Making Maps. a Visual Guide to Map Design for GIS.john Krygier and Denis Wood

2011 The Guilford PressA Division of Guilford Publications, Inc.72 Spring Street, New York, NY 10012www.guilford.com

All rights reserved

No part of this book may be reproduced, translated,stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any formor by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,microfilming, recording, or otherwise, without writtenpermission from the Publisher. Printed in the UnitedStates of America.

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

Last digit is print number:

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Krygier, John Making maps / John Krygier, Denis Wood. -- 2nd ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographic references and index. ISBN 978-1-60918-166-6 (pbk.) 1. Cartography. 2. Geographic information systems. I. Wood, Denis. II. Title.

GA105.3.K79 2011526--dc22

2010040429

People communicate about their places with maps. Less common than talk or writing, mapsare made when called for by social circumstances. Jaki and Susan are making maps to protecttheir neighborhood. Why a map? Because the city used a map. The map unambiguouslyexpresses the citys intentions to widen Crestview Road, drawing from the maps, talk, andtext of city planners. If the plan is realized, the city will also use maps to communicate itsintentions to surveyors, engineers, contractors, utility companies, and others.

The maps are all of Crestview Road all of the same place and the maps are all different.Yet they are all equally good. Different goals call for different maps: the quality of a map isfrequently a matter of perspective rather than design. Think of a map as a kind of statementlocating facts. People will select the facts that make their case. Thats what the map is for:to make their case.

Its Time to Make Maps...

The citys case is thatCrestview Road needs tobe widened. They presenttheir plan as a new vision,an enhancement, differentand better.

The city communicates toconstruction firms andutilities with detailed maps,making the case that theplanners and engineershave done their work.

Jaki and Susans case is thatwidening Crestview Roadwould be a terrible mistake.Time to make a map!

Making maps, making your case...

xiii

lowmed.highProperty Values

Jaki and Susan soon realize the plan to widen Crestview is but a piece of a larger plan toredevelop the northern and western suburbs of the city. The key feature of the plan is aconnector (in solid black below) proposed to link two major arteries. Different groups createequally effective maps to articulate their different perspectives on the proposed road. Thoughthe maps may seem polemical, isolating the facts each presents is useful in focusing debate.

Different Goals Call for Different Maps

Goal: keeping costs low. A city map showsthat its plan is the shortest and least costlyroute for the connector. The citys mapfocuses on moving traffic at the least costto taxpayers.

Goal: defending neighborhood integrity.An African American community mapshows how the connector rubs salt in thewound sustained by the earlier invasion ofthe arterial highway. The focus of theirmap is the further destruction of theirneighborhood by the proposed connector.

lowmed.high% AfricanAmerican

Crestview Rd.Crestview Rd.Crestview Rd.

African AmericanAfrican AmericanAfrican AmericanCommunity CenterCommunity CenterCommunity Center

1st African Methodist1st African Methodist1st African MethodistEpiscopal ChurchEpiscopal ChurchEpiscopal Church

LincolnLincolnLincolnParkParkPark

MLK HighMLK HighMLK HighSchoolSchoolSchool


PPPrrroooppp

ooossseeeddd

CCCooonnnnnn

eeeccctttooorrr

xiv


HistoricHistoricHistoricCity HallCity HallCity Hall

HistoricHistoricHistoricShotgunShotgunShotgunHousesHousesHouses

OlmstedsOlmstedsOlmstedsLincolnLincolnLincoln

ParkParkParkOldest HomeOldest HomeOldest Homein Cityin Cityin City

OberlinOberlinOberlinHistoricHistoricHistoricDistrictDistrictDistrict

Goal: maintaining historic continuity. TheSociety for Historic Preservations mapshows how the connector will affectsignificant properties in an existing historicdistrict. Their map focuses on the adverseeffect on significant properties and on theintegrity of the historic district.

Goal: protecting endangered wetlands.An environmental group shows that theconnector will violate the citys policy ofavoiding road construction in floodplains.The Oberlin Creek watershed, alreadygreatly impacted by over 100 years ofurban growth, cannot withstand a furtheronslaught of development.

lowmed.high% HistoricBuildings


100 Year100 Year100 YearFloodplainFloodplainFloodplain

xv

Goal: defending their street. Jaki andSusans first map scales roads to showexisting traffic counts. It suggests howmuch more effective it would be to widenArmitage Avenue, a street already tiedinto the downtown grid. Their focus is todeflect attention from Crestview Road.

