The Lymphatic and Immune Systems

Overview:

Major Structures Related Combining Forms Primary Functions

Lymph lymph/o The fluid that removes cellular waste products,

pathogens, and dead blood cells from the tissues.

Lymphatic Vessel lymphangi/o Returns lymph from the tissue to the circulatory

and Ducts system.

Lymph Nodes lymphaden/o Filter pathogens and harmful substances from the

lymph.

Tonsils and tosill/o, adenoid/o Protect the entry into the respiratory system.

Adenoids

Spleen splen/o Filters foreign materials from the blood. Maintains

the approriate balance between cells and plasma in

the blood. Destroys worn-out blood cells, releases

hemoglobin, act as a blood reservoir, and stores

platelets.

Bone Marrow myel/o Produces blood cells. [also refers to the spinal cord]

Lymphocytes lymphocyt/o The specialized white blood cells that play an

important role in immune reactions.

Thymus thym/o Secretes the endocrine thymosin that aids in the

maturation of T lymphocytes for use by the immune

system.

Immune System immun/o Defends the body against harmful substances, such as

pathogenic microorganisms, allergens, toxins, and

malignant cells.

Introduction

The lymphatic and immune systems work in close cooperation to protect and maitain the health of the body.

Some functions and structures of these systems are perfomed by specialized structures or shared structures.

Additional roles are performed by other body systems.

Medical Specialties related to the Lymphatic and Immune Systems

Allergist specializes in diagnosing and treating conditions of altered immunologic reactivity,

such as allergic reactions.

Hematologist specializes in diagnosing and treating diseases and disorders of the blood and

Immunologist

Ancologist is a physician who specializes in diagnosing and treating malignant disorders such as

blood-forming tissues[hemat/o means blood, and -ologist means specialist].

specializes in diagnosing and treating disorders of the immune system[immun means

protected, and -ologist means specialist].

Functions of the Lymphatic System

The lymphatic system performs three primary functions in cooperation with other body systems. These are:

* Absorbing fats and fat-soluble vitamins from the small intestine or digestive system and transport them

to the cells.

* Removing waste from the tissues; then filters and returns this excess tissue fluid to the cirulatory system.

* Providing aid to the immune system.

Absorption of Fats and Fat-Soluble Vitamins

Food is digested in the small intestine. From here, the nutrients, fats, and fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed

for use throughout the body.

* The blood vessels in the villi absorb most of the nutrients from the digested food directly into the

bloodstream.

* Fats and fat-soluble vitamins that cannot be absorbed directly into the bloodstream are absorbed and

transported by the lacteals of the lymphatic system.

Waste Removal from the Tissues

The lymphatic system removes waste products and excess fluids created by the cells. It also destroys

pathogens and takes away foreign substances that are present in the tissues.

Cooperating with the Immine System

The lymph nodes play an active role in cooperation with the immune system to protect the body against

invading microorganisms and diseases.

Structures of the Lymphatic System

The major structures of the lymphatic system are lymph, lymphatic vessels and ducts, and lymph nodes.

Additional structures include the tonsils, thymus, spleen, lacteals, Peyer's patches, the vermiform appendix,

and lymphocytes. Lymphocytes, which are specialized white blood cells, have roles in both the lymphatic and

immune systems.

Lymphatic Circulation

clear, watery fluid that transports waste products and proteins out of the spaces between the cells of the

body tissues. It also destroys bacteria or other pathogens that are present in the tissues. Lymph must be

filtered by the lymph nodes to remove this contamination before it enters the bloodstream.

Because the lymphatic vessels are closely aligned with those of the cardiovascular system, the lymphatic

tumors and cancer[onc means tumor, and -ologist means specialist].

* The villi are small finger-like projections that line the small intestine. These structures contain blood

vessels and lacteals, which are specialized structures of the lymphatic system.

Lymphatic circulation transports lymph from tissues throughout the body and eventually returns this fluid

to the venous circulation. Lymph is the remaining intercellular fluid that has not been resorbed. Lymph is a

system is sometimes referred to as the secondary circulatory system. Despite the similarities, there are

major differences between these two circulatory systems.

* Blood circulates throughout the entire body. Lymph flows in only one direction, from its point of origin

until its return to the venous circulation in the region of the neck.

* Blood flows in an open system in which it leaves, and re-enters, the blood vessels through the capillaries.

Lymphatic circulation is a closed system. From the time lymph enters the lymphatic capillaries, it does not

leave the lymphatic vessels again until it returns to the venous circulation.

* Blood is pumped throughout the body by the heart. The lymphatic system does not have a pump-like organ.

Instead, lymph must depend on help from the movements of nearby muscles and blood vessels to aid in its

flow.

* The color of the blood makes the arteries and veins readily visible. Lymph is a clear fluid, and the

lymphatic vessels are not readily visible.

* Blood is filtered by the kidneys, and waste products are excreted by the urinary system. Lymph is filtered

by lymph nodes located along the lymphatic vessels throughout the body.

Interstitial Fluid and Lymph Creation

the capillaries and into the spaces between the cells. This interstitial fluid transports food, oxygen, and

hormones to the cells.

means to be taken up again by the body.

* The remaining 10% of the interstitial fluid that was not reabsorbed becomes lymph. It is transported by the

lymphatic vessels and is filtered by lymph nodes located along these vessels.

Lymphatic Capillaries

walls are only one cell in thickness. These cells separate briefly to allow lymph to enter the capillary, and the

action of the cells as they close forces the lymph to flow forward.

Lymphatic Vessels and Ducts

deeper within the tissues. Like veins, lymphatic vessels have valves to prevent the backward flow of lymph.

The larger lymphatic vessels eventually join together to form two ducts. Each duct drains a specific part of

the body and returns the lymph to the venous circulation.

quadrant of the body and the right arm. The right lymphatic duct empties into the right subclavian vein.

the head and neck, and upper left quadrant of the trunk, the left arm, and the entire lower portion of the

trunk and both legs. The thoracic duct empties into the left subclavian vein.

Lymph Nodes

pathogens. Unfiltered lymph flows into the nodes, and here the lymphocytes destroy harmful substances such

as bacteria, viruses, and malignant cells. Additional structures within the node filter the lymph to remove

Interstitial fluid, also known as intercellular or tissue fluid, is plasma from arterial blood that flows out of

* About 90% of this fluid is reabsorbed by the capillaries and returned to the venous circulation. Reabsorbed

Lymphatic capillaries are microscopic, blind-ended tubes located near the surface of the body. The capillary

Lymph flows from the lymphatic capillaries into the progressively larger lymphatic vessels, which are located

* The right lymphatic duct collects lymph from the right side of the head and neck, the upper right

* The thoracic duct, which is the largest tymphatic vessel in the body, collects lymph from the left side of

Each small, bean-shaped lymph node contains specialized lymphocytes that are capable of destroying

additional impurities. After these processes are complete, the lymph leaves the node and continues its

journey to again become part of the venous circulation.

There are between 400 and 700 lymph nodes located along the larger lymphatic vessels, and approximately

half of these nodes are in the abdomen. Most of the other nodes are positioned on the branches of the

larger lymphatic vessels throughout the body. The exceptions are the three major groups of lymph nodes

that are named for their locations.

Cervical lymph nodes

pertaining to].

Axillary lymph nodes

Inguinal lymph nodes

Additional Structures of the Lymphatic System

pertaining to the lymphatic system or resembling lymph or lymphatic tissue. Although these structures

consist of lymphoid tissue, their primary roles are in conjuction with the immune system.

The Tonsils

the upper throat. These structures play an important role in the immune system by preventing pathogens

from entering the body through the nose and mouth.

The Thymus

thymus is an endocrine gland that assists the immune system.

Peyer's Patches and the Vermiform Appendix

These structures, which consist of lymphoid tissue, work with the immune system to protect against the

entry of pathogens through the digestive system.

large intestine. Recent research indicates that the appendix plays an important role in the immune system.

The Spleen

inferior to [below] the diaphragm and posterior to [behind] the stomach.

* The spleen filters microorganisms and other foreign material from the blood.

* The spleen forms lymphocytes and monocytes, which are specialized white blood cells with roles in the

are located along the sides of the neck[cervic means neck, and -al means

are located under the arms in the area known as the armpits[axill means

armpit, and -ary means pertaining to].

are located in the inguinal[groin] area of the lower abdomen[inguin means

groin, and -al means pertaining to].

The remaining structures of this body system are made up of lymphoid tissue. The term lymphoid means

The tonsils are three masses of lymphoid tissue that form a protective ring around the back of the nose and

* The adenoids, also known as the nasopharyngeal tonsils, are located in the nasopharynx.

* The palatine tonsils are located on the left and right sides of the throat in the area that is visible through

the mouth. Palatine means referring to the hard and soft palates.

* The lingual tonsils are located at the base of the tongue. Lingual means pertaining to tongue.

The thymus is located superior to [above] the heart. Although it is composed largely of lymphoid tissue, the

* Peyer's patches are located on the walls of the ileum. The ileum is last section of the small intestine.

* The vermiform appendix hangs from the lower portion of the cecum. The cecum is the first section of the

The spleen is a saclike mass of lymphoid tissue located in the left upper quadrant of the abdomen, just

immune system.

* The spleen has the hemolytic function of destroying worn-out red blood cells and releasing their

* The spleen also stores extra erythrocytes[red blood cells] and maintains the appropriate balance between

these cells and the plasma of the blood.

Pathology and Diagnostic Procedures of the Lymphatic System

Lymphadenitis

glands are sometimes used interchangeably. Swelling of the lymph nodes is frequently

an indication of the presence of an infection.

Lymphadenopath

Lymphangioma is a benign tumor formed by an abnormal collection of lymphatic vessels due to a

Persistent generalized is the continued presence of enlarged lymph nodes. PGL is often an

indication of the presence of a malignancy or a deficiency in immune system

function.

Splenomegaly

enlargement]. This condition can be due to bleeding caused by an injury, an infectious

disease such as mononucleosis, or abnormal functioning of the immune system.

Splenorrhagia

Lymphoscintigraphy is a diagnostic test that is performed to detect damage or malformations

of the lymphatic vessels.

Lymphangiographis the radiographic examination of the lymphatic vessels after the injection of a

treatment of lymphomas.

Lymphedema

Primary Lymphedema is a hereditary disorder due to malformation of the lymphatic system. This

condition, which can appear at any time in life, most commonly produces

swelling in the feet and legs.

Secondary lymphedema is caused by damage to the lymphatic system that most commonly preduces

swelling in the limb nearest to the damaged lymphatic vessels. Cancer

treatment [surgery, chemotherapy, and/or radiation] and trauma [burns,

injuries, and scarring] are the most frequent causes of this condition.

Functions and Structures of the Immune System

for reuse[hem/o means blood, and -lytic means to destroy].

also known as swollen glands, is an inflammation of the lymph nodes[lymphaden

means lymph node, and -itis means inflammation]. The terms lymph nodes and lymph

is any disease process affecting a lymph node or nodes[lymphaden/o means lymph

node, and -pathy means disease].

congenital malformation of the lymphatic system[lymphangi means lymph vessel, and

-oma means tumor].

lymphadenopathy (PGL)

is an abnormal enlargement of the spleen[splen/o means spleen, and -megaly

is bleeding from the spleen[splen/o means spleen, abd -rrhagia means bleeding].

contrast medium[lymphangi/o means lymph vessel, and -graphy means process of

recording]. The resulting lymphangiogram is used primarily to diagnose and monitor

Lymphedema is swelling due to an abnormal accumulation of lymph fluid within the tissues[lymph

lymph, and -edema means swelling].

Functions of the Immune System

The primary function of the immune system is to maintain good health and to protect the body from harmful

substances incuding:

The immune system first attempts to prevent the entry of these harmful substances into the body. If they do

gain entry, the immune system immediately begins working to destroy them.

Structures of the Immune System

Unlike other body systems, the immune system is not contained within a single set of organs or vessels.

Instead, its functions depend on structures from several other body systems.

The First Lines of Defense

lining of the respiratory system. The tonsils form a protective ring around the entrance to the throat. If

foreign matter gets past these barriers, coughing and sneezing help to expel it from the respiratory system.

swallowed or consumed with food.

to attack and destroy pathogens that have succeeded in entering the body.

The Antigen-Antibody Reaction

This reaction labels a potentially dangerous antigen so it can be recognized, and destroyed, by other cells of

the immune system.

and transplanted tissues. The immune system immediately responds to the presence of any antigen.

used interchangeably.

Immunoglobulins

specialized white blood cells that produce antibodies doded to destroy specific antigens.

* Pathogens, which are disease-producing microorganisms.

* Allergens, which are substances that produce allergic reactions.

* Toxins, which are poisonous or harmful substances.

* Malignant cells, which are potentially life-threatening cancer cells.

* Intact skin wraps the body in a physical barrier that prevents invading organisms from entering the body.

Intact means there are no cuts, scrapes, open sores, or breaks in the skin.

* The respiratory system traps breathed-in foreign matter with nose hairs and the moist mucous membrane

* The digestive system uses the acids and enzymes produced by the stomach to destroy invaders that are

* The structures of the lymphatic system, and specialized white blood cells, work together in specific ways

An antigen-antibody reaction, also known as the immune reaction, involves binding antigens to antibodies.

* An antigen is any substance that the body regards as being foreign, and includes viruses, becateria, toxins,

* An allergen is a substance that produces an allergic reaction in an individual.

* An antibody is a disease-fighting protein created by the immune system in response to the presence of a

specific antigen [the prefix anti- means against]. The terms antibody and immunoglobulin are often

Immunoglobulins bind with specific antigens in the antigen-antibody response. The five primary types of

immunoglobulins, which are secreted by plasma cells, are also known as antibodies. Plasma cells are

Immunoglobulins and Their Roles

Immunoglobulin G (IgG) is the most abundant class of antibodies, and they are found in blood serum and

lymph. These antibodies are active against bacteria, fungi, viruses, and foreign particles.

antibodies are found in body secretions such as saliva, sweat, or tears, and function to prevent the

attachment of viruses and bacteria to the epithelial surfaces that line most organs.

first antibodies to appear in response to an initial exposure to an antigen.

These antibodies are responsible for allergic reactions.

Specialized Cells of the Antigen-Antibody Reaction

The immune response requires the actions of many specialized cells.

