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Mahabharata, the Bhagavata, the Siva Purana, the Naishadacarita, and the Ragamala etc., provided a very rich field to the painter who with his artistic skill and devotion made a significant contribution to the development of Indian painting.
Rajasthani Syle of Painting
The Rajasthani style of painting including that of Malwa, is marked by bold drawing, strong and contrasting colours.
The treatment of figures is flat without any attempt to show perspective in a naturalistic manner.
Sometimes the surface of the painting is divided into several compartments of different colours in order to separate one scene from another.
Mughal influence is seen in the refining of drawing and some element of naturalism introduced in figures and trees.
Each school of painting has its distinct facial type, costume, landscape and colour scheme.
(i) MALWA
The typical characteristics of the painting are the use of contrasting colours, refinement of drawing due to the influence of the Mughal painting and ornaments and costumes consisting of black tassels and striped skirts.
(ii) MEWAR
The earliest example of Mewar painting is a series of the Ragamala. The text of the painting is written in black on the top against the yellow ground.
(iii) BUNDI
The Bundi style of painting is very close to the Mewar style, but the former excels the latter in quality.
The painting has a border in brilliant red colour. The peculiar characteristics of the Bundi painting are the rich and glowing colours, the rising sun in golden colour, crimson-red horizon, overlapping and semi-naturalistic trees.
(iv) KOTAH
A style of painting very much akin to the Bundi style also prevailed in Kotah a place near Bundi, during the late 18th and 19th centuries.
Themes of tiger and bear hunt were very popular at Kotah. In Kotah paintings, most of the space is occupied by the hilly jungle which has been rendered with a unique charm.
(v) AMBER - JAIPUR
It is generally believed that a school of painting originated at Amber, the old capital of the Amber State, in early 17th century.
Later on in the 18th century, the centre of artistic activity shifted to
Jaipur, the new capital.
There is a fairly large number of portraits of the Jaipur rulers and miniatures on other subjects which can definitely be assigned to the Jaipur School.
(vi) MARWAR
The miniatures are executed in a primitive and vigorous folk style and are completely uninfluenced by the Mughal style.A large number of miniatures comprising portraits, court scenes, series of the Ragamala and the Baramasa, etc.
were executed from the 17th to 19th centuries at several centres of painting like Pali, Jodhpur and Nagour etc. in Marwar.
(vii) BIKANER
Some of the Mughal artists during the later half of the 17th century were given patronage by the Bikaner court and were responsible for the introduction of a new style of painting having much similarity with the Mughal and the Deccani styles.
(viii) KISHENGARH
The painting is marked by delicate drawing, fine modelling of the human figures and cows and the broad vista of landscape showing a stream, rows of overlapping trees, and architecture.
3. Differen between the Rajasthani school and Pahari school paintings
i. Pahari School of painting developed in the foothill of Punjab, Garhwal and Jammu.
ii. This school is different from the Rajasthani School of painting.
iii. This school is famous for beautiful flowing lines and brilliant colours.
iv. The theme of court paintings revolves around the literary, mythical and secular themes.
v. The painters are great lovers of nature and depict nature with care and love in their paintings.
vi. Its main centres are Basholi, Guler and Kangra etc. In Basholi, a painter portrays flat background with simplified forms of trees faces in profile and uses bold lines and brilliant colours.
vii. The painters of Guler depict women in the absence of their lovers in their painting and the painters of Kangra mainly revolve around the theme of feminine beauty and grace
3. Painting and drawing were the oldest art forms practised by human beings to express themselves, using the cave walls as their canvas. In this context discuss the prehistoric paintings found in India along with their important features.
Model Approach :
Introduce with the pre-historical period and development of cave paintings
Enumerate the important pre-historic sites found in India
Also discuss the important features of paintings found in these sites
Conclude suitably
Answer
Introduction
Cave paintings in India date back to pre-historic times. In India, remnants of rock paintings have
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been found on the walls of caves situated in central India.
Categorization
Palaeolithic - These are linear representations. Green and dark red figures of animals such as bison, tigers and rhinoceroses.
Mesolithic - Linear decorations on the body. Animals and human figures in hunting scenes, barbed spears, pointed sticks, bows and arrows. The depiction of communal dances, birds, musical instruments, mothers and children, men carrying dead animals, drinking and burials appear in rhythmic movement.
Chalcolithic - The paintings of this period reveal the association, contact and mutual exchange of requirements of the cave dwellers of this area with settled agricultural communities of the Malwa Plateau.
Prominent sites
Lakhudiyar in Uttarakhand
Kupgallu in Telangana
Piklihal and Tekkalkotta in Karnataka
Bhimbetka and Jogimara in Madhya Pradesh
4. Features:
Colours: shades of white, yellow, orange, red ochre, purple, brown, green and black, white and red were their favorites. Source of colours: The paints used by these people were made by grinding various coloured rocks. Red from hematite (Geru in India). Green prepared from a green coloured rock called Chalcedony. White was probably from Limestone. Brushes were made of plant fiber. Many rock art sites of the new painting are painted on top of an older painting. For example, in Bhimbetka, there are nearly 20 layers of paintings, one on top of another. Use: Paintings were found both from occupied and unoccupied caves. It means that these paintings were sometimes used also as some sort of signals, warnings etc. Inspiration: Painting shows the gradual development of the human being from period to period. The symbolism is inspiration from nature along with slight spirituality. Expression of ideas: Representation of men by the stick like drawings. Use of many geometrical patterns. Scenes: mainly hunting and economic and social life of people. The figure of flora, fauna, human, mythical creatures, carts, chariots etc. can be seen. Thus, these caves paintings are the window to the lives of our ancestors and show the transition in their style from time to time.
4. In India traditional theatre forms incorporate common man’s interest as well as regional, local and folk coloring derived from classical elements. Examine with examples.
Answer:
Introduction
Traditional art forms reflect the ideals of the society, its determination to survive, its ethos, emotions, fellow-feelings, and so on. In all the traditional theatre-forms, songs and the art of singing have an important role to play. Traditional music of the theatre is an expression of the feelings of the community.
Incorporation of common man’s interests in traditional theatre
Traditionally the language of ordinary people has an element of creativity, though not based on classical or grammatical roots.
This kind of creativity is spontaneous, emerging from the circumstances. When there is intensity of emotions, there is a natural kind of rhythm in the expressions.
