneous fat storage)

Vertebrate Integument

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Fish Mucous (Agnatha); denticles(Chondrichthys); scales (Osteichthys), no keratin

Amphibians - naked skin (thin keratinisedlayer); mucous secretions

Stratum corneum become thick, lack glands!Reptiles keratinised scales, scutes, plaques,beaks; is renewed. Crocs/alligators have dermal

bones; Turtles: growing shell

Birds feathers

Mammals hair/fur

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FISH scales


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FISH scalesHow else can scales confer protection besides as armour?

Cartilaginous fish (sharks,

rays) have placoid scales.

Most bony fish have overlapping

scales (ctenoid or cycloid).

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REPTILES scales


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How else can scales confer protection besides as armour?

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BIRDS - feathers

Evolved from reptilian scales.

Epidermal structures.

Moulted.

How do feathers conferprotection?

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MAMMALS f
http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/polar-bear.html


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MAMMALS - fur

How does fur confer protection?Polar bear

http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/polar-bear.html34
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MAMMALS thick skin

Elephants sometimes referredto as pachyderms

French pachyderme, fromNew Latin *Pachyderma, sing.

of Pachydermata, obsoleteorder name, from Greek

pakhudermos, thick-skinned :pakhus, thick + derma, skin;

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MAMMALS:Armadillos

Mathew Grimm/Flickr


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MAMMALS: Armadillos

Bony plates develop in

skin and covered withhorny scutes. Plates arranged in

rings around body.

Complemented by behaviour anddesign of rolling into a

ball (sphere) for protection.MAMMALS: Pangolins.

Scales are actually hairs fused tightlytogether.

Complemented by behaviour anddesign of rolling into a

ball (sphere) for protection.

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Canines in ungulates?38

SPINES


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SPINES

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The burning sensation from contact withurchin spines suggest the incidence ofenvenomation.

But the venom is usually mild and mechanicalinjury appears to be more serious except forparticularly highly venomous species.

The pedicillaria sting would require closecontact to take effect so can be differentiatedduring diagnosis (in areas where such injuriesare common).

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Echinothrix calamaris in Hawaiihttp://www.mare.hawaii.edu/urchins/hawaiianurchins/echinothrix-calamaris.htm

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http://www.mare.hawaii.edu/urchins/hawaiianurchins/echinothrix-calamaris.htmhttp://www.mare.hawaii.edu/urchins/hawaiianurchins/echinothrix-calamaris.htm


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From: Venomous and Poisonous MarineAnimals: A Medical and Biological

Handbook, by John A. Williamson, Peter J.Fenner, Joseph W. Burnett, Jacqueline

Rifkin. UNSW Press, 1996.

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HORNS


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HORNS

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Horns & Antlers


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Family Cervidae (deer) bearantlers. Mouse deer of Asia are

not Cervids

Most male deer grow and shedantlers annually; only femalecaribou (reindeer) have antlers

Antlers grow as highly vascularspongy bony tissue covered in askin called velvet.

Antlers calcify before the matingseason. The velvet is rubbed offand the dead bone underneathforms antlers; these fall off afterthe mating season.

Horns are mostly found inBovidae (cloven-hoofed

ruminants: cattle, goat, sheep,antelope, buffalo, wildebeest,etc.)

Horns are permanent,unbranched and made of keratin

sheath over a living, bony core.

Usually absent in females ofsmaller species, why?

What is rhino horn?

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CLAWS


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CLAWS

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TEETH, BEAKS


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ELECTRICITY

Specialised organs generate electriccurrent

Modified muscle cells (electrocytes)arranged in layers

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2. Chemical Defense


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Venom spines and stings (some sea-urchin, scorpions, fish, platypus; someinsects)

Venom fangs (some snakes, centipedes,spiders)

Chemical secretions/sprays (some insects;some mammals; sea cucumbers;cephalopods)

2. Chemical Defense

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2. Chemical Defense


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Bristles (fireworms, some caterpillars)

Stinging cells (cnidarians)

Poison/distasteful chemicals (puffer fish,some arthropods, nudibranchs, someamphibians)

Mucus production (corals, hagfishes)

2. Chemical Defense

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Zootoxins are poisons


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Oral poisonspoisonous when eaten; believed tobe small molecules.

Parenteral poisons (=venoms)produced bya specialized poison gland and administered by amechanical venom apparatus; large molecules,usually a protein. (*parenteral - other than mouthand alimentary canal=enteral/ enteron=intenstine)

Crinotoxinsproduced by a specialized poisongland and released into the environment, usually bymeans of a pore.

(natural products!)