Lymphocytes

throughout the body.

These changes enable these lymphocytes to act as specialized antibodies that are capable of attacking

to perform a specific function.

B Cells

lymphocyte makes a specific antibody that is capable of destroying a specific antigen.

* B cells are most effective against viruses and bacteria circulating in the blood.

* When a B cell is confronted with the antigen that it is coded to destroy, that B cell is transformed into a

specific antigen.

Dendritic Cells

infections. When such a cell is found the dendritic cells grab, shallow, and internally break apart the captured

antigen.

Fragments of the destroyed antigen are then moved to the surface of the cell where these fragments are

displayed on tentacle-like extensions of the dendritic cell. The purpose of this display is to alert, and

activate, T cells to protect against this specific antigen.

T Cells

* T cells contribute to the immune defense by coordinating immune defenses and by killing infected cells on

Immunoglobulin A (IgA) is the class of antibodies produced predominantly against ingested antigens. These

Immunoglobulin M (IgM) is the class of antibodies that are found in circulating body fluids. These are the

Immunoglobulin D (IgD) is the class of antibodies found only on the surface of B cells. These antibodies are

important in B cell activation which is discussed later in this chapter.

Immunoglobulin E (IgE) is the class of antibodies produced in the lungs, skin, and mucous membranes.

Note: Synthetic immunoglobulins, which are used as medications, are discussed later in this chapter.

Lymphocytes are white blood cells that are formed in bone marrow as stem cells[lymph/o means lymph, and

-cytes means cells]. These cells undergo further maturation and differentiation in lymphoid tissues

specific antigens. Maturation means the process of becoming mature. Differentiation means to be modified

B cells, also know as B lymphocytes, are specialized lymphocytes that produce and secrete antibodies. Each

plasma B cell. These cells are capable of producing and secreting antibodies that are coded to destroy a

Dendritic cells are specialized white blood cells that patrol the body searching for antigens that produce

T cells, also known as T lymphocytes, are small lymphocytes that mature in the thymus as a result of

exposure to the hormone thymosin, which is secreted by the thymus.

contact.

stopping their multiplication.

the cells of the immune system. Lymphokines attract macrophages to the infected site and prepare them to

attack the invaders.

immune cells.

Complement

by contact with nonspecific antigens such as foreign blood cells or bacteria. Complement then marks these

foreign invaders and attracts phagocytes to destroy these antigens.

Immunity

Nasal immunity is passed from the mother to her fetus[developing child] before birth. This immunity

lasts only a short time.

Passive immunity is passed from the mother to her child after birth through breast milk.

Acquired immunit

antigen by the immune system either by contracting an infectious disease such as

chickenpox, or by vaccination against a disease such as poliomyelitis[polio].

Vaccination

communicable diseases by the administration of a vaccine to provide acquired

consisting of whole or partial disease-causing organisms, which have been killed or

weakened.

Pathology and Diagnostic Procedures of the Immune System

The effectiveness of the immune system depends upon the individual's:

General health If the immune system is compromised by poor health, it cannot be fully effective.

Age Older individuals usually have more acquired immunity; however, their immune

systems tend to respond less quickly and effectively to new challenges. Babies and

very young children do not yet have as much acquired immunity,and their bodies

sometimes have difficulty resisting challenges to the immune system.

Heredity Genes and genetic disorders affect the individual's general health and the functioning

of his or her immune system.

Allergic Reactions

* Interferon is a family of proteins produced by the T cells whose specialty is fighting viruses by slowing or

* Lymphokines, which are produced by the T cells, direct the antigen-antibody response by signaling between

* A macrophage is a type of white blood cell that surrounds and kills invading cells[macro- means large, and

-phage means a cell that eats]. Macrophages also remove dead cells and stimulate the action of other

* A phagocyte is a large white blood cell that can destroy substances such as cell debris, dust, pollen, and

pathogens by the process of phagocytosis[phag/o means to eat or swallow, and -cyte means cell].

Phagocytosis is the process of destroying pathogens by surrounding and swallowing them.

Complement is a group of proteins that normally circulate in the blood in an inactive form and are activated

Immunity is the state of being resistant to a specific disease.

also known as active immunity, is the production of antibodies against a specific

also known as immunization, is proving protection for susceptible individuals from

immunity against a specific disease. A vaccine is a preparation containing an antigen,

food, or animal dander as if it were a angerous invader.

Allergy

Localized allergic

response has come into contact with an allergen. For example, contact with poison ivy can cause

a localized allergic response in the form of an itchy rash. Although the body reacts

mildly the first time it is exposed to the allergen, sensitivity is established, and future

contacts can cause much more-severe symptoms.

Systemic reaction

to an allergen. The symptoms of this response develop quickly. Without medical aid,

th patient can die within a few minutes.

Scratch test is a diagnostic test to identify commonly throublesome allergens such as tree pollen

and ragweed. Swelling and itching indicate an allergic reaction.

Antihistamines are medications administered to relieve or prevent the symptoms of hay fever, which

is a common allergy to wind-borne pollens, and other types of allergies. Antihistamines

body that causes the itching, sneezing, runny nose, and watery eyes of an elleric

reaction.

Autoimmune Disorders

characterized by a condition in which the immune system produces antibodies against its own tissues. This

abnormal functioning of the immune system appears to be genetically transmitted and predominantly occurs

in women during the childbearing years. Autoimmune disorders affect most body systems.

Immunodeficiency Disorders

weakened, reduced, absent, or not functioning properly.

The Human Immunodeficiency Virus

damages or kills the cells of the immune system, causing it to progressively fail, thus leaving the body at

risk of developing many life-threatening opportunistic infections. In the early stages of HIV, medical

intervention can prolong the patient's life.

Opportunistic infection is caused by a pathogen that does not normally produce an illness in healthy

humans. However, when the host is debilitated, these pathogens are able to

Because the immune systems of patients with HIV or AIDS are weakened,

many opportunistic infections can develop.

Acquired immunodeficienc

syndrome infection.

Kaposi's sarcoma is an example of an opportunistic infection that is frequently associated with HIV. This

cancer causes patches of abnormal tissue to grow under the skin, in the lining of the

An allergic reaction occurs when the body's immune system reacts to a harmless allergen such as pollen,

also known as hypersensitivity, is an overreaction by the body to a particular antigen.

also known as cellular response, includes redness, itching, and burning where the skin

which is also described as anaphylaxis or as anaphylactic shock, is a severe response

work by preventing the effects of histamine, which is a substance produced by the

An autoimmune disorder, also known as an autoimmune disease, is any of a large group of diseases

An immunodeficiency disorder occurs when the immune response is compromised. Compromised

The human immunodeficiency virus, commonly known as HIV, is a bloodborne infection in which the virus

cause an infection. Debilitated means weakened by another condition.

commonly known as AIDS, is the most advanced, and fatal, stage of an HIV

mouth, nose, and throat, or in other organs.

ELISA

screen for the presence of HIV antibodies.

Western blot test is a blood test that produces more accurate resuts than the ELISA test. The Western

blot test is performed to confirm the diagnosis when the results of the ELISA test are

result in which the test erroneously indicates the presence of HIV.

Body System Autoimmune Disorder

Skeletal System

Muscular System

Cardiovascular System

Digestive System

Nervous System

Integumentary System

Endocrine System

Treatment of the Immune System

A variety of treatment procedures are used to correct or control the symptoms of disorders of the immune

system.

Immunotherapy

* In the treatment of cancers, immunotherapy is used to stimulate the immune response to fight the

* In the treatment of allergies, immunotherapy is used to repress the body's sensitivity to a particular

allergy desensitization.

Antibody Therapy

Synthetic immunoglobulin

measure against certain viruses, including rabies and some types of

virus, for example, has been bitten by an animal with rabies. The goal of

this treatment is to prevent the disease from developing.

Synthetic interferon is used in the treatment of multiple sclerosis, hepatitis C, and some cancers.

which is the acronym for enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, is a blood test used to

positive. This is necessary because the ELISA test sometimes produces a false positive

Examples of Autoimmune Disorders and the Affected Body Parts

Rheumatoid arthritis affects joints and connective tissue.

Myasthenia gravis affects nerve and muscle synapses.

Pernicious anemia affects the red blood cells.

Crohns disease affects the intestines, ileum, or the colon.

Multiple sclerosis affects the brain and spinal cord.

Alopecia areata affects the hair follicles.

Lupus erythematosus affects the skin, connective tissue, and joints.

Scleroderma affects the skin and connective tissues.

Vitiligo affects melanin within the skin.

Type 1 diabetes mellitus, affects the insulin-producing pancreatic cells.

Graves disease affects the thyroid gland.

Hashimoto's thyroiditis affects the thyroid gland.

Immunotherapy is a disease treatment that involves either stimulating or repressing the immune response

[immun/o means immune, and -therapy means treatment].

malignancy. Stimulate means to cause greater activity.

allergen. Repress means to decrease, slow, or stop a normal response. This treatment is also known as

also known as immune serum, are used as a postexposure preventive

hepatitis. Postexposure means that the patient has been exposed to the

Monoclonal antibodies are any of a class of antibodies produced in the laboratory by identical

offspring of a clone of specific cells. These artificially produced antibodies

are used to enhance the patient's immune response to certain malignancies,

including some non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, melanoma, breast cancer, and

Immunosuppression

t stimulation by antigens.

Immunosuppressais a substance that prevents or reduces the body's normal immune response. This

medication is administered to prevent the rejection of donor tissue and to depress

autoimmune disorders.

Corticosteroid dr is a hormone-like preparation administered primarily as an anti-inflammatory and as an

immunosuppressant.

Cytotoxic drug

means pertaining to]. These drugs are used as immunosuppressants or as

antineoplastics. Antineoplastics are discussed under "Chemotherapy"

later in this chapter.

Pathogenic Organisms

Bacteria

humans. Bacteria that are pathogenic in humans incude bacilli, rickettsia, spirochetes, staphylococci, and

streptococci.

Bacilli

patient cannot open his or her mouth or swallow.

Rickettsia

to humans by the bite of an infected tick. The signs and symptoms of this serious

disease include a fever of sudden onset, headache, and muscle pain followed by the

development of a rash.

Spirochetes are spiral-shaped bacteria that have flexible walls and are capable of movement.

to humans by the bite of an infected deer tick. Symptoms include fever, headache,

fatigue, and a characteristic skin rash. If left untreated, this infection can spread to

the joints, heart, and nervous system.

colon cancer. Monoclonal means pertains to a single clone of cells. As used

here, a clone is an exact replica of a group of bacteria.

Immunosuppression is treatment to repress or interfere with the ability of the immune system to respond

is a medication that kills or damages cells[cyt/o means cell, tox means poison, and

A pathogen is a microorganism that causes a disease in humans. A microorganism is a living organism that

is so small it can be seen only with the aid of a microscope. Pathogenic means capable of producing disease.

Bacteria are one-celled microscopic organisms[singular, bacterium]. Most bacteria are not harmful to

are rod-shaped spore-forming bacteria[singular,bacillus]. Tetanus is caused by the

bacillus Clostridium tetani, and is transmitted through a cut or wound. Tetanus is

commonly known as lockjaw because it produces muscle spasms that are so severe a

is a small bacterium that lives in lice, fleas, ticks, and mites[plural, rickettsiae].

Rocky Mountain spotted fever, which is caused by Rickettsia rickettsii, is transmitted

Lyme disease, which is caused by the spirochete Borrelia burgdorferi, is transmitted

Staphylococci are a group of about 30 species of bacteria that form irregular groups or clusters

reside normally on the skin and mucous membranes of humans and other organisms;

however, others are capable of producing very serious infections.

Staphylococcus

aureus and causes serious problems such as toxic shock syndrome or produces food poisoning.

Streptococci

are harmless; however, other members of this group are responsible for illness

Septic Shock

Toxins released by these pathogens can produce direct tissue damage resulting in low blood pressure. This

damage causes vital organs [the brain, heart, kidneys, and liver] to not function properly or to fail

completely. Septic shock occurs most often in the very odd old the very young. It also occurs in those with

underlying or debilitating illnesses.

Antibiotic Resistant Bacteria

bacteria it targets. When this occurs, the surviving bacteria become resistant to that particular drug. When

more and more bacteria become resistant to first-line treatments, the consequences are severe, as illnesses

last longer, and the risks of complications and death increase.

The first symptom of MRSA looks like a small, red bumps with a black top. These bumps soon become

red-hot abscesses that require immediate care. MRSA infections are serious, difficult to treat, and can be

fatal. Originally these infections were nosocomial[hospital acquired]; however, MRSA infections are

increasingly present in the general population.

Fungus, Yeast, and Parasites

develops between toes and on the feet.

on the skin or mucous membranes in the warm, moist areas such as the vagina or the mouth.

transferred to humans by the bite of an infected mosquito. Symptoms develop from 7 days to 4 weeks after

being infected and include fever, shaking chills, headache, muscle aches, and tiredness.

contact with contaminated feces. If a woman contracts this condition during pregnancy, it can result in

resembling grapes[singular, staphylococcus]. Most staphylococci are harmless and

also known as staph aureus, is a form of staphylococci that commonly infects wounds

Toxic shock syndrome is a rare but potentially fatal disease caused by bacterial toxins.

are bacteria that form a chain[singular, streptococcus]. Many streptococcal species

uncluding strep throat, meningitis, endocarditis, and necrotizing fascitis.

Septic shock is a serious condition that occurs when an overwhelming bacterial infection affects the body.

Antibiotic resistant bacteria, also known as superbugs, develop when an antibiotic fails to kill all of the

* Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, commonly known as MRSA, is resistant to most antibiotics.

* A fungus is a simple prasitic organism[plural, fungi]. Some of these fungi are harmless to humans, others

are pathogenic. Tinea pedis, commonly known as athlete's foot, is a fungal infection that commonly

* Yeast is a type of fungus. Candidiasis, formerly known as moniliasis, is now also known as a yeast

infection or thrush. These infections, which are caused by the pathogenic yeast Candida albicans, occur

* A parasite is a plant or animal that lives on, or within, another living organism at the expense of that

organism. For example, malaria is a disease caused by a parasite that lives in certain mosquitoes that is

* Another parasite is toxoplasmosis which is most commonly transmitted from animals[pets] to humans by

abnormalities in the developing child such as microcephalus or hydrocephalus. Microcephalus is an

cerebrospinal fluid accumulates in the ventricles of the brain. For this reason, it is recommended that

pregnant women not perform tasks such as cleaning a kitty-litter box.