It is this natural rhythm from which emerges the traditional theatre-form. In this art form, sorrow, joy, frustration, hatred and love have their role and place.
Traditional theatre forms have a common distinguishing feature that is the element of simplicity.
In different regions of India, there are religious festivals, fairs, gatherings, ritual offerings, prayers, almost throughout the year. During these occasions, traditional theatre forms are presented.
They reflect the common man’s social attitudes and perceptions. In this social portrayal, there is also the individual’s role which is given due importance.
Bhand Pather, the traditional theatre form of Kashmir, is a unique combination of dance, music and acting. Since the actors of Bhand Pather are mainly from the farming community, the impact of their way of living, ideals and sensitivity is discernible.
Influence of classical elements in traditional theatre
It is possible, that those associated with the classical world of Sanskrit drama, went to the neigh-bouring regions after its decline and intermingled with the local theatre forms.
This kind of synthesis, give-and take must have taken place on various levels such as written, verbal, classical, contemporary, national and local.
Traditional art forms have influenced classical art forms and vice-versa. It is an eternal journey in the sphere of ‘culture’.
Model Approach :
Give examples of theatre incorporating common man’s interests.
Further, link traditional theatre to regional, local and folk coloring derived from classical elements.
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Model Approach :
Explain how the spread of agriculture led to the rise of Jainism and Buddhism.
State other factors that led to the rise of the two religions.
List the reasons for their eventual decline.
The development of traditional theatre forms is based on local and regional peculiarities which are not bound and restricted by social and economic divisions, limitations, etc.
(a) Yakshagaana, traditional theatre form of Karnataka, is based on mythological stories and Puranas.
(b) Raasleela is based exclusively on Lord Krishna legends; it is believed that Nand Das wrote the initial plays based on the life of Krishna.
(c) Bhavai is the traditional theatre form of Gujarat. The centers of this form are Kutch and Kathiawar. In Bhavai, there is a rare synthesis of devotional and romantic sentiments.
5. How did the spread of new agricultural economy lead to the rise of Buddhism and Jainism? What other factors can be attributed to the spread of these religions? Also explain the causes for their eventual decline.
Answer:
The spread of agriculture led to the rise of Jainism and Buddhism as:
In the 2nd half of sixth century BCE is the spread of a new agricultural economy in north-East India the thickly forested regions of the area were cleared using iron axes and land became suitable for agriculture and large Settlements.
Agricultural practice required use of bullocks to utilize iron ploughs. However, Vedic practice of killing cattle indiscriminately decimated cattle wealth and hindered expansion in agriculture. Killing of cattle by the tribals for food exacerbated it.
For the new agrarian economy to be stable, the practice had to be stopped.
Jainism and Buddhism advocated nonviolence to- wards all living beings, including animals, it found favour amongst the masses.
Other social and economic factors during that period which led to the rise of the new religions:
List the reasons for their eventual decline.
(i) There was ritual unrest as the complex rituals and sacrifices were expensive and incomprehensible to the common people.
(ii) Buddhism and Jainism provided a simple, short and intelligible way towards salvation Entrenched caste system in the Vedic society was highly divisive.
(iii) Kshatriyas resented the domination of the Brahmins and wanted a religion that diminished their importance.
(iv) Hence they extended patronage to Buddhism and Jainism, which were founded by Kshatriyas With the growth of trade, the economic position of the Vaishyas improved.
(v) They wanted to enhance their social status as well. However, the orthodox Varna system did not allow it. They also wanted ongoing wars to stop for their businesses to flourish.
(vii)The new religions preached nonviolence, hence, they adopted the religions Shudras who were discriminated by the higher castes were drawn towards religions that preached egalitarianism.
Causes for eventual decline:
(a) Buddhist monks started using Sanskrit instead of Pali, the language of the masses, making it exclusive. They also modified early Buddhist teachings, amassed wealth and lived luxuriously.
(b) Buddhism and Jainism faced divisions from time to time. Division into various splinter groups – viz.
(c) ‘Hinayana’, ‘Mahayana’, ‘Vajrayana’, ‘Tantrayana’ and ‘Sahajayana’ in Buddhism and ‘Swetambars & Digambars’ in Jainism. External invasions like the ‘Huna invasion’ jolted Buddhism. Huna leaders like Toamana and Mihirakula opposed non-violence and killed many Buddhists residing in the north-western part of India. Further, kings like Pushyamitra Shunga, Shashanka of Gauda persecuted Buddhists on a large scale.
(d) Jainism had stringent rules and common people did not have the perseverance to follow them. There were difficulties in comprehending concepts of Jeeva, Ajeeva, Pudgala, Syadbada.
(e) Initial tempo of royal patronage of Jainism by Bimbisara, Ajatasatru, Udayin and Kharavela was not kept up by kings and princes of later times. Rather the zeal and determination of Asoka, Kanishka and Harsha to spread Buddhism came to eclipse Jainism.
(f) The causes of decline of these religions by the early 20th century include revival of Brahmanism which became more flexible and rise of Bhagawatism by the 12th century AD.
(g) Threatened with extinction, Hinduism started to re-organize itself. Attempts were now made to give up the complex system of rites and rituals The Hindus even came to accept the Buddha as a Hindu incarnation.
6. Metal casting in India appears to be one of the oldest sculptural traditions. Discuss the significance of cire-perduor or “lost wax” technique in the sculptural tradition of India with examples from different regions.
Model Approach :
Explain the lost wax technique.
Discuss its role in making metal sculptures.
Elaborate its role by citing it use in Indus Valley civilization, Buddhist tradition, Chola period etc.
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Answer:
Introduction
Indian sculptural tradition dates back to the third millennia BCE and Indian sculptors had mastered casting process during Indus Valley period itself. Their bronze statues were made using the lost wax or cire perduor technique. in which wax figures are first covered with a coating of clay or dung and allowed to dry.
Then the wax is heated and molten wax is drained out through a tiny hole made in the cover. The hollow mould thus created is filled with molten metal which takes shape of original object. Once the metal cools, the clay cover is completely removed.
Role by citing it use in Indus Valley civilization, Buddhist tradition.
This technique has been used almost across all over India and appears to be a continuous tradition. Bronze sculptures and statuettes of Buddhist, Hindu and Jain icons have been discovered from many regions of India dating from second century until sixteenth century.