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Venom spines, stings


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Platypuses are one of the very few

mammals which are venomous (theothers are some species of shrews)

Sea urchin

Wasp

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Chemical


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Chemicalsecretions/sprays

bombardier

beetle

Eviscerating seacucumber, nest-

building ants

Photo Copyright Diane R. Nelson

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Cnidocyte

Stinging cells


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Cnidocyte

Nucleus

Thread

Capsule

Nematocyst(not discharged)

Cnidocil(trigger)

Lid

Thread

Nematocyst(discharged)

All cnidarians have cnidocytes that use waterpressure to shoot out a harpoon-like

nematocyst whenever they are triggered.56


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Nudibranchs

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Chemical warfarebetween coral


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between coralcolonies using

sweeper tentacles

Galaxea fascicularis

Galaxea fascicularis sweeper tentacles

stretched towardsAlveopora colony58

Poison/distasteful chemicals- In conjunction with aposematic colouration


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Poison Arrow frogs, Dendrobates

(warning colouration)

Nudibranchs

Reef crabs

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Poison dart frogs =poison arrow frogs

F l D d b d


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Family Dendrobatidae,native to Central and

South America

diurnal,aposematiccolouration

lipophilic alkaloidsbioaccumulated from

insect prey

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Epipedobates tricolor

poison = epibetadine

l i ( hi )


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analgesic (200x morphine),

appears to have similar

effect as nicotine.

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3. Other Defensive (anti-predator) methods


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3.1 Avoid detection

Camouflage (form andcolour): disruptive, mimetic,

countershading False eye/head Rear attack Frontal attack

3.2 Avoid attack = warning

Warning colouration(aposematic colouration) Mimicry Puff up size

3.3 Avoid consumption =distraction

Autotomy; Puff up size

3.4 Avoid capture = evasion Run/swim/fly away Hide

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3.1 Avoiding

Detection

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3.1 Avoiding detection

a. Mimetic camouflage

Stick insects mimic plant parts(flowers, leaves, twigs) in both form

and colour

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Stick Insect


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Photo by Clopin clopant @ Flickr

http://www.flickr.com/photos/vercoquin/1638760721/

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Horned Frog,Megophrys nasuta
http://www.flickr.com/photos/vercoquin/1638760721/http://www.flickr.com/photos/vercoquin/1638760721/


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Horned frogmimics leaf litter

in both formand colour

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Horned Frog,

Megophrys nasuta

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Alexander Haas, Frogs of Borneo

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b. Background matching

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Kelley Kuhlmanhttp://flickr.com/photos/paperglyphs/

2315279189/
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Camouflage inPeacock Flounders

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Jos Eduardo Silvahttp://flickr.com/photos/

97968921@N00/1767585490/
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Alexander Yateshttp://flickr.com/photos/

alex_and_terhi/2178306820/

Henry & Tersiahttp://flickr.com/photos/

69919391@N00/2778741446/?

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Rodrigo Salahttp://flickr.com/photos/rodrigosala/2459314107/
http://flickr.com/photos/alex_and_terhi/2178306820/http://flickr.com/photos/alex_and_terhi/2178306820/http://flickr.com/photos/alex_and_terhi/2178306820/http://flickr.com/photos/alex_and_terhi/2178306820/http://flickr.com/photos/alex_and_terhi/2178306820/http://flickr.com/photos/alex_and_terhi/2178306820/http://flickr.com/photos/alex_and_terhi/2178306820/http://flickr.com/photos/alex_and_terhi/2178306820/


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William Daltonhttp://flickr.com/photos/

bovinacowboy/469864374/

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c. Countershading

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Countershading (Thayers Law, 1892)

Common in nekton; in many fishes, whales and squid. (alsoterrestrial animals; warships; background matching)


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terrestrial animals; warships; background matching)

Darker green or blue pigmentation on dorsal surface.

Viewed from above, the pigmented upper surfacesblend with the darker background below.

White or silvery ventral surface. Viewed from below, difficult to distinguish from

ambient light coming from the sea surface above. Protection against predators. Sudden flash of silver fish bellies or dark backs possible

alert signals.

Abbott H Thayer (1849-1921),Concealing Coloration in

the Animal Kingdom, 1907

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Countershading in ungulates?


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Striped coats - hiding young,adults that live in light

forests

Countershading - desertanimals, no clear evidence

otherwise

Stoner et al (2003) compared 200 species ofartiodactyls: colour, behaviour, ecology

Lightening of coat colour - if exposed to brightwinter conditions

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Marine animals have a moreuniform background for

counter-shading to be adaptive

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3.1 Avoiding detectionb. False eye spot/head

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Butterfly fishes (Chaetodontids)


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Might also be aposematic!Possible Mllerian mimicry.

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Nathan Messer


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Polyphemus MothDave Huth

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Charlie J86


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Gaylon Keeling87

Joelle Johnson


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Photo by Lim Leng HiongFor Canning Parkhttp://www.freshbrainz.com/2007/12/outdoor-model-photography.html

Auto-mimicry?

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Vigilance - foraging trade-off
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Guardian, 2009

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However, there are limits to how head-like thetail can be made to look.


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... the tail's adaptation involves a trade-offbetween looking like a head and being good forswimming.

The tail has to be slightly flattened to allow it toact like a paddle which reduces its

resemblance to the head.