Viruses

the cell, the virus reproduces and then breaks the cell wall to release the newly formed viruses. These

viruses spread to other cells and repeat the process.

Viral Infections

Herpes zoster

skin eruptions that follow the underlying route of an inflamed nerve. This inflammation

occurs when the dormant varicella[chickenpox] virus is reactivated later in life. A

vaccine is available to prevent such reoccurance.

Infectious

mononucleosis characterized by fever, a sore throat, and enlarged lymph nodes. Swelling of the

spleen or liver involvement can also develop.

Measles

by respiratory droplets. Symptoms include a high fever, runny nose, coughing,

to light. Complications of measles can be serious.

Mumps is an acute viral disease characterized by the swlling of the parotid glands, which are

the salivary glands located just in front of the ears. In adults, mumps can also cause

painful swelling of the ovaries or testicles.

Rubella

by a fine, pink rash. Although not usually severe or long lasting, rubella is serious in a

woman during early pregnancy because of its ability to cause defects in a developing

fetus. Measles and rubella share similar symptoms, and in fact the term "German"

Rabies is an acute viral infection that is most commonly transmitted to humans by the bite or

saliva of an infected animal. In humans, signs and symptoms of rabies usually occur

30-90 days after the bite. Once symptoms develop, rabies is almost always fatal. If at

risk, it is necessary to undergo testing immediately so that postexposure treatment

can be started as quickly as possible.

Varicella

contagious. This condition is characterized by a fever and a rash consisting of hundreds

of itchy, fluid-filled blisters that burst and forms crusts.

West Nile virus is spread to humans by the bite of an infected mosquito. A mild form of this condition

has flu-like symptoms. A more severe variety spreads to the spinal cord and brain.

Cytomegalovirus

abnormally small head and underdeveloped brain. Hydrocephalus is a condition in which excess

Viruses are very small infectious agents that live only by invading other cells[singular, virus]. After invading

which is also known as shingles, is an acute viral infection characterized by painful

also known as mono, is caused by the Epstein-Barr virus(EBV). This condition is

is an acute, highly contagious infection caused by the rubeola virus and transmitted

photophobia, and a red, itchy rash over the entire body. Photophobia means sensitivity

also known as German measles or 3-day measles, is a viral infection characterized

measles comes from the Latin word "germanus", meaning similar.

The measles, mumps, and rubella vaccination(MMR) can prevent these three viral conditions.

also known as chickenpox, is caused by the herpes virus Varicella zoster and is highly

Cytomegalovirus (CMV) is a member of the herpesvirus family that cause a variety of diseases[cyt/o

signs of symptoms of the infection.

* CMV can potentially cause a serious illness when the individual has a weakened immune system.

* CMV can be transmitted from the mother to her unborn child. This transmission can cause serious

congenital disabilities in the child.

Medications to Control Infections

Antibiotics are medications that are capable of inhibiting growth, or killing pathogenic bacterial

against viral infections.

Bactericide

means causing death]. This group of antibiotics includes penicillins and cephalosporins.

tetracycline, sulfonamide, and erythromycin.

Antifungal

antifungal that is applied to treat, or prevent, athlete's foot. This type of medication

Antiviral drug such as acyclovir, is used to treat viral infections or to provide temporary immunity

Oncology

Cancer can attack all body systems and is the second leading cause of death in the United States after

heart conditions.

Tumors

life-threatening].

Benign tumor is a noncancerous growth; however, these tumors can cause problems by placing

Malignant tumor is harmful, capable of spreading to distant body sites including other body system, can

become progressively worse, and is progressively life-threatening. For example, a

cell, megal/o means large, vir means virus, and -us is a singular noun ending].

* CMV is found in most body fluids and can be present as a silent infection in which the individual has no

microorganisms[anti- means against, bio means life, and -tic means pertaining to].

Inhibit means to slow the growth or development. Antibiotics are not effective

is a substance that causes the death of bacteria[bacteri means bacteria, and -cide

A bacteriostatic is an agent that slows or stops the growth of bacteria[bacteri means

bacteria, and -static means causing control]. This group of antibiotics includes

is an agent that destroys or inhibits the growth of fungi[anti- means against, fung

means fungus, and -al means pertaining to]. Lotrimin is an example of a topical

is also known as an antimycotic.

[anti- means against, vir means virus, and -al means pertaining to].

Oncology is the study of the prevention, causes, and treatment of tumors and cancer[onc means tumor,

and -ology means the study of]. Most cancers are named for the part of the body where the cancer originated.

A tumor, which is also known as a neoplasm, is a growth of tissue that forms an abnormal mass. Within

this mass, the multiplication of cells is uncontrolled, abnormally rapid, and progressive[neo- means new or

strange, and -plasm means formation].

* A tumor can be benign [not life-threatening] or malignant [harmful, capable of spreading, and potentially

pressure on adjacent structures. For example, a myoma is a benign tumor made up of

muscle tissue[my means muscle, and -oma means tumor].

myosarcoma is a malignant tumor derived from muscle tissue[myo means muscle,

sarc means flesh, and -oma means tumor].

Angiogenesis is the process through which the tumor supports its growth by creating its own blood

Antiangiogenesis

Cancer

to invade other tissues, either by invasion through direct growth into adjacent tissue or by spreading into

distant sites by metastasizing.

the primary site and metastasize[spread] to a secondary site.

means stopping]. The metastasis can be within the same body system or within another body system at a

Carcinomas

tumor]. Epithelial tissue forms the protective covering for all of the internal and external surfaces of the

body.

* Carcinomas tend to infiltrate and produce metastases that can affect any organ or part of the body.

Sarcomas

Hard tissue sarcomas

tumor usually involving the upper shaft of long bones, the pelvis, or knee

Soft tissue sarcomas arise from tissues such as muscle, connective tissues such as tendons, blood

is a malignant tumor of the tissue surrounding a synovial joint. The most

common locations are the knee, ankle, shoulder, and hip.

Liquid tissue sarcomas

blood.

Kaposi's sarcoma may affect the skin, mocous membranes, lymph nodes, and internal organs. This

form of cancer is frequently associated with HIV.

Staging

supply[angi/o means vessel, and -genesis means reproduction]. Angiogenesis is the

oppposite of antiangiogenesis.

is a form of treatment that disrupts this blood supply to the tumor[anti- means against,

angi/o means vessel, and -genesis means reproduction]. Antiangiogenesis is the

opposite of angiogenesis.

Cancer is a class of diseases characterized by the uncontrolled division of cells and the ability of these cells

* To metastasize is the process by which cancer spreads from one place to another. The cancer moves from

* A metastasis is a new cancer site that results from the spreading process[meta- means beyond, and

distance from the primary site[plural, metastases].

A carcinoma is a malignant tumor that occurs in epithelial tissue[carcin means cancer, and -oma means

* Carcinoma in situ describes a malignant tumor in its original position that has not yet disturbed or invaded

the surrounding tissues. In situ means in the place where the cancer first occurred.

* For example, an adenocarcinoma is any one of a large group of carcinomas derived from glandular tissue

[aden/o means gland, carcin means cancer, and -oma means tumor].

A sarcoma is a malignant tumor that arises from connective tissues, including hard tissues, soft tissues, and

liquid tissues[sarc means flesh, and -oma means tumor] [plural, sarcomas or sarcomata].

arise from bone or cartilage. For example, an osteosarcoma is a malignant

[oste/o means bone, sarc means flesh, and -oma means tumor].

and lymphatic vessels, nerves, and fat. For example, a synovial sarcoma

arise from blood and lymph. One example is leukemia, which affects the

potential for its responding to therapy, and the patient's prognosis. Specific staging systems are used for

different types of cancer.

Lymphomas

types of lymphomas are Hodgkin's lymphoma and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma.

Hodgkin's lymphoma

Non-Hodgkin's lymphoma

There are many different types of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, some

aggressive[fast-growing] and some indolent[slow-growing].

Breast Cancer

nodes and other body sites. There are several types of breast cancer named for their location or amount of

spreading.

Ductal carcinoma in situ is breast cancer in its earliest stage before the cancer has broken through

the wall of the milk duct. At this stage, the cure rate is nearly 100%.

Infiltrating ductal carcino

through the wall of that duct, and invades the fatty breast tissue. This form

of tissue in which it developed and the cancer is now growing into

surrounding, healthy tissues.

Infiltrating lobular carcin

glands[lobules], breaks through the wall of the gland, and invades the fatty

tissue of the breast. Once this cancer reaches the lymph nodes, it can

rapidly spread to distant parts of the body.

Inflammatory breast cance(IBC) is the most aggressive and least common form of breast cancer. IBC

grows rapidly, and symptoms include pain, rapid increase in the breast size,

redness or a rash on the breast, and the swelling of nearby lymph nodes. IBC

can be detected by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI); however, it is not

detected by mammography or ultrasound.

Male breast cancer can occur in the small amount of breast tissue that is usually present in men.

The types of cancers are similar to those occurring in women.

Stage Explanation

I The cancer is no larger than two centimeters [about one inch] and has not spread outside the

breast.

II Any of the following may be true:

Staging is the process of classifying tumors with respect to how far the disease has peogressed, the

Lymphoma is a general term applied to malignancies affecting lymhoid tissues[lymph means lymph, and

-oma means tumor]. This includes lymph nodes, the spleen, liver, and bone marrow. The two most common

also known as Hodgkin's disease, is distinguished from other lymphomas by

the presence of large, cancerous lymphocytes known as Reed-Sternberg cells

is the term used to describe all lymphomas other than Hodgkin's lymphoma.

Breast cancer is a carcinoma that develops from the cells of the breast and can spread to adjacent lymph

also known as invasive ductal carcinoma, starts in the milk duct, breaks

of cancer accounts for the majority of all breast cancers. Infiltrating and

invasive are terms used to describe cancer that has spread beyond the layer

also known as invasive lobular carcinoma, is cancer that starts in the milk

Staging Breast Cancer

The cancer is no larger than two centimeters but has spread to the axillary lymph nodes.

The cancer is between two and five centimeters [from one to two inches] and may or may not

have spread to the axillary lymph nodes.

The cancer is larger than five centimeters [greater than two inches] but has not spread to the

axillary lymph nodes.

IIIA Either of the following is true:

The cancer is smaller than five centimeters and has spread to the axillary lymph nodes and the

lymph nodes are attached to each other or to other structures.

The cancer is larger than five centimeters and has spread to the axillary lymph nodes.

IIIB Either of the following is true:

The cancer has spread to tissues near the breast [skin or chest wall, including the ribs and

muscles of the chest].

The cancer has spread to lymph nodes inside the chest wall and along the breastbone.

IV The cancer has spread to other organs of the body, most often the bones, lungs, liver, or brain.

Or, the cancer has spread locally to the skin and lymph nodes inside the neck, near the collarbone.

Detection of Breast Cancer

Early detection of breast cancer is very important and utilizes the following techniques.

Breast self-examination is an essential self-care procedure for the early detection of breast cancer.

The focus of this self-examination is checking for a new lump or for changes

in an existing lump, shape of the nipple, or the skin covering the breast.

Professional palpation is performed to feel the texture, size, and consistency of the breast.

of the breast

Mammography is a radiographic examination of the breasts to detect the presence of

the process of producing a picture or record]. The resulting record is a

Ultrasound is used as an initial follow-up test when an abnormality is found by mammography.

Surgical biopsy is the removal of a small piece of tissue for examination to confirm or

After a diagnosis has been established, treatment is then based on the

stage of the cancer.

Needle breast biopsy is a technique in which an x-ray-guided needle is used to remove small

samples of tissue from the breast. It is less painful and disfiguring than a

surgical biopsy.

Sentinel-node biopsy after the sentinel lymph node has been identified, only this and the other

affected nodes are removed for biopsy. If the cancer has not spread, this

lymph node to come into contact with cancer cells as they leave the organ of

origination and start spreading into the rest of the body.

Lymph node dissection is a surgical procedure in which all of the lymph nodes in a major group are

removed to determine or slow the spread of cancer. For example, an

tumors or precancerous cells[mamm/o means breast, and -graphy means

mammogram.

establish a diagnosis[bi- means pertaining to life, and -opsy means view of].

spares the remaining nodes in that group. The sentinel node is the first

axillary lymph node dissection (ALND) is sometimes performed as part of

the surgical treatment of the breast.

Surgical Treatment of Breast Cancer

Lumpectomy is the surgical removal of only thre cancerous tissue and a surrounding margin of

normal tissue.

Mastectomy

means surgical removal]. Although simply described as a mastectomy, this procedure

often includes the removal of axillary lymph noses under the adjacent arm.

Modified radical is the surgical removal of the entire breast and all of the axillary lymph nodes under

mastectomy the adjacent arm.

Radical mastecto is the surgical removal of an entire breast and many of the surrounding tissues.

Cancer Treatments

The most common forms of cancer treatments are surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy.

Surgery

Most commonly cancer surgery involves removing the malignancy plus a margin of normal surrounding

tissue. It may also involve the removal of one or more nearby lymph nodes to detect whether the cancer

has stated to spread.

Chemotherapy

cells and tissues.

Chemopreventionis the use of natural synthetic substances such as drugs or vitamins to reduce the risk

of developing cancer, or to reduce the chance that cancer will recur. Chemoprevention

may also be used to reduce the size or slow the development of an existing tumor.

Antineoplastic is medication that blocks the development, growth, or proliferation of malignant cells

Cytotoxic drugs are also used for both immunosuppression and chemotherapy.

Radiation Therapy

sparing healthy tissues.

Brachytherapy is the use of radioactive materials in contact with, or implanted into, the tissues to

Teletherapy

imaging, it is possible to aim doses more precisely.

Additional Therapies

Adjuvant therapy is used after the primary treatments have been completed to decrease the chance that

is the surgical removal of the entire breast and nipple[mast means breast, and

Chemotherapy is the use of chemical agents and drugs in combinations selected to destroy malignant

[anti- means against, ne/o means new, plast means growth or formation, and

means pertaining to]. Proliferation means to increase rapidly.