They were required for ritual worship and characterized by exquisite beauty and aesthetic appeal. Meanwhile, metal-casting process continued to be used for making articles for various purposes of daily use, such as utensils for cooking, eating, drinking, etc.
Bronze casting was popular at all major centres of Harappan Civilization. ‘Dancing Girl’ in tribhanga posture from Mohenjodaro is earliest bronze sculpture datable to 2500 BCE. Similar bronze statuettes have been discovered at Daimabad (Maharashtra) datable to 1500 BCE. Images of Jain Trithankaras have been discovered from Bihar, belonging to Kushana Period during second century CE.
Many standing Buddha images were cast in North India during Gupta and Post-Gupta periods. Vakataka bronze images of Buddha have been found from Maharashtra. Himachal Pradesh and Kashmir regions also produced bronze images of Buddhist deities as well as Hindu gods and goddesses. In Nalanda, a school of bronze casting emerged in ninth century.
Although bronze images were modelled and cast during Pallava period in eighth and ninth centuries, most beautiful and exquisite statues were produced during Chola Period in Tamil Nadu from tenth to twelfth century.
This technique and art of fashioning bronze images is still practiced in South India. The lost- wax process is today especially used in Himachal Pradesh, Odisha, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and West Bengal. In each region, a slightly different technique is used. Present day tribal communities also utilize this technique.
7. The growth of communalism after 1857 in India was a result of societal differences, communal politics and divisive British policies. Discuss.
Answer:
1. Introduction :
The Revolt of 1857 gave a severe jolt to the British administration in India and made its reorganization inevitable.
Consequently, after the revolt, the British followed the policy of divide and rule. Such policies led to societal differences which fuelled communal politics in India.
2. Societal differences.
Role of socio-religious reform movements: Re- form movements such as Wahabi movements among Muslims and Shuddhi movements among Hindus made the role of religion more vulnerable to communalism.
Role of socio -economic differences.
There was rivalry for jobs, trade and industry between Hindus and Muslims and bourgeoisie class used the lower middle classes of the Hindus and Muslims against each other to further their class interest.
For example, the case in Western Punjab where the Muslim landlords opposed the Hindu moneylenders and in East Bengal where the Muslim jotedars (small landlords) opposed the Hindu zamindars.
2.1 Communal Politics
Formation of Muslim league in 1905 and of Hindu Mahashabha in 1915 further fuelled the religious divide among communities.
Some historians had communal interpretation of Indian History with depiction of ancient India as the Hindu phase and the medieval phase as Muslim phase.
The conflicts of ruling classes during the medieval phase were distorted and exaggerated the Hindu- Muslim conflict.
This interpretation was used by the political class to mobilize popular support of their co-religionists in their mutual struggles.
2.2 Divisive British policies.
After the 1857 revolt, organization of the Indian section of the army was based on the policy of ‘balance and counterpoise’.
Soldiers from Avadh, Bihar, Central India, and South India, had taken part in the Revolt of 1857, were declared to be non-martial.
On the other hand, the Sikhs, Gurkhas and Pathans, who had assisted in the suppression of the Revolt, were declared martial and were recruited in large numbers.
Model Approach :
Elaborate on the growth of communalism after 1857.
Focus on how it was result of societal differences, communal politics and divisive British policies.
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After the 1870s, with signs of emergence of India nationalism and growing politicization of the educated middle class government decided to rally Muslims behind it through concessions, favours and reservations and used them against nationalist forces.
For example, division of Bengal in 1905, communal representation in Morley Minto reforms of 1909.
Government also used persons like Sir Syed Ahmed Khan to counter the influence of Congress. All these factors led to Communalism becoming a popular movement after 1939 and in particular during 1945-47 leading to widespread riots across India and culminated into formation of Pakistan on religious lines.
8. The outbreak of World War II in 1939 divided the nationalists over the next course of action in the freedom struggle. Elaborate. In this context, also examine the factors that led to INC launching the Quit India Movement.
Model Approach :
Write about both the areas of debate of the Nationalists post beginning of WWII.
the INC launched the Quit India Movement.
Answer:
Introduction:
After the beginning of WWII, The Government of India declared India to be at war with Germany without the consent of its people.
Indian leaders could not reconcile with this decision, however different point of view emerged among leaders.
For example, the nationalists were then divided over the following course of action:
On the question whether to support the British in their war effort or not:
Gandhiji was sympathetic towards the allies.
Subhas Bose, Jawaharlal Nehru and the socialists were against supporting the allies. Netaji Shubhash Chandra Bose considered it as an opportunity to defeat the imperial British government.
The Congress leadership decided that India would not join the war till the two conditions of a responsible interim government with immediate effect and promise of a constituent assembly immediately after war to decide upon the constitution of free India are met. This was rejected by the British. Then differences on the question of starting a Mass Satyagraha immediately arose among leaders:
Gandhiji and other leaders were against this as they felt: The cause of the allies to be just and did not want to trouble them in the time of war. There was a lack of Hindu-Muslim unity because of which the civil disobedience movement could degenerate into civil war or communal riots.
The right atmosphere did not exist as masses and the Congress organisation was not ready.
The left wing groups felt that this was an opportunity to achieve freedom with an all out struggle, and hence were in favour. Jawaharlal Nehru was undecided about this till the last minute.
The INC launched the Quit India Movement
Though the Quit India Movement started in 1942, the events starting from 1939 played a role in its launch:
The government had taken draconian measures and suppressed all civil liberties.
All political activities, even peaceful, were declared illegal.
Failure of Cripps Mission in 1942, which was unable to make any constitutional advance in favour of the Indian people.
Its empty gesture convinced even leaders like Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal
Nehru, who were unwilling to hamper Britain’s war effort, not to continue their silence. Increased popular discontent made the situation ripe for a mass movement.
News of imminent British collapse due to the war Revamped Congress, consistent propaganda campaign, individual satyagraha.
Thus the context of events beginning with the WWII played a role in the INC launching the Quit India Movement.
9. Gandhiji’s struggle in South Africa saw an ideological evolution from 1894 till 1915. The methods developed and the lessons learnt during this phase were then applied to carry out the struggle against the British in India. Discuss with examples.
Answer:
Introduction :
Gandhi entered South Africa as an inexperienced and brief-less lawyer to assist a case involving two prominent Memon traders. South Africa was the crucible that forged Gandhi’s identity as a political activist and was an important prelude to his return to India.