But the head-like way the tail twists about whenthe snake is foraging in a crack might make up

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The "thick-tailed sea snake" another snake with the appearance of two heads. Photograph: ArneRasmussen/PA

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What anti-predatoryfeatures does

the swallow-tail moth

exhibit?

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Lyssazampa


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3.2 Avoiding

Attack

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3.2 Avoiding attack

a. Aggressive Mimicry

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Cuttlefish or octopus can changebody colouration and apparent

texture to match the background


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g

Mimic octopus can also alter itsshape to resemble other marine

animals

Thaumoctopus mimicus

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Indo-Malayan mimic octopus

Thaumoctopus mimicus


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http://marinebio.org/species.asp?id=260

Norman MD, Finn J, Tregenza T (2001) Dynamic mimicry in an Indo-Malayan octopus. Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 268(1478):1755-1758.

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http://marinebio.org/species.asp?id=260http://marinebio.org/species.asp?id=260


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Raymond Ghttp://www.flickr.com/photos/

racaza/2309289593/
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3.2 Avoiding attack

b. Batesian, Mullerianmimicry

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Batesian mimicry (sheep in wolf s clothing)

Harmless species (mimic) resembling harmful


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Harmless species (mimic) resembling harmful

species (model). Examples:

Mimic octopus and lionfish or sea snake

Scarlet king snake and eastern coral snake

Monarch butterfly and Viceroy butterfly? Economy?

Mllerian mimicry

Harmful species resembling one another (rare one amimic?)

E.g. Monarch butterfly and Viceroy butterfly?

http://marinebio.org/species.asp?id=260

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http://marinebio.org/species.asp?id=260http://marinebio.org/species.asp?id=260http://marinebio.org/species.asp?id=260http://marinebio.org/species.asp?id=260


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Scarlet king snake(Lampropeltis triangulum elapsoides)

Eastern coral snake(Micrurus fulvius fulvius)

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Monarch butterfly and Viceroy butterfly: Classic example of Batesian mimicry by inference

Monarch caterpillar feeds on poisonous milkweed leaves;Viceroy caterpillar feeds on non-poisonous willow andpoplar leaves


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poplar leaves

Until 1991, when studies suggested that Viceroy butterfly isalso distasteful to predators (birds)

May therefore be an example of Mllerian mimicry instead

Monarch butterfly Viceroy butterfly

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Natural selection


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Harper, Jr, G. R. & D. W. Pfennig ,2007. Mimicry on the edge: why do

mimics vary in resemblance totheir model in different parts oftheir geographical range? Proc. R.

Soc. B., 274: 1955-1961

shouldfavour even poormimics where theirmodel is common,

but only goodmimics where theirmodel is rare.

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Comparing Batesian andMullerian mimicr


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Mutualism versus parasitism More accurate mimic

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Emsleyan or Mertensian mimicryMore deadly animal mimics less deadly!


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More deadly animal mimics less deadly!

Harmful not deadly in order to train? E.g. milk snake (safe) and

coral snake (deadly) mimic False coral snake (moderately

toxic)

Auo-mimicry - can you guess what thisrefers to?

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3.3 Avoiding Consumption

Puffer fish

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Behavioural defense


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Form partnerships (symbiosis)

Play dead

Living in groups

Working together?

Exploiting one another?

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Symbiotic partnerships


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Playing dead


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Opossum playing dead

Grass snake

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Living in groups herding / schooling


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Photo Copyright Diane R. Nelson

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FYI - Convergence


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of defensive behaviour- a perspective for psychiatry

Shuhama, R. et al., 2007. Animal defense strategies and anxietydisorders. Anais da Academia Brasileira de Cincias (Annals of

the Brazilian Academy of Sciences), 79(1): 97-109.

Reviews papers by Blanchard.

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The experimental analysis of defensive behaviorhas identified three strategies of defense that areshared by different animal species, triggered by


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three situations:

potential predatory threat - cautiousexploration of the environment for risk

assessment

distal predatory threat- oriented escapeor behavioral inhibition,

proximal predatory threat - disorganizedflight or complete immobility

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Anxiety disorders


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Potential predatory threat- cautiousexploration of the environment for risk

assessment

Associated emotion: anxiety

Pathology: Generalized Anxiety Disorder.

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Di t l d t th t

Anxiety disorders


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Distal predatory threat- oriented escapeor behavioral inhibition,

associated emotion: normal fear

pathology: Specific Phobias

Proximal predatory threat - disorganizedflight or complete immobility

associated emotion: dread

pathology: Panic Disorder.

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G l t t i l d h

Protection/Defence


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General strategies an animal adopts whenthreatened:

Hold position (need protective or offensiveweapons)

Give warning/threatthat you are dangerous

Evasive action(run, hide, flee, escape detection,play dead)

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Hierarchy of antipredatory defense level

Bl h d d Bl h d (1988)


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Blanchard and Blanchard (1988)

1. Risk assessment,

2. Escape,3. Tense immobility,

4. Defensive threat,

5. Defensive attack.

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LSM3261_Lecture 10 Protection