Radiation therapy is used in the treatment of some cancers, with the goal of destroying the cancer while

be treated[brachy- means short, and -therapy means treatment].

is radiation therapy administered at a distance from the body[tele- means distant,

and -therapy means treatment]. With the assistance of three-dimensional computer

a cancer will recur. The term adjuvant refers to an agent intended to increase the

effectiveness of a drug; however, adjuvant treatments for cancer can also include

chemotherapy, hormone therapy, radiation, immunotherapy, or targeted therapy.

Targeted therapy is a developing form if anti-cancer drug therapy that uses drugs or other substances

to indentify and attack specific cancer cells without harming normal cells. A

monoclonal antibody is a type of targeted therapy.

Abbreviations

AIDS acquired immunodeficiency syndrome

A anaphylaxis

A, Ab antibody

AG, Ag antigen

BACT, bacteria

Bact, bact

BSE breast self-examination

CA, Ca carcinoma

CIS carcinoma in situ

CMV cytomegalovirus

DCIS ductal carcinoma in situ

ELISA enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay

EBV Epstein-Barr virus

HZ herpes zoster

HL Hodgkin's lymphoma

HIV human immunodeficiency virus

IG immunoglobulin

IT immunotherapy

IM infectious mononucleosis

IDC infiltrating ductal carcinoma, invasive ductal carcinoma

ILC infiltrating lobar carcinoma, invasive lobar carcinoma

IF interferon, interstitial fluid

KS Kaposi's sarcoma

LE lymphedema

MET metastasis

met metastasize

MABS monoclonal antibodies

NHL non-Hodgkin's lymphoma

PGL persistent generalized lymphadenopathy

Rick rickettsia

TB tuberculosis

VSZ varicella

pathogens, and dead blood cells from the tissues.

Filter pathogens and harmful substances from the

Filters foreign materials from the blood. Maintains

the approriate balance between cells and plasma in

the blood. Destroys worn-out blood cells, releases

Produces blood cells. [also refers to the spinal cord]

maturation of T lymphocytes for use by the immune

Defends the body against harmful substances, such as

pathogenic microorganisms, allergens, toxins, and

The lymphatic and immune systems work in close cooperation to protect and maitain the health of the body.

Some functions and structures of these systems are perfomed by specialized structures or shared structures.

specializes in diagnosing and treating conditions of altered immunologic reactivity,

is a physician who specializes in diagnosing and treating malignant disorders such as

specializes in diagnosing and treating disorders of the immune system[immun means

The lymphatic system performs three primary functions in cooperation with other body systems. These are:

* Absorbing fats and fat-soluble vitamins from the small intestine or digestive system and transport them

* Removing waste from the tissues; then filters and returns this excess tissue fluid to the cirulatory system.

Food is digested in the small intestine. From here, the nutrients, fats, and fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed

* The blood vessels in the villi absorb most of the nutrients from the digested food directly into the

* Fats and fat-soluble vitamins that cannot be absorbed directly into the bloodstream are absorbed and

The lymphatic system removes waste products and excess fluids created by the cells. It also destroys

The lymph nodes play an active role in cooperation with the immune system to protect the body against

The major structures of the lymphatic system are lymph, lymphatic vessels and ducts, and lymph nodes.

Additional structures include the tonsils, thymus, spleen, lacteals, Peyer's patches, the vermiform appendix,

and lymphocytes. Lymphocytes, which are specialized white blood cells, have roles in both the lymphatic and

clear, watery fluid that transports waste products and proteins out of the spaces between the cells of the

body tissues. It also destroys bacteria or other pathogens that are present in the tissues. Lymph must be

Because the lymphatic vessels are closely aligned with those of the cardiovascular system, the lymphatic

are small finger-like projections that line the small intestine. These structures contain blood

transports lymph from tissues throughout the body and eventually returns this fluid

is the remaining intercellular fluid that has not been resorbed. Lymph is a

. Despite the similarities, there are

* Blood circulates throughout the entire body. Lymph flows in only one direction, from its point of origin

* Blood flows in an open system in which it leaves, and re-enters, the blood vessels through the capillaries.

Lymphatic circulation is a closed system. From the time lymph enters the lymphatic capillaries, it does not

* Blood is pumped throughout the body by the heart. The lymphatic system does not have a pump-like organ.

Instead, lymph must depend on help from the movements of nearby muscles and blood vessels to aid in its

* The color of the blood makes the arteries and veins readily visible. Lymph is a clear fluid, and the

* Blood is filtered by the kidneys, and waste products are excreted by the urinary system. Lymph is filtered

the capillaries and into the spaces between the cells. This interstitial fluid transports food, oxygen, and

* The remaining 10% of the interstitial fluid that was not reabsorbed becomes lymph. It is transported by the

walls are only one cell in thickness. These cells separate briefly to allow lymph to enter the capillary, and the

deeper within the tissues. Like veins, lymphatic vessels have valves to prevent the backward flow of lymph.

The larger lymphatic vessels eventually join together to form two ducts. Each duct drains a specific part of

quadrant of the body and the right arm. The right lymphatic duct empties into the right subclavian vein.

the head and neck, and upper left quadrant of the trunk, the left arm, and the entire lower portion of the

pathogens. Unfiltered lymph flows into the nodes, and here the lymphocytes destroy harmful substances such

as bacteria, viruses, and malignant cells. Additional structures within the node filter the lymph to remove

, is plasma from arterial blood that flows out of

* About 90% of this fluid is reabsorbed by the capillaries and returned to the venous circulation. Reabsorbed

are microscopic, blind-ended tubes located near the surface of the body. The capillary

lymphatic vessels, which are located

collects lymph from the right side of the head and neck, the upper right

, which is the largest tymphatic vessel in the body, collects lymph from the left side of

contains specialized lymphocytes that are capable of destroying

additional impurities. After these processes are complete, the lymph leaves the node and continues its

There are between 400 and 700 lymph nodes located along the larger lymphatic vessels, and approximately

half of these nodes are in the abdomen. Most of the other nodes are positioned on the branches of the

larger lymphatic vessels throughout the body. The exceptions are the three major groups of lymph nodes

pertaining to the lymphatic system or resembling lymph or lymphatic tissue. Although these structures

the upper throat. These structures play an important role in the immune system by preventing pathogens

These structures, which consist of lymphoid tissue, work with the immune system to protect against the

large intestine. Recent research indicates that the appendix plays an important role in the immune system.

* The spleen forms lymphocytes and monocytes, which are specialized white blood cells with roles in the

means neck, and -al means

are located under the arms in the area known as the armpits[axill means

are located in the inguinal[groin] area of the lower abdomen[inguin means

lymphoid means

are three masses of lymphoid tissue that form a protective ring around the back of the nose and

are located on the left and right sides of the throat in the area that is visible through

is located superior to [above] the heart. Although it is composed largely of lymphoid tissue, the

is last section of the small intestine.

is the first section of the

is a saclike mass of lymphoid tissue located in the left upper quadrant of the abdomen, just

* The spleen also stores extra erythrocytes[red blood cells] and maintains the appropriate balance between

glands are sometimes used interchangeably. Swelling of the lymph nodes is frequently

is a benign tumor formed by an abnormal collection of lymphatic vessels due to a

indication of the presence of a malignancy or a deficiency in immune system

enlargement]. This condition can be due to bleeding caused by an injury, an infectious

disease such as mononucleosis, or abnormal functioning of the immune system.

is a diagnostic test that is performed to detect damage or malformations

is the radiographic examination of the lymphatic vessels after the injection of a

is a hereditary disorder due to malformation of the lymphatic system. This

condition, which can appear at any time in life, most commonly produces

is caused by damage to the lymphatic system that most commonly preduces

swelling in the limb nearest to the damaged lymphatic vessels. Cancer

treatment [surgery, chemotherapy, and/or radiation] and trauma [burns,

, is an inflammation of the lymph nodes[lymphaden

means inflammation]. The terms lymph nodes and lymph

lymphaden/o means lymph

means lymph vessel, and

means spleen, and -megaly means

means bleeding].

means process of

is used primarily to diagnose and monitor

is swelling due to an abnormal accumulation of lymph fluid within the tissues[lymph means

The primary function of the immune system is to maintain good health and to protect the body from harmful

The immune system first attempts to prevent the entry of these harmful substances into the body. If they do

Unlike other body systems, the immune system is not contained within a single set of organs or vessels.

lining of the respiratory system. The tonsils form a protective ring around the entrance to the throat. If

foreign matter gets past these barriers, coughing and sneezing help to expel it from the respiratory system.

This reaction labels a potentially dangerous antigen so it can be recognized, and destroyed, by other cells of

and transplanted tissues. The immune system immediately responds to the presence of any antigen.

wraps the body in a physical barrier that prevents invading organisms from entering the body.

traps breathed-in foreign matter with nose hairs and the moist mucous membrane

uses the acids and enzymes produced by the stomach to destroy invaders that are

, and specialized white blood cells, work together in specific ways

, involves binding antigens to antibodies.

is any substance that the body regards as being foreign, and includes viruses, becateria, toxins,

is a disease-fighting protein created by the immune system in response to the presence of a

immunoglobulin are often

bind with specific antigens in the antigen-antibody response. The five primary types of

Plasma cells are

(IgG) is the most abundant class of antibodies, and they are found in blood serum and

antibodies are found in body secretions such as saliva, sweat, or tears, and function to prevent the

These changes enable these lymphocytes to act as specialized antibodies that are capable of attacking

* When a B cell is confronted with the antigen that it is coded to destroy, that B cell is transformed into a

infections. When such a cell is found the dendritic cells grab, shallow, and internally break apart the captured

Fragments of the destroyed antigen are then moved to the surface of the cell where these fragments are

displayed on tentacle-like extensions of the dendritic cell. The purpose of this display is to alert, and

* T cells contribute to the immune defense by coordinating immune defenses and by killing infected cells on

(IgA) is the class of antibodies produced predominantly against ingested antigens. These

(IgM) is the class of antibodies that are found in circulating body fluids. These are the

(IgD) is the class of antibodies found only on the surface of B cells. These antibodies are

(IgE) is the class of antibodies produced in the lungs, skin, and mucous membranes.

lymph/o means lymph, and

means cells]. These cells undergo further maturation and differentiation in lymphoid tissues

means to be modified

, are specialized lymphocytes that produce and secrete antibodies. Each

. These cells are capable of producing and secreting antibodies that are coded to destroy a

are specialized white blood cells that patrol the body searching for antigens that produce

, are small lymphocytes that mature in the thymus as a result of

the cells of the immune system. Lymphokines attract macrophages to the infected site and prepare them to

by contact with nonspecific antigens such as foreign blood cells or bacteria. Complement then marks these

is passed from the mother to her fetus[developing child] before birth. This immunity

,

antigen by the immune system either by contracting an infectious disease such as

communicable diseases by the administration of a vaccine to provide acquired

consisting of whole or partial disease-causing organisms, which have been killed or

If the immune system is compromised by poor health, it cannot be fully effective.

Older individuals usually have more acquired immunity; however, their immune

systems tend to respond less quickly and effectively to new challenges. Babies and

very young children do not yet have as much acquired immunity,and their bodies

Genes and genetic disorders affect the individual's general health and the functioning

is a family of proteins produced by the T cells whose specialty is fighting viruses by slowing or

, which are produced by the T cells, direct the antigen-antibody response by signaling between

macro- means large, and

means a cell that eats]. Macrophages also remove dead cells and stimulate the action of other

is a large white blood cell that can destroy substances such as cell debris, dust, pollen, and

means cell].

is a group of proteins that normally circulate in the blood in an inactive form and are activated

, is the production of antibodies against a specific

, is proving protection for susceptible individuals from

is a preparation containing an antigen,

has come into contact with an allergen. For example, contact with poison ivy can cause

a localized allergic response in the form of an itchy rash. Although the body reacts

mildly the first time it is exposed to the allergen, sensitivity is established, and future

to an allergen. The symptoms of this response develop quickly. Without medical aid,

is a diagnostic test to identify commonly throublesome allergens such as tree pollen

are medications administered to relieve or prevent the symptoms of hay fever, which

is a common allergy to wind-borne pollens, and other types of allergies. Antihistamines

body that causes the itching, sneezing, runny nose, and watery eyes of an elleric

characterized by a condition in which the immune system produces antibodies against its own tissues. This

abnormal functioning of the immune system appears to be genetically transmitted and predominantly occurs

damages or kills the cells of the immune system, causing it to progressively fail, thus leaving the body at

risk of developing many life-threatening opportunistic infections. In the early stages of HIV, medical

is caused by a pathogen that does not normally produce an illness in healthy

humans. However, when the host is debilitated, these pathogens are able to

Because the immune systems of patients with HIV or AIDS are weakened,

is an example of an opportunistic infection that is frequently associated with HIV. This

cancer causes patches of abnormal tissue to grow under the skin, in the lining of the

occurs when the body's immune system reacts to a harmless allergen such as pollen,

, is an overreaction by the body to a particular antigen.

, includes redness, itching, and burning where the skin

, is a severe response

, which is a substance produced by the

, is any of a large group of diseases

Compromised means

, commonly known as HIV, is a bloodborne infection in which the virus

means weakened by another condition.

, is the most advanced, and fatal, stage of an HIV

is a blood test that produces more accurate resuts than the ELISA test. The Western

blot test is performed to confirm the diagnosis when the results of the ELISA test are

A variety of treatment procedures are used to correct or control the symptoms of disorders of the immune

* In the treatment of cancers, immunotherapy is used to stimulate the immune response to fight the

* In the treatment of allergies, immunotherapy is used to repress the body's sensitivity to a particular

virus, for example, has been bitten by an animal with rabies. The goal of

is used in the treatment of multiple sclerosis, hepatitis C, and some cancers.