Ideological evolution can be understood from following points:
At that time of his life, a 24-year-old Gandhi believed that the British Empire would ensure the freedom of its subjects in an oppressive settler colony.
He supported the British in the Boer war (1899- 1902), and raised a unit of stretcher bearers to accompany troops to the front.
Model Approach :
Firstly,write about the ideological changes Gandhi witnessed.
list down the methods and lessons learned in South Africa and their application in India.
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He expected the British to reciprocate by protecting Indians. However, his hope was belied as Gandhi ji faced discrimination directed at people of color. He was thrown off a train at Pietermaritzburg after refusing to move from the first-class He faced many hardships and discrimination in various forms.
These events were a turning point in Gandhi’s life and shaped his social activism and awakened him to social injustice.
His understanding of ideas such satya and ahimsa got strengthened in this phase. He became more inclusive to masses.
He developed the strategy of satyagraha, in which campaigners went on peaceful marches and pre- sented themselves for arrest in protest against un- just laws. For example:
During 1894-1906, he used moderate methods such petitions and applications tothegovernment. He also published a journal Indian Opinion. Such practices he also applied in India to demand freedom the British and to increase awareness among Indian masses through his journals such as Young India.
He used method of Satyagraha against Registration Certificates in South Africa. This was one of his most popular techniques which he also applied in India such as in Champaran etc.
Gandhi used civil disobedience against Restriction on Indian Migrants in South Africa. He used the same technique in Civil Disobedience by breaking the salt laws.
He united all Indians belonging to different religions and classes, men and women alike. The same he did in India. He spearheaded Khilafat Movement. He united people from different part of India and
also paved the way for women in politics. He took break from the active politics for the emancipation of Harijans in India.
He learned lessons of organizational politics by playing key role in Natal Indian Congress. Likewise, he also played major role in Indian National Congress.
During his stay in South Africa he also realized the military might of British and was convinced that it can’t be challenged through force. Hence, peaceful means were the best way to defeat the British.
Thus the experiences in South Africa transformed Gandhiji from the imperial patriot to the leader who touched the hearts and minds of millions.
10. The economic policies followed by the British led to the rapid transformation of India’s economy into a colonial economy whose nature and structure were determined by the needs of the British economy. Discuss.
Answer:
Introduction
Earlier India was known as sink of gold and silver. It was self-sufficient in agricultural and handicrafts products and had steady market of finished products abroad.
However, with the coming of British rule, Indian economy was transformed into colonial economy that suited the interests of British, not the local population. India was transformed into supplier of raw materials, a market of British manufacturers, and a field of investment for foreign capital.
The British economic policies which led to this economic transformation are analyzed under three phases.
Mercantile Phase (1757-1813) – Under this phase the policies were introduced for the direct plunder.
East India Company used policy –
Monopoly of Trades which functioned through Indian revenue to buy Indian products at low rates. These goods were then exported back to Europe. Further, under this phase
British introduced several land revenue systems which extracted maximum share of agricultural produced in India and drained India’s wealth to England.
Free Trade Capitalist exploitation (1813-1858) – This phase coincided with Industrial revolution in England.
The English manufacturers were given boost by the Charter of 1813. Indian markets were opened up for English imports and India became a source of raw materials.
Indian traditional craft industry and textile industry was systematically ruined leading to deindustrialization and replaced by British Industrial products.
The raw material for Industries in England was exported from India.
For this, they commercialized Indian agriculture which led to the famines in India.
Infrastructure such as Railway was developed to reach and to grab the raw materials of the hinterland. Railway was an avenue for investment of British Capitalists while interest on this investment was high and paid through Indian exchequer.
Finance Imperialism – Under this phase, financial institutions emerged in England.
This phase saw the export of capital from India through the chain of British-controlled banks, export-import firms etc.
Most of the modern industries developed in second half of 18th century were foreign-owned and controlled by British managing agencies.
Analyze the economic policies of the British in three phases.
Model Approach :
Describe the features of colonial economy in India.
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Moreover, the industrial development under British was characterized by a lopsided pattern— core and heavy industries and power generation were neglected.
The Indian nationalists had truly recognized it and brilliantly put forward the economic critique of colonialism. Dadabhai Naouroji gave the theory of economic drain of India. Others were Justice M G Ranade, R C Dutt, Gokhale, Iyer and P C Ray.
They organized intellectual agitations and advocated a complete severance of India’s economic subservience to Britain and the development of an independent economy based on modern industries.
11 The extremist-moderate debate at the beginning of 20th century not only revolved around the goals that they wanted to pursue but also the methods to be employed for their achievement as well as the nature of British rule in India. Comment.
Model Approach :
Explain the concept of moderates and extremists.
Discuss their differences regarding the goals, methods and the nature of rule they aspired for.
Answer:
The leadership of national movement in second half of nineteenth century was with leaders known as moderates who had a narrow social base and believed in constitutional means of struggle.
A radical and militant approach to national movement started to emerge in the 1890s and took concrete shape by the time of Swadeshi Movement in 1905. Nationalists holding this radical ideology were extremists.
These notions of moderates and extremists are to be seen in the context of progress of national movement. At initial stages the conditions were suitable for petitions, then peaceful constitutional means, then extra-constitutional measures and so on. Hence, nationalists operating in that era were most progressive forces of the period but for later generations their views could be out-dated. Specifically, they had differences along following dimensions:
Goals:
Moderate: Demanded constitutional reforms, greater representation to Indians in legislature, socio- economic reforms, civil rights ands share for Indians in services. Most of the moderate leaders were inspired by the ideas of western philosophers like Mill, Burke, Spencer and Bentham. Moderates imbibed western ideas of liberalism, democracy, equity and freedom.
Extremist: Wanted to establish Swaraj. For some it meant complete independence while for others it im- plied selfrule as in the colonies like Canada.
Methods:
Moderate: Use of constitutional methods only. Did not have faith in capacity of masses and hence there movement was limited to intelligentsia and urban upper class.
Extremist: Use of extra-constitutional methods like boycott and passive resistance. Some of them even turned into revolutionary terrorists. They believed in masses. However, their base was also limited to urban masses.
Perception of British Rule:
Moderate: Believed in the providential mission of British and that British were just but were unaware of the plight of Indians. However, it did not prevent them from criticizing British for their economic exploitation, inertia of constitutional reforms etc.