, is a blood test used to

positive. This is necessary because the ELISA test sometimes produces a false positive

, affects the insulin-producing pancreatic cells.

is a disease treatment that involves either stimulating or repressing the immune response

means to decrease, slow, or stop a normal response. This treatment is also known as

, are used as a postexposure preventive

means that the patient has been exposed to the

are any of a class of antibodies produced in the laboratory by identical

offspring of a clone of specific cells. These artificially produced antibodies

are used to enhance the patient's immune response to certain malignancies,

including some non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, melanoma, breast cancer, and

is a substance that prevents or reduces the body's normal immune response. This

medication is administered to prevent the rejection of donor tissue and to depress

is a hormone-like preparation administered primarily as an anti-inflammatory and as an

humans. Bacteria that are pathogenic in humans incude bacilli, rickettsia, spirochetes, staphylococci, and

to humans by the bite of an infected tick. The signs and symptoms of this serious

disease include a fever of sudden onset, headache, and muscle pain followed by the

are spiral-shaped bacteria that have flexible walls and are capable of movement.

to humans by the bite of an infected deer tick. Symptoms include fever, headache,

fatigue, and a characteristic skin rash. If left untreated, this infection can spread to

means pertains to a single clone of cells. As used

is treatment to repress or interfere with the ability of the immune system to respond

means poison, and -ic

is a living organism that

means capable of producing disease.

]. Most bacteria are not harmful to

is caused by the

, and is transmitted through a cut or wound. Tetanus is

because it produces muscle spasms that are so severe a

Rickettsia rickettsii, is transmitted

Borrelia burgdorferi, is transmitted

are a group of about 30 species of bacteria that form irregular groups or clusters

reside normally on the skin and mucous membranes of humans and other organisms;

and causes serious problems such as toxic shock syndrome or produces food poisoning.

are harmless; however, other members of this group are responsible for illness

Toxins released by these pathogens can produce direct tissue damage resulting in low blood pressure. This

completely. Septic shock occurs most often in the very odd old the very young. It also occurs in those with

bacteria it targets. When this occurs, the surviving bacteria become resistant to that particular drug. When

more and more bacteria become resistant to first-line treatments, the consequences are severe, as illnesses

The first symptom of MRSA looks like a small, red bumps with a black top. These bumps soon become

red-hot abscesses that require immediate care. MRSA infections are serious, difficult to treat, and can be

fatal. Originally these infections were nosocomial[hospital acquired]; however, MRSA infections are

transferred to humans by the bite of an infected mosquito. Symptoms develop from 7 days to 4 weeks after

contact with contaminated feces. If a woman contracts this condition during pregnancy, it can result in

]. Most staphylococci are harmless and

, is a form of staphylococci that commonly infects wounds

is a rare but potentially fatal disease caused by bacterial toxins.

]. Many streptococcal species

is a serious condition that occurs when an overwhelming bacterial infection affects the body.

, develop when an antibiotic fails to kill all of the

, is resistant to most antibiotics.

]. Some of these fungi are harmless to humans, others

, is a fungal infection that commonly

, is now also known as a yeast

Candida albicans, occur

is a plant or animal that lives on, or within, another living organism at the expense of that

is a disease caused by a parasite that lives in certain mosquitoes that is

which is most commonly transmitted from animals[pets] to humans by

Microcephalus is an

cerebrospinal fluid accumulates in the ventricles of the brain. For this reason, it is recommended that

the cell, the virus reproduces and then breaks the cell wall to release the newly formed viruses. These

skin eruptions that follow the underlying route of an inflamed nerve. This inflammation

occurs when the dormant varicella[chickenpox] virus is reactivated later in life. A

characterized by fever, a sore throat, and enlarged lymph nodes. Swelling of the

is an acute viral disease characterized by the swlling of the parotid glands, which are

the salivary glands located just in front of the ears. In adults, mumps can also cause

by a fine, pink rash. Although not usually severe or long lasting, rubella is serious in a

woman during early pregnancy because of its ability to cause defects in a developing

fetus. Measles and rubella share similar symptoms, and in fact the term "German"

is an acute viral infection that is most commonly transmitted to humans by the bite or

saliva of an infected animal. In humans, signs and symptoms of rabies usually occur

30-90 days after the bite. Once symptoms develop, rabies is almost always fatal. If at

risk, it is necessary to undergo testing immediately so that postexposure treatment

contagious. This condition is characterized by a fever and a rash consisting of hundreds

is spread to humans by the bite of an infected mosquito. A mild form of this condition

has flu-like symptoms. A more severe variety spreads to the spinal cord and brain.

virus]. After invading

, is an acute viral infection characterized by painful

and transmitted

Photophobia means sensitivity

, is a viral infection characterized

Varicella zoster and is highly

(CMV) is a member of the herpesvirus family that cause a variety of diseases[cyt/o means

* CMV can be transmitted from the mother to her unborn child. This transmission can cause serious

are medications that are capable of inhibiting growth, or killing pathogenic bacterial

means causing death]. This group of antibiotics includes penicillins and cephalosporins.

antifungal that is applied to treat, or prevent, athlete's foot. This type of medication

such as acyclovir, is used to treat viral infections or to provide temporary immunity

Cancer can attack all body systems and is the second leading cause of death in the United States after

is a noncancerous growth; however, these tumors can cause problems by placing

is harmful, capable of spreading to distant body sites including other body system, can

become progressively worse, and is progressively life-threatening. For example, a

in which the individual has no

means pertaining to].

means bacteria, and -cide

is an agent that slows or stops the growth of bacteria[bacteri means

means against, fung

means pertaining to]. Lotrimin is an example of a topical

onc means tumor,

means the study of]. Most cancers are named for the part of the body where the cancer originated.

, is a growth of tissue that forms an abnormal mass. Within

neo- means new or

[harmful, capable of spreading, and potentially

is a benign tumor made up of

myo means muscle,

is the process through which the tumor supports its growth by creating its own blood

to invade other tissues, either by invasion through direct growth into adjacent tissue or by spreading into

means stopping]. The metastasis can be within the same body system or within another body system at a

tumor]. Epithelial tissue forms the protective covering for all of the internal and external surfaces of the

* Carcinomas tend to infiltrate and produce metastases that can affect any organ or part of the body.

tumor usually involving the upper shaft of long bones, the pelvis, or knee

arise from tissues such as muscle, connective tissues such as tendons, blood

is a malignant tumor of the tissue surrounding a synovial joint. The most

may affect the skin, mocous membranes, lymph nodes, and internal organs. This

means reproduction]. Angiogenesis is the

anti- means against,

means reproduction]. Antiangiogenesis is the

is a class of diseases characterized by the uncontrolled division of cells and the ability of these cells

means beyond, and -stasis

means cancer, and -oma means

describes a malignant tumor in its original position that has not yet disturbed or invaded

is any one of a large group of carcinomas derived from glandular tissue

is a malignant tumor that arises from connective tissues, including hard tissues, soft tissues, and

osteosarcoma is a malignant

synovial sarcoma

, which affects the

potential for its responding to therapy, and the patient's prognosis. Specific staging systems are used for

nodes and other body sites. There are several types of breast cancer named for their location or amount of

is breast cancer in its earliest stage before the cancer has broken through

through the wall of that duct, and invades the fatty breast tissue. This form

glands[lobules], breaks through the wall of the gland, and invades the fatty

tissue of the breast. Once this cancer reaches the lymph nodes, it can

(IBC) is the most aggressive and least common form of breast cancer. IBC

grows rapidly, and symptoms include pain, rapid increase in the breast size,

redness or a rash on the breast, and the swelling of nearby lymph nodes. IBC

can be detected by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI); however, it is not

can occur in the small amount of breast tissue that is usually present in men.

The cancer is no larger than two centimeters [about one inch] and has not spread outside the

is the process of classifying tumors with respect to how far the disease has peogressed, the

means lymph, and

means tumor]. This includes lymph nodes, the spleen, liver, and bone marrow. The two most common

, is distinguished from other lymphomas by

Reed-Sternberg cells.

Hodgkin's lymphoma.

is a carcinoma that develops from the cells of the breast and can spread to adjacent lymph

, starts in the milk duct, breaks

Infiltrating and

are terms used to describe cancer that has spread beyond the layer

, is cancer that starts in the milk

The cancer is between two and five centimeters [from one to two inches] and may or may not

The cancer is larger than five centimeters [greater than two inches] but has not spread to the

The cancer is smaller than five centimeters and has spread to the axillary lymph nodes and the

The cancer has spread to tissues near the breast [skin or chest wall, including the ribs and

The cancer has spread to other organs of the body, most often the bones, lungs, liver, or brain.

Or, the cancer has spread locally to the skin and lymph nodes inside the neck, near the collarbone.

is an essential self-care procedure for the early detection of breast cancer.

The focus of this self-examination is checking for a new lump or for changes

in an existing lump, shape of the nipple, or the skin covering the breast.

is a radiographic examination of the breasts to detect the presence of

the process of producing a picture or record]. The resulting record is a

is the removal of a small piece of tissue for examination to confirm or

After a diagnosis has been established, treatment is then based on the

is a technique in which an x-ray-guided needle is used to remove small

samples of tissue from the breast. It is less painful and disfiguring than a

after the sentinel lymph node has been identified, only this and the other

affected nodes are removed for biopsy. If the cancer has not spread, this

lymph node to come into contact with cancer cells as they leave the organ of

is a surgical procedure in which all of the lymph nodes in a major group are

means breast, and -graphy means

-opsy means view of].

sentinel node is the first

(ALND) is sometimes performed as part of

is the surgical removal of only thre cancerous tissue and a surrounding margin of

means surgical removal]. Although simply described as a mastectomy, this procedure

is the surgical removal of the entire breast and all of the axillary lymph nodes under

is the surgical removal of an entire breast and many of the surrounding tissues.

Most commonly cancer surgery involves removing the malignancy plus a margin of normal surrounding

tissue. It may also involve the removal of one or more nearby lymph nodes to detect whether the cancer

is the use of natural synthetic substances such as drugs or vitamins to reduce the risk

of developing cancer, or to reduce the chance that cancer will recur. Chemoprevention

may also be used to reduce the size or slow the development of an existing tumor.

is medication that blocks the development, growth, or proliferation of malignant cells

is the use of radioactive materials in contact with, or implanted into, the tissues to

is used after the primary treatments have been completed to decrease the chance that

means breast, and -ectomy

is the use of chemical agents and drugs in combinations selected to destroy malignant

means growth or formation, and -ic

is used in the treatment of some cancers, with the goal of destroying the cancer while

means distant,

means treatment]. With the assistance of three-dimensional computer

refers to an agent intended to increase the

effectiveness of a drug; however, adjuvant treatments for cancer can also include

chemotherapy, hormone therapy, radiation, immunotherapy, or targeted therapy.

is a developing form if anti-cancer drug therapy that uses drugs or other substances

The Endocrine System

Overview:

Major Structures Related Combining Forms Primary Functions

Adrenal Glands adren/o Regulate electrolyte levels, influence metabolism,

and respond to stress.

Gonads gonad/o Regulate development and maintenance of secondary

Male: testicles sex characteristics.

Female: ovaries

Pancreatic Islets pancreat/o Control blood sugar levels and glucose metabolsim.

Parathyroid Glandparathyroid/o Regulate calcium levels throughout the body.

Pineal Gland pineal/o Influences the sleep-wakefulness cycle.

Pituitary Gland pituit/o, pituitar/o Secretes hormones that control the activity of the

other endocrine glands.

Thymus thym/o Plays a major role in the immune reaction.

Thyroid Gland thyr/o, thyroid/o Stimulates metabolism, growth, and the activity of

the nervous system.

Functions of the Endocrine System

The primary function of the endocrine system is to produce hormones that work together to maintain

in regulating the activities of specific cells, organs, or both.

* Because the hormones are secreted directly into the bloodstream, they are able to reach cells and organs

throughout the body. Blood, or urine, tests are used to measure hormone levels.

Structures of the Endocrine System

There are 13 major glands of the endocrine system:

Hormone Source Functions

Adrenal cortex Aids in regulating the levels of salt and water in the body.

homeostasis [constant internal environment] throughout the body systems.

* Hormones are chemical messengers that are secreted by endocrine glands and have specialized functions

* One pituitary gland [divided into two lobes]

* One pineal gland

* One thyroid gland

* Four parathyroid glands

* One thymus

* One pancreas [pancreatic islets]

* Two adrenal glands

* Two gonads [ovaries in females, testes in males]

Hormones From A to T

Aldosterone (ALD)

Androgens Adrenal cortex and Influence sex-related characteristics.

gonads

AdrenocorticotropPituitary gland Stimulates the growth and secretions of the adrenal cortex.

Antidiuretic Secreted by the Helps control blood pressure by reducing the amount of water

hypothalamus, thenthat is excreted.

stored and released

from the pituitary

gland.

Thyroid gland Works with the parathyroid hormone to regulate calcium levels

in the blood and tissues.

Adrenal cortex Regulates the metabolism of carbohydreates, fats, and proteins,

in the body. Also has an anti-inflammatory action.

Epinephrine Adrenal medulla Stimulates the sympathetic nervous system.

(Epi, EPI)

Ovaries Develops and maintains the female secondary sex characteristics

and regulates the menstrual cycle.

Follicle-stimulati Pituitary gland In the female, stimulates the secretion of estrogen and the

growth of ova[eggs]. In the male, stimulates the production

of sperm.

Pancreatic islets Increases the level of glucose in the bloodstream.

(alpha cells)

Growth hormone Pituitary gland Regulates the growth of bone, muscle, and other body tissues.

(GH)

Human chorionic Placenta Stimulates the secretion of the hormones required to maintain

pregnancy.

Insulin Pancreatic islets Regulates the transport of glucose to the body cells and stimulates

(beta cells) the conversion of excess glucose to glycogen for storage.

Interstitial cell- Pituitary gland Stimulates ovulation in the female. Stimulates the secretion of

stimulating testosterone in the male.

Lactogenic Pituitary gland Stimulates and maintains the secretion of breast milk.

Luteinizing Pituitary gland In the female, stimulates ovulation. In the male, stimulates

testosterone secretion.

Melanocyte- Pituitary gland Increases the production of melanin in melanocytes of the skin.

stimulating

Melatonin Pineal gland Influences the sleep-wakefulness cycles.

Norepinephrine Adrenal medulla Stimulates the sympatheic nervous system.

Pituitary gland Stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth. It also causes

milk to flow from the mammary glands after childbirth.

Parathyroid Parathyroid glands Works with calcitonin to regulate calcium levels in the blood

hormone (ACTH)

hormone (ADH)

Calcitonin (CAL)

Estrogen (E)

hormone (FSH)

Glucagon (GCG)

gonadotropin (HCG)

hormone (ICSH)

hormone (LTH)

hormone (LH)

hormone (MSH)

Oxytocin (OXT)

and tissues.

Progesterone Ovaries Completes preparation of the fetus for possible pregnancy.

Testosterone Testicles Stimulates the development of male secondary sex characteristics.

Thymosin Thymus Plays an important role in the immune system.

Thyroid gland Regulates the rate of metabolism.

Thyroid-stimulati Pituitary gland Stimulates the secretion of hormones by the thyroid gland.

Specialized types of Hormones

There are several specialized types of hormones that do not fit the tradition hormone definition.

Steroids

produced as medications to relieve swelling and inflammation in conditions such as asthma.

* Steroid hormones help control metabolism, inflammation, immune functions, salt and water balance,

development of sexual characteristics, and the ability to withstand illness and injury.

* The term steroid describes both hormones produced by the body and artificially produced medications that

duplicate the action of the naturally occuring steroids.

Anabolic steroids are chemically related to the male sex hormone testosterone. These have been used

illegally by athletes to increase strength and muscle mass. Serious side effects of

anabolic steroid use include liver damage, altered body chemistry, testicular shrinkage,

and breast development in males, plus unpredictable mood swings and violence.

* Steroid use by teenagers also stops long bone development, resulting in shortened

stature.

* The use of steroids usually can be detected through the testing of either blood or

urine.

Hormones secreted by Fat Cells

Fat is not commonly thought of as an endocrine gland; however, research has revealed that fat cells do

secrete at least one, and possibly more, hormones that play an important role in the balance and health of

the body.

* Leptin leaves the fat cells and travels in the bloodstream to brain centers. Here, it acts to control the

balance of food intake and energy expenditure.

* Leptin also affects female reproduction, immune function, and the function of many other hormones,

including insulin.

Neurohormones

cells of the brain. Although produced in the brain, they are able to affect cells throughout distant parts of

the body.

hormone (PTH)

Thyroxine (T4) and

triiodothyronine (T3)

hormone (TSH)

A steroid is any one of a large number of hormone-like substances secreted by endocrine glands or artificially

* Leptin is a hormone secreted by adipocytes [fat cells].

Unlike the hormones, which are secreted by endocrine glands, neurohormones are secreted by specialized

Medical Specialties related to the Endocrine System

Endocrinologist is a physician who specializes in diagnosing and treating diseases and malfunctions of

Pathology of the Endocrine System

Endocrinopathy

Hypercrinism is a condition due to excessive secretion of any gland, especially an endocrine gland

Hypocrinism is a condition caused by deficient secretion of any gland, especially an endocrine gland

Diagnostic Procedures related to the Endocrine System

* Nuclear medicine and imaging techniques are used to diagnose and treat disorders affecting the endocrine

system.

* Hormone levels are measured by blood or urine tests.

The Pituitary Gland

Functions of the Pituitary Gland

The primary function of the pituitary gland is to secrete hormones that control the activity of other endocrine

glands. The pituitary acts in response to stimuli from the hypothalamus. This creates a system of checks and

balances to maintain an appropriate blood level of each hormone.

The Hypothalamus

the neurohormone is secreted by, or acts on, a part of the nervous system.

Secretions of the Pituitary Gland: Anterior Lobe

stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete cortisol.

stimulates the secretion of estrogen and the growth of ova[eggs]

in the ovaries of the female. In the male, it stimulates the

production of sperm in the testicles.

the endocrine glands[endocrin means to secrete within, and -ologist means specialist].

is any disease caused by a disorder of the endocrine system[endo- means within,

crin/o means to secrete, and -pathy means disease].

[hyper- means excessive, crin means to secrete, and -ism means condition].

Hypercrinism is the opposite of hypocrinism.

[hypo- means deficient, crin means to secrete, and -ism means condition].

Hypocrinism is the opposite of hypercrinism.

The pea-sized pituitary gland, which is composed of anterior and posterior lobes, hangs from the

infundibulum below the hypothalamus, which is part of the brain. An infundibulum is a stalk-like structure.

The hypothalamus, which is part of the brain, secretes neurohormones that enable it to communicate with

the other parts of the body. A neurohormone is unlike a hormone secreted by the endocrine glands because

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

Growth hormone (GH) also known as somatotropic hormone, regulates the growth of bone, muscle,

affinity for].

Interstitial cell-stimulatingstimulates ovulation in the female. In the male, it stimulates the secretion

of testosterone.

milk in the mother after childbirth.

stimulates ovulation in the female and production of the female sex hormone

progesterone. In the male, LH stimulates the secretion of testosterone.

Melanocyte-stimulating increases the production of melanin in melanocytes, thereby causing

hormone darkening the pigmentation of the skin.

Thyroid-stimulating stimulates the growth and secretions of the thyroid gland.

Secretions of the Pituitary Gland: Posterior Lobe

Antidiuretic hormone maintains the water balance within the body by promoting the reabsoption

of water through the kidneys. When more antidiuretic hormone is secreted,

administered to increase urine secretion.

Oxytocin

labor]. After childbirth, oxytocin stimulates the flow of milk from the mammary glands.

Pathology of the Pituitary Gland

Acromegaly is abnormal enlargement of the extremities [hands and feet] that is caused by

Gigantism

Hyperpituitarism is pathology resulting in the excessive secretion by the anterior lobe of the pituitary

Hypopituitarism is a condition of reduced secretion due to the partial, or complete, loss of the function

Pituitarism

Pituitary adenom

The two types of these tumors are functioning and nonfunctioning pituitary tumors.

Prolactinoma

that causes it to produce too much prolactin. In females, this overproduction causes

infertility and changes in menstruation. In males, it causes impotence.

and other body tissues[somat/o means body, and -tropic means having an

hormone (ICSH)

Lactogenic hormone (LTH) also known as prolactin, stimulates and maintains the secretion of breast

Luteinizing hormone

hormone (TSH)

less urine is produced. In contrast, a diuretic is a medication that is

stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth[oxy- means swift, and -tocin means

Pitocin is a synthetic form of oxytocin that is adminstered to induce or speed up labor.

excessive secretion of growth hormone after puberty[acr/o means extremities, and

-megaly means enlargement]. Contrast with gigantism.

also known as giantism, is abnormal overgrowth of the entire body that is caused by

excessive secretion of the growth hormone before puberty. Contrast with acromegaly

gland[hyper- means excessive, pituitar means pituitary, and -ism means condition].

Hyperpituitarism is the opposite of hypopituitarism.

of the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland[hypo- means deficient, pituitar means

pituitary, and -ism means condition]. Hypopituitarism is the opposite of

hyperpituitarism.

is any disorder of pituitary function[pituitar means pituitary, and -ism means condition.

also known as a pituitary tumor, is a slow-growing, benign tumor of the pituitary gland.

Functioning pituitary tumors often produce hormones in large and unregulated amounts.

Nonfunctioning pituitary tumors do not produce significant amounts of hormones.

also known as a prolactin-producing adenoma, is a benign tumor of the pituitary gland

Diabetes Insipidus

kidneys to respond appropriately to this hormone.

When there is an insufficient quantity of ADH, too much fluid is excreted by the kidneys. This causes

axtreme polydipsia[excessive thirst] and polyuria[excessive urination]. If this problem is not controlled, it

can become a very serious condition due to dehydration.

Treatment Procedures of the Pituitary Gland

that is administered to stimulate growth when the natural supply of growth hormone is insufficient for normal

development.

The Pineal Gland

Functions of the Pineal Gland

Secretion of the Pineal Gland

period.

Pathology and Treatment of the Pineal Gland

Pinealoma

disrupting the circadian cycle.

Pinealectomy

means surgical removal].

Pinealopathy

disease].

The Thyroid Gland

Functions of the Thyroid Gland

* One of the primary functions of the thyroid gland is to regulate the body's metabolism. The term

which they are utilized.

* Thyroid secretions also influence growth and the functioning of the nervous system.

Diabetes Insipidus is caused by insufficient production of the antidiuretic hormone or by the inability of the

The human growth hormone, also known as recombinant GH, is a synthetic version of the growth hormone

The pineal gland is very small endocrine gland that is located in the central portion of the brain.

The pineal gland, also known as the pineal body, influences the sleep-wakefulness cycle.

The pineal gland secetes the hormone melatonin, which influences the sleep and wakefulness portions of

the circadian cycle. The term circadian cycle refers to the biological functions that occur within a 24-hour

is a tumor of the pineal gland that can disrupt the production of the melatonin[pineal

means pineal gland, and -oma means tumor]. This tumor can also cause insomnia by

is the surgical removal of the pineal gland[pineal means pineal gland, and -ectony

is any disorder of the pineal gland[pineal/o means pineal gland, and -pathy means

The butterfly-shaped thyroid gland lies on either side of the larynx, just below the thyroid cartilage.

metabolism describes all of the processes involved in the body's use of nutrients, including the rate at

Secretions of the Thyroid Gland

influenced by these hormones. The rate of secretion of these hormones is controlled by the thyroid-

stimulating hormone produced by the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland.

Pathology of the Thyroid Gland

Insufficient Thyroid Secretion

Hashimoto's thyroiditis

which the body's own antibodies attack and destroy the cells of the thyroid

gland.

Hypothyroidism

include fatigue, depression, sensitivity to cold, and a decreased metabolic rate.

Cretinism is a congenital form of hypothyroidism. If treatment is not started soon after birth,

cretinism causes arrested physical and mental development.

Myxedema

thyroid secretion. Symptoms include swelling, particularly around the eyes and cheeks,

fatigue, and a subnormal temperature.

Excessive Thyroid Secretion

Hyperthyroidism

nervousness, and weight loss.

Thyroid storm

by exaggerated hyperthyroidism. Patients experiencing a thyroid storm may complain of

fever, chest pain, palpitations, shortness of breath, tremors, increased sweating,

disorientation, and fatigue.

Graves' Disease

goiter and/or exophthalmos.

Goiter

enlargement produces a swelling in the front of the neck. A simple goiter usually occurs

when the thyroid gland is not able to produce enough thyroid hormone to meet the

body's needs.

Exophthalmos is an abnormal protrusion of the eyeball out of the orbit.

* The two primary thyroid hormones are thyroxine and triiodothyronine. The rate of metabolism is

* Calcitonin, also known as thyrocalcitonin; which is secreted by cells of the thyroid gland, works with the

parathyroid hormone to regulate the calcium levels in the blood and tissues. Calcitonin decreases blood

levels by moving calcium into storage in the bones and teeth. Compare with the function of the

parathyroid hormone.

also known as chronic lymphocytic thyroiditis, is an autoimmune disease in

also known as an underactive thyroid, is caused by a deficiency of thyroid secretion

[hypo- means deficient, thyroid means thyroid, and -ism means condition]. Symptoms

which is also known as adult hypothyroidism, is caused by extreme deficiency of

also known as thyrotoxicosis, is an imbalance of metabolism caused by the

overproduction of thyroid hormones[hyper- means excessive, thyroid means thyroid,

and -ism means condition].Symptoms include an increased metabolic rate, sweating,

also known as thyrotoxic crisis, is a relatively rare, life-threatening condition caused

Grave's disease, which is an autoimmune disorder that is caused by hyperthyroidism, is characterized by

also known as thyromegaly, is an abnormal nonmilignant enlargement of the thyroid

gland[thyr/o means thyroid, and -megaly means abnormal enlargement]. This

Diagnostic and Treatment Procedures related to the Thyroid Gland

Thyroid-stimulating is a diagnostic test to measure the circulating blood level of thyroid-

hormone assay stimulating hormone. This test is used to detect abnormal thyroid activity

resulting from excessive pituitary stimulation.

Thyroid scan which measures thyroid function, is a form of unclear medicine.

Antithyroid drug is a medication administered to slow the ability of the thyroid gland to produce thyroid

hormones.

Chemical thyroidectomy

radioactive iodine to destroy thyroid cells. This procedure, which disables at

least part of the thyroid gland, is used to treat chronic hyperthyroid

disorders such as Graves' disease.

Lobectomy is the surgical removal of one lobe of the thyroid gland. This term is also used to

describe the removal of a lobe of the liver, brain, or lung.

Synthetic thyroid hormoneare administered to replace most thyroid function.

The Parathyroid Glands

The four parathyroid glands, each of which is about the size of a grain of rice, are embedded in the posterior

surface of the thyroid gland.

Functions of the Parathyroid Glands

The primary function of the parathyroid glands is to regulate calcium levels throughout the body. These

calcium levels are important to the smooth functioning of the muscular and nervous systems.

Secretions of the Parathyroid Glands

in the body by mobilizing the release of calcium from storage in the bones and teeth. Compare with the

Pathology and Treatment of the Parathyroid Glands

Hyperparathyroidism which is the overproduction of the parathyroid hormone, causes the

hypercalcemia that can lead to weakened bones and the formation of

kidney stones.

such as kidney failure. Hyperparathyroidism is the opposite of

Hypoparathyroidism is caused by an insufficent or absent secretion of the parathyroid hormone

also known as radioactive iodine therapy, is the administration of

The paraythyroid hormone works with the hormone calcitonin that is secreted by the thyroid gland. Together,

they regulate the calcium levels in the blood and tissues. The parathyroid hormone increases calcium levels

function of the calcitonin.

condition known as hypercalcemia[hyper- means excessive, parathyroid

means parathyroid, and -ism means condition]. This condition causes

Primary hyperparathyroidism is due to a disorder of the parathyroid gland.

Secondary hyperparathyroidism is due to a disorder elsewhere in the body,

hypoparathyroidism.

[hypo- means deficient, parathyroid means parathyroid, and -ism means

condition]. This condition is caused by hypocalcemia, and in severe cases,

and tremors. Hypoparathyroidism is the opposite of hyperparathytroidism.

Hypercalcemia

Hypocalcemia

Osteitis fibrosa is a complication of hyperparathyroidism in which bone becomes softened and

deformed, and may develop cysts. This condition can be caused by overproduction of

parathyroid hormone or by parathyroid cancer.

Parathyroidectomwhich is the surgical removal of one or more of the the parathyroid glands, is

performed to control hyperparathyroidism.

The Thymus

[behind] the sternum and slightly superior to [above] the heart.

Functions of the Thymus

The thymus functions as part of the endocrine system by secreting a hormone that functions as part of the

immune system.