Extremist: Believed that British rule was inherently exploitative and hence complete freedom or self-rule is only remedy. They rejected the theory of providen- tial mission and justice of British.
However, both of them were patriots of highest de- gree, ready to give sacrifices for their country.
Although separated by goals and methods, they were united by the spirit to serve the country in whatever capacity possible.
12 How did the Indian industrialists contribute to the freedom struggle? Did the emergence of the socialistic trend during the later period of the struggle deter them from supporting the freedom struggle? Analyze.
Answer:
The Indian Capitalist class grew from about the mid- 19th century with largely an independent capital base. The period 1914-1947 saw capitalist class growing rapidly increasing its strength and self-confidence. This growth was achieved in spite of and in opposition to colonialism.
However, the Indian Capitalist class has its own notions of how the anti-imperialist struggle ought to be waged. It was always in favour of not completely abandoning the constitutional path as opposed to mass civil disobedience. Some industrialists like Jamnalal Bajaj, Samuel Aaron were actively involved in the struggle and participated in non-cooperation movements. However, some industrialists like G. D Birla, Ambalal Sarabhai provided financial help to the Congress but did not participate actively.
The industrialists formed FICCI (Federation of Chambers of Commerce and Industry) and refused to negotiate with the British Government on constitutional and economic issues without the approval or participation of the Congress. They contributed to the economic critique of the British rule by exposing the nature of their economic exploitation.
Model Approach :
Highlight the contribution of the Indian industrialists in the Indian struggle for freedom.
Explain their relationship with the Congress and their contribution to the party.
Show how they balanced their commercial interests while supporting the national freedom movement.
Evaluate their stand during the freedom struggle movement when socialistic trend emerged.
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Although, they were against protracted civil disobedience movements to safeguard their business prospects, they consistently pressurized the government to stop repression of Indians, release political prisoners and remove ban on Congress. In this regard, they acted as a pressure group which kept a check on the government’s overreach.
Emergence of Socialist trend and Indian industrialists
The emergence of the socialistic trend during the late 1920s did not deter them from participating in the freedom struggle. In fact, it spurred the capitalists into becoming more active in the political field. They evolved a subtle, many-sided strategy to contain the left, no part of which involved a sell-out to imperialism.
While on one hand they signed the Bombay Manifesto in 1936which contained an open indictment of Nehru’s preaching of socialist ideals, they did not support bills which went against the overall national interest such as the Public Safety Bill that was deliberated to repress the Socialists and Communists.
They industrialists played a major role in paving the developmental path of post-independent India. In Bombay Plan, they advocated partial nationalization of the public sector, land reforms and approved welfare schemes to make the society more egalitarian.
Therefore, the Indian Industrialists identified the long-term interests of Indians and remained united with them when a common front was needed. However, they simultaneously worked on guarding their commercial interests.
13 The social-religious reform movements of the 19th and 20th century in British India not only tried to purge the Indian society of various social evils but also prepared the ground for the Indian freedom struggle. Analyze.
Model Approach :
In the introduction, contextualise the rise of socio- religious reform movements in the backdrop of colonial rule and awakening of Indians to the social ills prevailing at the times.
Identify the various issues that the reform movements had to address as well as the key factors involved.
After establishing the first part, move on to examining or establishing how these movements helped prepare for the freedom struggle.
Answer:
The impact of modern Western culture and consciousness of defeat by a foreign power gave birth to a new awakening. There was an awarenss that a vast country like India had been colonized by a handful of foreigners because of internal weaknesses within the Indian social structure and culture. Many Indians realised that social and religious reformation was an essential condition for the all round development of the country on modern lines and for the growth of national unity and solidarity.
The reformers and reform movements addressed many ills that the Indian society suffered from, such
as, religious superstitions, social obscurantism, caste distinctions (segregation, hierarchy, untouchability), laws of purification, high influence of priests, low social position of women (female infanticide, Sati, Purdah, ban on widow remarriage), among others.
Prominent reformers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Swami Vivekanand, Sir Syed Ahmad Khan and movements like Brahmo Samaj, Aligarh Movement, Paramhansa Mandal, Arya Samaj, Satya Shodhak Samaj, Shri Narayana Dharma Paripalana etc. tried to eradicate these ills.
They attempted to reform the society by:
i. Promoting rationalism, religious transformation and universalism.
ii. Encouraging practices such as widow remarriage and education for girls and opposing polygamy, child marriage, female infanticide, sati, purdah system.
iii. The cultural-ideological struggle, represented by the socio-religious movements was an integral part of the evolving national consciousness and prepared the ground for struggle for freedom, as: It brought about the intellectual and cultural break which made a new vision of the future possible.
iv. It was part of the resistance against colonialism and ideological hegemony associated with it.
v. These movements were not isolated, but were also related to national, political and economic considerations which were considered important by the people and helped unite them.
vi. By emancipating the Indian women these movements made them ready for participating in the freedom struggle.
vii. In terms of political leadership of the freedom strugglethe likes of Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Madan Mohan Malviya etc, and important role in the struggle for social and religious reforms.
14 What were the factors that led to the declaration of Emergency in 1975? Why is it considered as the dark period of Indian democracy? In this context, discuss the response to the imposition of emergency among the masses, media and political class.
Answer:
India not only faced two wars in quick succession but also food crisis, inflation, economics low down and stagnation. This led to wide spread displeasure
Model Approach :
In the first part of the answer, write down the reasons which led to the imposition of emergency.
In the second part, write about the sideling of democratic elements of the polity such as the opposition, legislature, federation, press, civil society, judiciary etc.
In the last part, write about the reaction of masses, media and political classes of India.
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against the government, especially amongst the youth and students, and this was also backed by opposition parties and prominent politicians of the time. The then Prime Minister, Indira Gandhi, instead of seeing it as genuine dissent in a democracy perceived it to be an organized sub version against the state.
Consequently, the Indian government declared a state of Internal Emergency on 26 June 1975. The Prime Minister justified her action of imposing the Emergency in terms of national interests on primarily three grounds:
i. India’s stability, security, integrity and democracy were in danger from the disruptive character of the Movement led by Jay Prakash (JP) Narayan. Referring to JP’s speeches, she accused the opposition of inciting the armed forces to mutiny and the police to rebel.
ii. There was the need to implement a programme of rapid economic development in the interests of the poor and the underprivileged.
iii. She warned against intervention and subversion from abroad with the aim of weakening and destabilizing India.