Secretions of the Thymus

Thymosi stimulates the maturation of lymphocytes into T cells of the immune system. These mature cells

are important in coordinating immune defenses.

Pathology and Treatment of the Thymus

Thymitis

inflammation].

Thymoma

Thymectomy

surgical removal].

The Pancreatic Islets

Pancreas is a feather-shaped organ located posterior to the stomach that functions as part of

both the digestive and the endocrine systems.

Pancreatic islets are those parts of the pancreas that have endocrine functions

it leads to tetany. Tetany is the condition of periodic, painful muscle spasms

is characterized by abnormally highconcentrations of calcium circulating in the blood

instead of being stored in the bones[hyper- means excessive, calc means calcium,

and -emia means blood condition]. This can lead to weakened bones and the formation

of kidney stones. Hypercalemia is the opposite of hypocalcemia.

is characterized by abnormally low levels of calcium in the blood[hypo- means

deficient, calc means calcium, and -emia means blood condition].

Hypocalcemia is the opposite of hypercalcemia.

The thymus is located near the midline in the anterior portion of the thoracic cavity. It is posterior to

is an inflammation of the thymus gland[thym means thymus, and -itis means

is a usually benign tumor derived from the tissue of the thymus[thym means thymus,

and -oma means tumor].

is the surgical removal of the thymus gland[thym means thymus, and -ectomy

Functions of the Pancreatic Islets

The endocrine functions of these islets are to control blood sugar levels and glucose metabolism throughout

the body.

Glucose

Glycogenis the form in which the liver stores the excess glucose.

Secretions of the Pancreatic Islets

Glucagon

levels. Glucagon increases the glucose level by stimulating the liver to convert glycogen into

glucose for release into the bloodstream.

Insulin

levels. It functions in two ways. First, insulin allows glucose to enter tehe cells for use as energy.

glycogen for storage.

Pathology and Treatment of the Pancreas

Insulinoma is a benign tumor of the pancreas that causes hypoglycemia by secreting additional

Pancreatalgia

Pancreatitis

inflammation]. Long-term alcohol abuse is a leading cause of pancreatitis.

Pancreatectomy

pancreatic cancer, and this procedure involves the spleen, gallbladder, common bile

duct, and portions of the small instestine and stomach.

Abnormal Blood Sugar Levels

Hyperglycemia

in patients with diabetes mellitus. The symptoms include polydipsia, polyhagia, and

Polydipsia

Polyphagia

Polyuria

Hyperinsulinism

cause hypoglycemia.

Hypoglycemia

and shakiness, confusion, perspiration, or feeling anxious or weak. Hypoglycemia is

Diabetes Mellitus

also known as blood sugar, is the basic form of energy used by the body.

is the hormone secreted by the alpha cells of the pancreatic islets in response to low blood sugar

is the hormone secreted by the beta cells of the pancreatic islets in response to high blood sugar

When additional glucose is not needed, insulin stimulates the liver to convert glucose into

insulin[insulin means insulin, and -oma means tumor].

is pain in the pancreas[pancreat means pancreas, and -algia means pain].

is an inflammation of the pancreas[pancreat means pancreas, and -itis means

is the surgical removal of all or part of the pancreas[pancreat means pancreas, and

-ectomy means surgical removal]. A total pancreatectomy is performed to treat

is an abnormally high concentration of glucose in the blood[hyper- means excessive,

glyc means sugar, and -emia means blood condition]. Hyperglycemia is seen primarily

polyuria. Hyperglycemia is the opposite of hypoglycemia.

is excessive thirst[poly- means many, and -dipsia means thirst].

is excessive hunger[poly- means many, and -phagia means eating].

is excessive urination[poly- means many, and -uria means urination].

is the condition of excessive secretion of insulin in the bloodstream[hyper- means

excessive, insulin means insulin, and -ism means condition]. Hyperinsulinism can

is an abnormally low concentration of glucose in the blood[hypo- means deficient,

glyc means sugar, and -emia means blood condition]. Symptoms include nervousness

the opposite of hyperglycemia.

insulin secretion, insulin action, or both.

* This condition is described as type 1 and type 2.

* Many patients present with symptoms of both types of diabetes, and their treatment must be modified

accordingly.

the condition in children is now described as being type 1 and type 2.

* The treatment goals for all types of diabetes are to most effectively control the blood sugar levels and

prevent complications.

Type 1 Diabetes

* Symptoms of type 1 diabetes include polydipsia, polyphagia, polyuria, weight loss, blurred vision, extreme

fatigue, and slow healing.

* Type 1 diabetes is treated with diet and exercise as well as carefully regulated insulin replacement therapy

administered by injection or pump.

Type 2 Diabetes

but the body does not use it effectively. In an attempt to compensate for this lack or response, the body

secretes more insulin.

* With the rise of childhood obesity, type 2 diabetes is increasingly common in children and young adults.

Obese adults are also at high risk for this condition.

classified as type 2 diabetes. However, this condition indicates an increased risk of developing type 2

diabetes, heart disease, and stroke.

* Type 2 diabetes can have no symptoms for years. When symptoms do occur, they include those of type 1

diabetes plus recurring infections, irritability, and a tingling sensation in the hands or feet.

* Type 2 diabetes is usually treated with diet, exercise, and oral medications.

resistance and to help insulin let blood sugar into the cells.

Gestational Diabetes

usually disappears after delivery; however, many of these women later develop type 2 diabetes.

Diabetes Mellitus Diagnostic Procedures

Fasting blood measures the glucose [blood sugar] levels after the patient has not eaten for

sugar test 8-12 hours.This test is used to screen for diabetes. This test is also used to monitor

treatment of this condition.

Oral glucose is performed to confirm a diagnosis of diabetes mellitus and to aid in diagnosing

Diabetes mellitus is a group of metabolic disorders characterized by hyperglycemia resulting from defects in

* In the past, when a child developed diabetes, this condition was referred to as juvenile diabetes; however,

Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune insulin deficiency disorder caused by the destruction of pancreatic islet

beta cells. Insulin deficiency means that the pancreatic beta cells do not secrete enough insulin.

Type 2 diabetes is an insulin resistance disorder. Insulin resistance means that insulin is being produced,

* Prediabetes is a condition in which the blood sugar level is higher than normal, but not high enough to be

* Oral hypoglycemics lower blood sugar by causing the body to release more insulin.

* Glucophage [metformin hydrochloride] and similar medications work within the cells to combat insulin

Gestational diabetes is a form of diabetes mellitus that occurs during some pregnancies. This condition

tolerance test hypoglycemia.

Home blood measures the current blood sugar level. This test, which requires a drop of blood, is

glucose monitori performed by the patient.

Fructosamine tes measures average glucose levels over the past 3 weeks. The fructosamine test is able

to detect changes more rapidly than the HbA1c test.

Hemoglobin

A1c testing the average blood glucose level over the previous 3-4 months.

Diabetic Emergencies

Diabetic emergencies are due to either too much or too little blood sugar. Treatment depends on accurately

diagnosing the cause of the emergency.

Insulin shock

substance that can quickly be absorbed into the bloodstream, is administered orally

to rapidly raise the blood sugar level.

Diabetic coma is caused by very high blood sugar [hyperglycemia]. Also known as diabetic

Diabetic Complications

Most diabetic complications result from the damage to capillaries and other blood vessels due to long-term

exposure to excessive blood sugar.

Diabetic retinopathy occurs when diabetes damages the tiny blood vessels in the retina, causing

blood to leak into the posterior segment of the eyeball. This can cause the

loss of vision.

Heart disease occurs because excess blood sugar makes the walls of the blood vessels sticky and

rigid. This encourages hypertension and atherosclerosis.

Kidney disease can lead to renal failure because damage to the blood vessels reduces blood flow

through the kidneys.

Neuropathy is damage to the nerves.

Peripheral neuropathy is damage to the nerves affecting the hands and feet. Causes pain,

tingling, or numbness.

The Adrenal Glands

Functions of the Adrenal Glands

One of the primary functions of the adrenal glands is to control electrolyte levels within the body.

* Other important functions of the adrenal glands include helping to regulate metabolism and interacting

with the sympathetic nervous system in response to stress.

also known as HbA1c and pronounced as "H-B A-one-C", is a blood test that measures

is caused by very low blood sugar [hypoglycemia]. Oral glucose, which is a sugary

ketoacidosis, this condition is treated by the prompt administration of insulin.

The adrenal glands are also known as the suprarenals because they are located with one on top of each

kidney. Each of these glands consists of an outer portion, known as the adrenal cortex, and the middle

portion, which is the adrenal medulla. Each of these parts has a specialized role, and the entire gland is

surrounded by an adrenal capsule.

* Electrolytes are mineral substances, such as sodium and potassium, that are normally found in the blood.

Secretions of the Adrenal Cortex

The same term describes synthetically produced equivalents that are adminstered as medications.

Aldosterone regulates the salt and water levels in the body by increasing sodium reabsorption and

[mineralocorticoids]

bloodstream.

Androgens are hormones that influence sex-related characteristics. Normally, in adults the

[gonadocorticoids] production of androgens in the adrenal cortex is minimal; instead, these hormones

are produced in the male and female gonads.

Cortisol

[glucocorticoids] metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins in the body.

Secretions of the Adrenal Medulla

Epinephrine

stress or other stimuli. It makes the heart beat faster and can raise blood pressure. It

also helps the liver release glucose [sugar] and limits the release of insulin.

Norepinephrine is both a hormone and a neurohormone. It is released as a neurohormone by the

sympathetic nervous system and as a hormone by the adrenal medulla. It plays an

important role in the "fight-or-flight response" by raising blood pressure, strengthening

the heartbeat, and stimulating muscle contractions.

Pathology of the Adrenal Glands

Addison's diseaseoccurs when the adrenal glands do not produce enough of the hormones cortisol or

aldosterone. This condition is characterized by chronic, worsening fatigue and muscle

weakness, loss of appetite, and weight loss.

Adrenalitis

inflammation].

Aldosteronism is an abnormality of electrolyte balance caused by the excessive secretion of

aldosterone.

Conn's syndrome

excessive production of aldosterone.

from a disorder, such as nephrotic syndrome, that occurs elsewhere in the body.

Pheochromocyto is a benign tumor of the adrenal medulla that causes the gland to produce excess

means tumor].

Cushing's Syndrome

cortisol. The Symptoms include a rounded or "moon face".

This condition can be caused by overproduction of cortisol by the body or by taking glucocorticoid hormone

Corticosteroids are the steroid hormones preoduced by the adrenal cortex and to their synthetic equivalents.

These are described in three groups: mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, and gonadocorticoids.

potassium excretion by the kidneys. Reabsorption means returning a substance to the

also known as hydrocortisone, has an anti-inflammatory action, and it regulates the

also known as adrenaline, stimulates the sympathetic nervous system in response to

is inflammation of the adrenal glands[adrenal means adrenal glands, and -itis means

also known as primary aldosteronism, is a disorder of the adrenal glands due to

* Secondary aldosteronism is is not caused by a disorder of the adrenal gland. It results

epinephrine[phe/o means dusky, chrom/o means color, cyt means cell, and -oma

Cushing's syndrome, also known hypercortisolism, is caused by prolonged exposure to high levels of

medications to treat inflammatory diseases such as asthma and rheumatoid arthritis.

Treatment Procedures of the Adrenal Glands

Laparoscopic adrenalecto is a minimally invasive procedure to surgically remove one or both adrenal

Cortisone

by the body. Cortisone is administered to suppress inflammation and as an

immunosuppressant.

Epinephrine is a synthetic hormone used as a vasoconstrictor to treat conditions such as heart

contract.

The Gonads

Gamete is a reproductive cell. These are sperm in the male and ova[eggs] in the female.

Gonadotropin

[gonad/o means gonad, and -tropin means to stimulate].

Functions of the Gonads

The gonads secrete the hormones that are responsible for the development and maintenance of the

secondary sex characteristics that develop during puberty.

Puberty is the condition of first being capable of reproducing sexually. It is marked by maturing of the

genital organs, development of secondary sex characteristics, and by the first occurrence of

menstruation in the female. The average age at which puberty occurs is 12 years in females and

14 in males.

Precocious puber is the early onset of the changes of puberty. This is before age 9 years in females and

before 10 in males.

Secretions of the Testicles

Testosterone which is secreted by the testicles, stimulates the development of male secondary

sex characteristics.

Virile means having the nature, properties, or qualities of an adult male.

Secretions of the Ovaries

Estrogen is important in the development and maintenance of the female secondary sex

characteristics and in regulation of the menstrual cycle.

Progesterone is the hormone released during the second half of the menstrual cycle by the corpus

luteum in the ovary. Its function is to complete the preparations for pregnancy.

* If pregnancy occurs, the placenta takes over the production of progesterone.

* If pregnancy does not occur, secretion of the hormone stops and is followed by the menstrual period.

The Placenta

glands[adrenal means adrenal gland, and -ectomy means surgical removal].

also known as hydrocortisone, is the synthetic equivalent of corticosteroids produced

dysrhythmias and asthma attacks. A vasoconstrictor causes the blood vessels to

The gonads, which are the ovaries in females and testicles in males, are gamete-producing glands.

also known as gonadotropic hormone, is any hormone that stimulates the gonads

corpus luteum to continue producing the hormones required to maintain the pregnancy. It also stimulates

the hormones required to stimulate lactation after childbirth.

Pathology and Treatment of the Gonads

Hypergonadism

Hypogonadism

Gynecomastia

Abbreviations

ACTH adrenocorticotropic hormone

ALD aldosterone

ADH antidiuretic hormone

CAL calcitonin

CS Cushing's syndrome

DI diabetes insipidus

DM diabetes mellitus

DR, DRP diabetic retinopathy

Epi, EPI epinephrine

FBS fasting blood sugar

FSH follicle-stimulating hormone

FA fructosamine test

GDM gestational diabetes mellitus

GCG glucagon

GD Graves' disease

GH growth hormone

HG hypoglycemia

HT Hashimoto's thyroiditis

HBGM home blood glucose monitoring

HCG human chorionic gonadotropin

HP hyperparathyroidism

ICSH interstitial cell-stimulating hormone

LEP, LPT leptin

LH luteinizing hormone

LTH lactogenic hormone

MSH melanocyte-stimulating hormone

OGTT oral glucose tolerance test

OXT oxytocin

During pregnancy, the placenta secretes the hormone human chorionic gonadotropin to stimulate the

is the condition of excessive secretion of hormones by the sex glands[hyper- means

excessive, gonad means sex gland, and -ism means condition].

is the condition of deficient secretion of hormones by the sex glands[hypo- means

deficient, gonad means sex gland, and -ism means condition].

is the condition of excessive mammary development in the male[gynec/o means

female, mast means breast, and ia means abnormal condition].