It is considered as the dark period of Indian democracy because:
iv. Control over Legislature: During the Emergency, parliament was made utterly in effective. The opposition of a few brave MPs, who had not been arrested, was nullified as their speeches were not permitted to be reported in the Press.
v. Control over political opposition: In the early hours of 26June, hundreds of the main leaders of the Opposition were arrested under the Maintenance of Internal Security Act (MISA).
vi. Crippling the judiciary: A series of decrees, law sand constitutional amendments reduced the powers of the judiciary to check the functioning of the executive.
♦ An effort was made to change the basic civil libertarian structure of the constitution through its 42nd Amendment.
♦ Putting an end to the judicial review of a constitutional amendment: It was accused that the judiciary was obstructing pro-poor socio-economic measures such as land reform legislation in the name of defending Fundamental Rights.
vii. Disregard of federal principles: The state governments were rigidly controlled. The two non-Congress governments of DMK in Tamil Nadu and Janata in Gujarat were dismissed. Congress chief ministers of Uttar Pradesh and Orissa, were replaced for not being reliable enough.
viii. Controlling the Press and Civil Society: The government imposed strict censorship on the Press and stifled all protest and opposition to the government. Several academics, newspapermen, trade unionists and student leaders were also put behind bars.
ix. Control over the party: The Congress party was also strictly controlled. Internal democracy within the party was more or less completely snuffed.
x. Forced Sterilization: In September 1976, Sanjay Gandhi initiated a wide spread compulsory sterilization program to limit population growth.
Response to Emergency
People of India did not react to the emergency for about a year because price rise was curbed and the normalcy returned after continued strikes of JP movement. However, masses got disenchanted and opposed the emergency because the gain was of short term. In the general election of 1977, Congress lost at the center for the first time after the independence.
Political class opposed the emergency but many important leaders were put behind the bars. Within the Congress party, leaders who did not follow thecommand lost their positions. However, with the fierce opposition to the emergency from political class led to the end of emergency and defeat of Congress.
Media was either confirmed to the wishes of the government or faced severe sanctions on one pretext of the other. Despite sanctions many news papers presented a brave face and highlighted the propaganda of the government.
The Emergency officially ended on 23 March 1977. This dark episode in Indian history only strength- ened the faith of people in democratic process.
15 The role of women since independence has not been confined to issues of women alone, rather they have playedanimportantroleintheissuesrelatedtopeasants, tribals, farmers ,trade unions and environment. Discuss.
Answer:
Dramatic changes have taken place in the legal, political, educational and social status of women since independence. This can be largely attributed to the advocacy of women’s issues by women’s organizations, grassroots movements as well as political parties. Thus, women have been active participants in the movements and organizations advocating causes linked to them.
This has further enabled them to become important participants in issues related to various sections of society.
i. Women played major role in diverse issues. In the Tebhag a peasant movement in Bengal in
Model Approach :
In a brief introduction, provide a back ground of women emerging as important actors in their own right through participating in the struggles for issues related to them.
Following that, enumerate theexamplesof women’s participation in peasant, tribal, trade union and environmental movements in which women and women organizations played a key role.
11
w
1946-47, women had organized themselves on a separate platform of the Nari Bahini and they ran shelters and maintained lines of communication.
ii. In another major Communist peasant struggle of that time in the Telangana area of Hyderabad state from 1946 to1950, women’s participation was also quite significant.
iii. Among the tribal people too women played a key role. For instance in the Shahada tribal area of Dhulia district in Maharashtra in 1972, the movement for drought relief and land, in which the Bhil tribal women were very prominent culminated in a militant anti-liquor campaign.
iv. Women were active participants in the anti-price rise movement of 1973-75 as well as the Nav Nirman movement in Gujarat.
v. The founding of a women’s wing of the Textile Labour Association (TLA), in the form of SEWA (Self Employed Women’s Association) in Gujarat, is an important example of women’s participation in the trade unions. SEWA took up women in the unorganized sector who worked as vendors and hawker sand at home in the putting-out system and organized them into a union which along with collective bargaining provided training, credit and technical help.
vi. In the field of environment the role of women, was key in Chipko movement in 1974, named after the the actions of women who hugged trees in order to prevent them from being cut down by timber contractors.
vii. The Bhopal Gas Peedit Mahila Udyog Sangathan played the leading role in the effort to secure justice for the victims of the chemical gas leak in the Union Carbide factory in Bhopal in1984.
viii. In politics women have emerged as keen voter group and through one-third reservation in panchayats they have been able to exert important influence in governance at grass roots level.
16 Examine the root causes behind ethnic assertion and secessionist tendencies by various tribal communities of North east India. Also discuss why institutional mechanisms for their accommodation and assimilation have proved to be ineffective.
Answer:
North-East states in India have often demonstrated signs of ethinic assertion and separatist tendencies in the form of secessionist movements by various groups. These include the National Democratic Front of Bodo land, The Karbi Longri N.C.Hills Liberation Front, etc. The demands o f these extremist groups
vary from autonomy to secessionism and sovereign- ty. For example,while the aim of ULFA was to create a sovereign State of Assam, the National Democratic Front of Bodo land aims to setup an autonomous re- gion Bodo land.
The reasons for ethnic assertion and secessionist ten- dencies include:
i. Cultural and ethnic diversity: Though cultural and ethnic diversity per se are not causes for conflict, but since ethnic and cultural specificities were ignored during the process of delineation of state boundaries in the 1950s, it gave rise to discontentment and assertion of identity.
ii. Historical reasons: The British administered the hills as a loose ‘frontier area’, with the result that large parts of the north-eastern hill are as never came in touch with the principle of acentral administration.
iii. Poor geographical connectivity: The allegiance of various tribes to the newly formed Indian State was lacking from the beginning and it was accentuated by the creation of Bangladesh, which isolated the region further in terms of geographical connectivity (the region stands connected with the main land through the narrow Siliguri corridor; 99% boundary of the region being international).
iv. Porous borders with neighbouring countries like Bangladesh and Myanmar adds to the crisis of demographic change which threatens local culture and employment opportunities. Hazarika Commission appointed by the Supreme Court has revealed the influx of illegal Bangladeshi immigrants in to Assam.
Issues related to governance: For example, club bing all the states under the tag of ‘north east’ has a homogenizing effect for the region, which is culturally very diverse. Similarly the Sixth Schedule Autonomous Councils feel over shadowed by State Legislatures. AFSPA has become a symbol of oppression in the region. Reports of Human rights violation have also been a matter of great concern.
Ethnic assertions of tribal shave resulted in ethnic riots and mass agitations. Some ethnic movements in the region include the Assam Movement of 1979-84 against illegal migration and protection of Assamese identity, Mizo uprising in 1966 demanding an independent state, tribal movements in Tripura against Bengali domination etc.
Institutional mechanisms
i. After independence, India’s constitutional democracy instead of adopting a confrontationist approach followed a policy of accommodation and assimilation.
ii. Jawaharlal Nehru formulated the Panchsheel policy to ensure that the tribals are integrated in main stream India while maintaining their cultural traits.
iii. The Constitution of India provides institutional
Model Approach :
Analyse various causes behind ethnic assertion and secessionist tendencies by tribal communities in North East India.
Analyse the institutional mechanisms in place to integrate them and their success and failures.
12
accommodation for tribal communities of northeast India through various measures like protective discrimination policies.
iv. In some statesin the region, the interests of tribal communities are protected by invoking Inner Line Permit (forinstance, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland and Mizoram) and special provisions.
v. The Sixth Schedule of the Indian Constitution gives special status to the traditional institutions and makes provisions for the creation of autonomous district councils. Inspite of all these accommodations, the tribal communities are confronting with multiple kinds of exclusion.
vi. The Central government has responded to the conflicts in the region in various ways such as deployment of armed forces to combat rebel groups (including imposition of AFSPA Act in some North East states), signing peace agreements with rebel factions such as Naga Peace Accord and Mizoram Accord, transferring large economic funds to the region (which does not reach the bottom strata of the society), exemption of income tax in some North East states etc.
Failure of Institutional mechanisms
After independence, N-E tribals repeatedly face instances of discrimination in Indian cities and are sometimes victims of racist violence.
In the process of nation-building some communities were left out either because of their low numerical strength or due to low bargaining power with the power structure.
Overlapping of functional responsibilities between the State and the District Council created under the 6th schedule.
The demands of extending Inner Line Permit to other states like Manipur and a stronger assertion of the ‘son of the soil’ concept depicts failure in checking demographic change in the region. The situation gets further complicated by delays in deportation of migrants.
The core problems faced by the region such as under development, and restricted free domin certain regions due to AFSPA etc. remain and need to be pragmatically addressed.
Moreover, the institutional mechanisms prove to be futile when the State and its institutions indulge in human rights’ violations.
17 Examine the factors that resulted in the formation of Non Aligned Movement (NAM). What was the significance of the movement in the international arena? Also assess the relevance of the movement in the contemporary world.
Model Approach :
Introduce about Non Aligned Movement.
Discuss the factors that led to its formation.
Significance of NAM.
Bring out the relevance of NAM in present day context with respect to India.
Answer:
Post World War II, the world was getting divided two super power blocs each led by USSR and USA. During this period, the NAM was founded as an international movement with idea of creating a grouping of like- minded countries that believed in the concept of a level-playing field in global geo-politics and world strategy, there by not being formally aligned with any power bloc.
The Bandung conference held in 1955, where heads of Asian African countries met is considered to be the precedent to NAM and its formation. Six years after Bandung, the Movement of Non-Aligned Countries was founded on a wider geographical basis at the First Summit Conference of Belgrade in 1961.
Factors responsible
i. Cooperation among leaders of these five countries-India, Egypt, Indonesia, Yugoslavia, Ghana.
ii. Emergence of abi-polar world and formation of two military blocs (NATO and Warsaw pact) leading to growing Cold War tensions
The dramatic entry of many newly decolonized African countries into the international arena. By 1960, there were 16 new African members in the UN
Significance of NAM
i. Third Option: NAM offered the newly decolonized countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America an alternative—not to join either alliance.
ii. Reducing hostility: The non-aligned countries, including India, played an active role in mediating between the two rival alliances In the cause of peace and stability.
iii. They worked to prevent war between others and tried to end wars that had broken out.
iv. Economic independence: This emergence of NAM as a new economic pressure group created a new bloc of countries especially through the creation of a New International Economic Order of LDCs which were anti-imperialist and anti- colonialism, striving to end socio-economic disparities between nations of the world.
v. Preserved Autonomy: Non-alignment allowed India to take international decisions and stances that served its interests rather than the interests of the super power sand their allies.
India was often able to balance one super power against the other. If India felt ignored or unduly pres- surized by one super power, It could tilt towards the other. Neither alliance system could take India for granted or bully it.
Relevance of NAM today
It is widely assumed that with the end of cold war, the NAM has lost its relevance. However, its philosophy and principles will remain relevant until sustainable global justice and peace is established. Fromtheoutset of movement, NAM declared general and complete disarmament under effective international control to be one of their main objectives. The relevance of
13
NAM continues as it looks after the interest of all Third World countries for which the movement was created.
However, NAM today, is starting to lose its importance due to its inefficiency in utilizing its influence on the member countries. The emergence of multipolar world and NAM’s loosing significance in India’s foreign policy and other members is pointing towards its closure.
Despite that, it must be noted that movement comprising 120 countries can be a great instrument for global challenges such as democratic reforms in international organizations (UNSC reforms), terrorism, climate change, global inequality, international trafficking etc. It offers a platform for increased south- south cooperation.
18 Whatever its faults, the China of today is very much the creation of Mao Zedong. In this context, high light the problems that Mao faced after the communist victory in 1949 and the steps taken by him to deal with these.
Answer:
After the communist victory in 1949, Mao Zedong set abo3ut rebuilding a shattered China as the problems they were facing were quite complex.
The country was devastated after the long civil war and the war with Japan. The country’s infrastructure– railways, roads and canals had been destroyed.
There was chronic food shortage and agriculture was inefficient.
Industry was back ward and incapable of serving the needs of poverty-stricken was backward with infla- tion seeming out of control.
Further, a huge population base of 600 million posed another challenge.