PC, PCC, pheochromocytoma

Pheo

PTH parathyroid hormone

TSH thyroid-stimulating hormone

triiodothyonine

thyroxine

T3

T4

Regulate electrolyte levels, influence metabolism,

Regulate development and maintenance of secondary

Control blood sugar levels and glucose metabolsim.

Secretes hormones that control the activity of the

Stimulates metabolism, growth, and the activity of

The primary function of the endocrine system is to produce hormones that work together to maintain

* Because the hormones are secreted directly into the bloodstream, they are able to reach cells and organs

are chemical messengers that are secreted by endocrine glands and have specialized functions

Stimulates the growth and secretions of the adrenal cortex.

Helps control blood pressure by reducing the amount of water

Works with the parathyroid hormone to regulate calcium levels

Regulates the metabolism of carbohydreates, fats, and proteins,

Develops and maintains the female secondary sex characteristics

growth of ova[eggs]. In the male, stimulates the production

Regulates the growth of bone, muscle, and other body tissues.

Stimulates the secretion of the hormones required to maintain

Regulates the transport of glucose to the body cells and stimulates

Stimulates ovulation in the female. Stimulates the secretion of

Increases the production of melanin in melanocytes of the skin.

Stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth. It also causes

Works with calcitonin to regulate calcium levels in the blood

Stimulates the development of male secondary sex characteristics.

* Steroid hormones help control metabolism, inflammation, immune functions, salt and water balance,

* The term steroid describes both hormones produced by the body and artificially produced medications that

are chemically related to the male sex hormone testosterone. These have been used

illegally by athletes to increase strength and muscle mass. Serious side effects of

anabolic steroid use include liver damage, altered body chemistry, testicular shrinkage,

and breast development in males, plus unpredictable mood swings and violence.

* Steroid use by teenagers also stops long bone development, resulting in shortened

* The use of steroids usually can be detected through the testing of either blood or

Fat is not commonly thought of as an endocrine gland; however, research has revealed that fat cells do

secrete at least one, and possibly more, hormones that play an important role in the balance and health of

* Leptin leaves the fat cells and travels in the bloodstream to brain centers. Here, it acts to control the

* Leptin also affects female reproduction, immune function, and the function of many other hormones,

cells of the brain. Although produced in the brain, they are able to affect cells throughout distant parts of

is any one of a large number of hormone-like substances secreted by endocrine glands or artificially

are secreted by specialized

is a physician who specializes in diagnosing and treating diseases and malfunctions of

is a condition due to excessive secretion of any gland, especially an endocrine gland

is a condition caused by deficient secretion of any gland, especially an endocrine gland

* Nuclear medicine and imaging techniques are used to diagnose and treat disorders affecting the endocrine

The primary function of the pituitary gland is to secrete hormones that control the activity of other endocrine

glands. The pituitary acts in response to stimuli from the hypothalamus. This creates a system of checks and

stimulates the secretion of estrogen and the growth of ova[eggs]

-ologist means specialist].

means within,

, which is composed of anterior and posterior lobes, hangs from the

is a stalk-like structure.

, which is part of the brain, secretes neurohormones that enable it to communicate with

is unlike a hormone secreted by the endocrine glands because

, regulates the growth of bone, muscle,

stimulates ovulation in the female. In the male, it stimulates the secretion

stimulates ovulation in the female and production of the female sex hormone

progesterone. In the male, LH stimulates the secretion of testosterone.

increases the production of melanin in melanocytes, thereby causing

maintains the water balance within the body by promoting the reabsoption

of water through the kidneys. When more antidiuretic hormone is secreted,

labor]. After childbirth, oxytocin stimulates the flow of milk from the mammary glands.

is pathology resulting in the excessive secretion by the anterior lobe of the pituitary

is a condition of reduced secretion due to the partial, or complete, loss of the function

The two types of these tumors are functioning and nonfunctioning pituitary tumors.

that causes it to produce too much prolactin. In females, this overproduction causes

-tropic means having an

, stimulates and maintains the secretion of breast

means swift, and -tocin means

is a synthetic form of oxytocin that is adminstered to induce or speed up labor.

means extremities, and

, is abnormal overgrowth of the entire body that is caused by

puberty. Contrast with acromegaly.

means condition].

pituitar means

-ism means condition.

, is a slow-growing, benign tumor of the pituitary gland.

often produce hormones in large and unregulated amounts.

do not produce significant amounts of hormones.

, is a benign tumor of the pituitary gland

When there is an insufficient quantity of ADH, too much fluid is excreted by the kidneys. This causes

axtreme polydipsia[excessive thirst] and polyuria[excessive urination]. If this problem is not controlled, it

that is administered to stimulate growth when the natural supply of growth hormone is insufficient for normal

is caused by insufficient production of the antidiuretic hormone or by the inability of the

s a synthetic version of the growth hormone

, which influences the sleep and wakefulness portions of

refers to the biological functions that occur within a 24-hour

is a tumor of the pineal gland that can disrupt the production of the melatonin[pineal

means tumor]. This tumor can also cause insomnia by

means pineal gland, and -ectony

means pineal gland, and -pathy means

lies on either side of the larynx, just below the thyroid cartilage.

describes all of the processes involved in the body's use of nutrients, including the rate at

influenced by these hormones. The rate of secretion of these hormones is controlled by the thyroid-

which the body's own antibodies attack and destroy the cells of the thyroid

include fatigue, depression, sensitivity to cold, and a decreased metabolic rate.

is a congenital form of hypothyroidism. If treatment is not started soon after birth,

thyroid secretion. Symptoms include swelling, particularly around the eyes and cheeks,

by exaggerated hyperthyroidism. Patients experiencing a thyroid storm may complain of

fever, chest pain, palpitations, shortness of breath, tremors, increased sweating,

enlargement produces a swelling in the front of the neck. A simple goiter usually occurs

when the thyroid gland is not able to produce enough thyroid hormone to meet the

. The rate of metabolism is

; which is secreted by cells of the thyroid gland, works with the

parathyroid hormone to regulate the calcium levels in the blood and tissues. Calcitonin decreases blood

, is an autoimmune disease in

, is caused by a deficiency of thyroid secretion

means condition]. Symptoms

, is caused by extreme deficiency of

thyroid means thyroid,

means condition].Symptoms include an increased metabolic rate, sweating,

, is a relatively rare, life-threatening condition caused

, which is an autoimmune disorder that is caused by hyperthyroidism, is characterized by

, is an abnormal nonmilignant enlargement of the thyroid

means abnormal enlargement]. This

stimulating hormone. This test is used to detect abnormal thyroid activity

is a medication administered to slow the ability of the thyroid gland to produce thyroid

radioactive iodine to destroy thyroid cells. This procedure, which disables at

is the surgical removal of one lobe of the thyroid gland. This term is also used to

The four parathyroid glands, each of which is about the size of a grain of rice, are embedded in the posterior

The primary function of the parathyroid glands is to regulate calcium levels throughout the body. These

in the body by mobilizing the release of calcium from storage in the bones and teeth. Compare with the

hypercalcemia that can lead to weakened bones and the formation of

is caused by an insufficent or absent secretion of the parathyroid hormone

works with the hormone calcitonin that is secreted by the thyroid gland. Together,

increases calcium levels

means excessive, parathyroid

means condition]. This condition causes

is due to a disorder of the parathyroid gland.

is due to a disorder elsewhere in the body,

means parathyroid, and -ism means

condition]. This condition is caused by hypocalcemia, and in severe cases,

and tremors. Hypoparathyroidism is the opposite of hyperparathytroidism.

is a complication of hyperparathyroidism in which bone becomes softened and

deformed, and may develop cysts. This condition can be caused by overproduction of

The thymus functions as part of the endocrine system by secreting a hormone that functions as part of the

stimulates the maturation of lymphocytes into T cells of the immune system. These mature cells

is a feather-shaped organ located posterior to the stomach that functions as part of

is the condition of periodic, painful muscle spasms

concentrations of calcium circulating in the blood

means calcium,

means blood condition]. This can lead to weakened bones and the formation

hypo- means

is located near the midline in the anterior portion of the thoracic cavity. It is posterior to

thym means thymus,

means thymus, and -ectomy means

The endocrine functions of these islets are to control blood sugar levels and glucose metabolism throughout

levels. Glucagon increases the glucose level by stimulating the liver to convert glycogen into

levels. It functions in two ways. First, insulin allows glucose to enter tehe cells for use as energy.

is a benign tumor of the pancreas that causes hypoglycemia by secreting additional

pancreatic cancer, and this procedure involves the spleen, gallbladder, common bile

in patients with diabetes mellitus. The symptoms include polydipsia, polyhagia, and

and shakiness, confusion, perspiration, or feeling anxious or weak. Hypoglycemia is

of the pancreatic islets in response to low blood sugar

of the pancreatic islets in response to high blood sugar

needed, insulin stimulates the liver to convert glucose into

means pancreas, and -itis means

means pancreas, and

is performed to treat

means excessive,

means blood condition]. Hyperglycemia is seen primarily

hyper- means

means condition]. Hyperinsulinism can

means deficient,

means blood condition]. Symptoms include nervousness

* Many patients present with symptoms of both types of diabetes, and their treatment must be modified

* The treatment goals for all types of diabetes are to most effectively control the blood sugar levels and

* Symptoms of type 1 diabetes include polydipsia, polyphagia, polyuria, weight loss, blurred vision, extreme

* Type 1 diabetes is treated with diet and exercise as well as carefully regulated insulin replacement therapy

but the body does not use it effectively. In an attempt to compensate for this lack or response, the body

* With the rise of childhood obesity, type 2 diabetes is increasingly common in children and young adults.

classified as type 2 diabetes. However, this condition indicates an increased risk of developing type 2

* Type 2 diabetes can have no symptoms for years. When symptoms do occur, they include those of type 1

8-12 hours.This test is used to screen for diabetes. This test is also used to monitor

is performed to confirm a diagnosis of diabetes mellitus and to aid in diagnosing

is a group of metabolic disorders characterized by hyperglycemia resulting from defects in

juvenile diabetes; however,

is an autoimmune insulin deficiency disorder caused by the destruction of pancreatic islet

means that insulin is being produced,

is a condition in which the blood sugar level is higher than normal, but not high enough to be

[metformin hydrochloride] and similar medications work within the cells to combat insulin

is a form of diabetes mellitus that occurs during some pregnancies. This condition

measures the current blood sugar level. This test, which requires a drop of blood, is

measures average glucose levels over the past 3 weeks. The fructosamine test is able

Diabetic emergencies are due to either too much or too little blood sugar. Treatment depends on accurately

substance that can quickly be absorbed into the bloodstream, is administered orally

Most diabetic complications result from the damage to capillaries and other blood vessels due to long-term

occurs when diabetes damages the tiny blood vessels in the retina, causing

blood to leak into the posterior segment of the eyeball. This can cause the

occurs because excess blood sugar makes the walls of the blood vessels sticky and

can lead to renal failure because damage to the blood vessels reduces blood flow

* Other important functions of the adrenal glands include helping to regulate metabolism and interacting

", is a blood test that measures

, which is a sugary

because they are located with one on top of each

, and the middle

. Each of these parts has a specialized role, and the entire gland is

are mineral substances, such as sodium and potassium, that are normally found in the blood.

The same term describes synthetically produced equivalents that are adminstered as medications.

regulates the salt and water levels in the body by increasing sodium reabsorption and

production of androgens in the adrenal cortex is minimal; instead, these hormones

stress or other stimuli. It makes the heart beat faster and can raise blood pressure. It

is both a hormone and a neurohormone. It is released as a neurohormone by the

sympathetic nervous system and as a hormone by the adrenal medulla. It plays an

important role in the "fight-or-flight response" by raising blood pressure, strengthening

occurs when the adrenal glands do not produce enough of the hormones cortisol or

aldosterone. This condition is characterized by chronic, worsening fatigue and muscle

from a disorder, such as nephrotic syndrome, that occurs elsewhere in the body.

is a benign tumor of the adrenal medulla that causes the gland to produce excess

This condition can be caused by overproduction of cortisol by the body or by taking glucocorticoid hormone

are the steroid hormones preoduced by the adrenal cortex and to their synthetic equivalents.

means returning a substance to the

, has an anti-inflammatory action, and it regulates the

, stimulates the sympathetic nervous system in response to

means adrenal glands, and -itis means

, is a disorder of the adrenal glands due to

caused by a disorder of the adrenal gland. It results

means cell, and -oma

, is caused by prolonged exposure to high levels of

is a minimally invasive procedure to surgically remove one or both adrenal

is a synthetic hormone used as a vasoconstrictor to treat conditions such as heart

is a reproductive cell. These are sperm in the male and ova[eggs] in the female.

The gonads secrete the hormones that are responsible for the development and maintenance of the

is the condition of first being capable of reproducing sexually. It is marked by maturing of the

genital organs, development of secondary sex characteristics, and by the first occurrence of

menstruation in the female. The average age at which puberty occurs is 12 years in females and

is the early onset of the changes of puberty. This is before age 9 years in females and

which is secreted by the testicles, stimulates the development of male secondary

is important in the development and maintenance of the female secondary sex

is the hormone released during the second half of the menstrual cycle by the corpus

* If pregnancy does not occur, secretion of the hormone stops and is followed by the menstrual period.

means surgical removal].

, is the synthetic equivalent of corticosteroids produced

causes the blood vessels to

, which are the ovaries in females and testicles in males, are gamete-producing glands.

, is any hormone that stimulates the gonads

corpus luteum to continue producing the hormones required to maintain the pregnancy. It also stimulates

human chorionic gonadotropin to stimulate the

is the condition of excessive secretion of hormones by the sex glands[hyper- means

is the condition of deficient secretion of hormones by the sex glands[hypo- means

gynec/o means