Therefore, it was essential for Mao Zedong to tackle these challenges if he were to hold on to the support of the peasant sand masses who had supported him. Mao carried out radical reforms to address the challenges that stood before newly independent China.
i. Political Changes– This included the Constitution of 1950 which was officially adopted in 1954. This lead to the establishment of National People’s Congress, State Councils and Political Bureau. This was important because it provided China with a strong central government for the first time for many and it has largely remained unchanged.
ii. Agricultural Changes– Land was redistributed among the peasants and then, they were persuaded to join together in collective farms in
order to increase food production. By 1956, about 95 percent of all peasants were inco-operatives. These transformed China from a country of small, in efficient private farms into large co-operative farms like those in Russia.
iii. Industrial Changes– These began with the government nationalizing most businesses. With Russian aid, China embarked on a Five year plan which concentrated on development of heavy industries.
iv. Large communes were setup to transform agriculture during the Great Leap Forward. These also managed back yard steel furnaces and carried out most functions of the local government.
v. Ideological Changes– Mao did not blindly follow Russia. Even though he initially followed Russian model, he dismissed Russians as ‘revisionists’ for taking side with capitalist model. He started the Cultural Revolution to keep China on a pure Marxist-Leninist course. It also involved brutal repression and violence against opposition.
Policies of Mao politically united China but economic success of programmes like Great Leap is debatable. Infact, his brand of communism was diluted later and China made economic reforms, opening itself to global market and embarking upon remarkable growth path. His reign was of political oppression and persecution. Owing to his legacy, Chinese still face civil rights abrogation, uni-party system and strict state control.
However, it is also believed that these steps prevented China from disintegration and laid the basis for modernization programs later which propelled economic growth. All these steps laid a foundation which meant that communism as a political ideology survived in China and is prevalent today as well.
His legacy is debatable but none the less everlasting in the making of modern China.
19 In India traditional theatre forms incorporate common man’s interest as well as regional, local and folk coloring derived from classical elements. Examine with examples
Model Approach :
Give examples of theatre incorporating common man’s interests.
Further, link traditional theatre to regional, local and folk coloring derived from classical elements.
Answer:
Traditional art forms reflect the ideals of the society, its determination to survive, its ethos, emotions, fellow-feelings, and so on. In all the traditional theatre-forms, songs and the art of singing have an important role to play. Traditional music of the theatre is an expression of the feelings of the community.
Incorporation of common man’s interests in traditional theatre
i. Traditionally the language of ordinary people has an element of creativity, though not based on classical or grammatical roots. This kind of creativity is spontaneous, emerging from
Model Approach :
In the first part talk about the problems faced and steps taken by Mao Zedong as he set about rebuilding a shattered China in 1949. Large part of the answer would be based on this part.
In the conclusion, talk about the legacy of Mao Zedong and his influence on present day China.
14
the circumstances. When there is intensity of emotions, there is a natural kind of rhythm in the expressions. It is this natural rhythm from which emerges the traditional theatre-form. In this art form, sorrow, joy, frustration, hatred and love have their role and place.
ii. Traditional theatre forms have a common distinguishing feature that is the element of simplicity.
iii. In different regions of India, there are religious festivals, fairs, gatherings, ritual offerings, prayers, almost throughout the year. During these occasions, traditional theatre forms are presented. They reflect the common man’s social attitudes and perceptions. In this social portrayal, there is also the individual’s role which is given due importance.
iv. Bhand Pather, the traditional theatre form of Kashmir, is a unique combination of dance, music and acting. Since the actors of Bhand Pather are mainly from the farming community, the impact of their way of living, ideals and sensitivity is discernible.
Influence of classical elements in traditional theatre
It is possible, that those associated with the classical world of Sanskrit drama, went to the neighbouring regions after its decline and intermingled with the local theatre forms. This kind of synthesis, give- andtake must have taken place on various levels such as written, verbal, classical, contemporary, national and local.
i. Traditional art forms have influenced classical art forms and vice-versa. It is an eternal journey in the sphere of ‘culture.
ii. The development of traditional theatre forms is based on local and regional peculiarities which are not bound and restricted by social and economic divisions, limitations, etc.
iii. Yakshagaana, traditional theatre form of Karnataka, is based on mythological stories and Puranas.
iv. Raasleela is based exclusively on Lord Krishna legends; it is believed that Nand Das wrote the initial plays based on the life of Krishna.
v. Bhavai is the traditional theatre form of Gujarat. The centers of this form are Kutch and Kathiawar. In Bhavai, there is a rare synthesis of devotional and romantic sentiments.
20 Though the land revenue systems introduced by the British differed in some aspects from each other, but in essence they were designed with a singular aim. Comment.
Model Approach :
In the first part, briefly explain various land revenue systems in way that the difference among them becomes clear.
Answer:
The major concern of the British rule in India was to collect as much revenue as possible. Since agriculture was the main basis of economy, land revenue emerged as the main source of income.
Britishers introduced three major land revenue systems -
Permanent Settlement – It was implemented by Lord Cornwallis in Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, Banaras region of UP and Northern Karnataka. Under this policy, Zamindars were given ownership rights of land and they could enjoy these rights until they failed to provide fixed revenue (10/11 part of land revenue) to East India Company. Zamindars could impose level of land revenue on the farmers as they deemed fit. Traditional rights of land were snatched away from the peasants.
Ryotwari System – It was introduced in Maharashtra, parts of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu by Thomas Munro in 1820. Under a system, land ownership rights were given to ryots but Mahalwari System – This was introduced by Lord Hastings in 1822 in Punjab and other adjoining areas. In this system a collective assessment of the entire family or the village was made and a leading family of the village recognized as Mahaldar.
Even though these land revenue systems differed in conferring proprietary rights to different groups, a common feature was over-assessment. For instance, under Permanent Settlement, zamindars were free to impose the level of revenue on peasants. In Ryotwari, the revenue was as high as 48-54% of the net value of the produced.
Moreover, the method of collection of revenue was extremely harsh. In Mahalwari system, the company shrugged off the administrative responsibilities of collection of revenue for entire village, Mahals could exploit peasants on their behalf.
Infact, in all the revenue systems it was the farmer who suffered. Further, these greatly accentuated the practice of sub-infeudation. Land became a saleable commodity and the landlords earlier rooted to the village life andempathetic aboutsufferingsofpeasants were replaced by a new class of moneylenders or absentee landlords who tried to extract the maximum with minimum investments.
The results were arrears of payment, mounting debt, increasing land sales and dispossession. This illustrates that these land revenue systems though differed in letter but not in spirit. Their sole motive was the maximum economic exploitation with least responsibility.
In the second part, discuss that all these revenue system were aimed at economic exploitation.