Goal: defeating the connector. Aware ofthe connectors role in motivating thewidening of Crestview, and informed bythe maps produced by other groups, Jakiand Susan realize its less that Crestviewneeds defending and more that theconnector needs defeating: low propertyvalues correlate with historic discriminationagainst African Americans, with olderhousing, and the floodplain. The connectorexploits this nexus: their new map focuseson social and environmental justice. Jakiand Susan work out a Social andEnvironmental Justice Sensitivity metric,taking into account race, history, andenvironmental factors.

Different Goals Call for Different Maps


Armitage Ave.Armitage Ave.Armitage Ave.

lowmed.highDaily TrafficCounts


lowmed.highSocial and

EnvironmentalJustice Sensitivity

xvi

DowntownDowntownDowntownArea Area Area (detail(detail(detailon previouson previouson previousmaps)maps)maps)

ProposedProposedProposedPharmaceuticalPharmaceuticalPharmaceuticalDevelopmentDevelopmentDevelopment

ProposedProposedProposedResidentialResidentialResidential

DevelopmentDevelopmentDevelopment

Goal: defeating the connector. Jaki andSusan find interesting information whileresearching the proposed connector. Theychange scale and map this part of thestory: behind the connector lie quietnegotiations between the state, aninternational pharmaceutical firm, andwell-connected real-estate interests eagerto develop farmland to the southwest ofthe city. The focus now is on the powerof lobbyists and back room deals. Jaki andSusans maps are published with a storyon the controversy over the proposedconnector in a local independentnewspaper.

Goal: going in for the kill. The independentnewspaper jumps scale again, mappingthe seamy underside of the pharmaceuticalfirm behind the proposed connector. Thefocus is on the reach and impact of firmsoperating on the global scale. Jaki andSusan are astounded that a far-offmultinational corporation is behind thethreat to Crestview.

Mexico: Toxicemissions exceedMexican standards

Alabama (U.S.):Union busting attwo new plants

Peru: Toxins fromplant found in local

water sources

Thailand: Childrenunder 16 years old

routinely employed

Russia: Investorsin new plant tied to

organized crime

Canada: Removedpopular drugs frommarket because ofprice controls

xvii

DowntownDowntownDowntownAreaAreaArea

ProposedPharmaceuticalDevelopment

ProposedResidential

Development

AAA

BBB

CCC

DowntownDowntownDowntownAreaAreaArea

ProposedPharmaceuticalDevelopment

ProposedResidential

Development

ProposedProposedProposedBypassBypassBypass

The eight maps involved in this debate over the location of the connector are all good. Eachis clear. Each makes its points with accurate data in a way that is easy to read and understand.What makes the maps different is the different purposes each was designed to serve. It isthis purpose that drove the selection of facts and these facts that dictated the design andscale. The story continues...

Different Goals Produce Different Maps

Goal: consider the alternatives. Due tohistorical, environmental, and social justiceconcerns with the proposed connector,and the embarrassing newspaper article,the city council asks the city planningdepartment to develop alternatives. Whenthese alternatives are mapped, they raiseadditional concerns (and maps). Route B,while more costly than A, is cheaper thanC (which passes through property ownedby influential property developers opposedto the connector). B also has a lowerenvironmental impact and does notadversely affect any organized socialgroups or business interests.

Goal: seek funds for the proposed bypass.The newly proposed bypass will costsignificantly more than the downtownalternative, so the city seeks additionalfunding. The grant proposals include,among many maps, a map showing thegeneral location of the proposed bypass.

Crestview is saved! Jaki and Susan throwa party to celebrate. They include a mapon the party flyer...

xviii

Introduction

1: How to Make a Map

2: Whats Your Map For?

3: Mappable Data

4: Map Making Tools

5: Geographic Framework

6: The Big Picture of Map Design

7: The Inner Workings of Map Design

8: Map Generalization and Classification

9: Map Symbolization

10: Words on Maps

11: Color on Maps

Index

i

5

19

41

65

79

107

127

145

171

205

227

249

Making Maps:A Visual Guide to Map Design for GIS

xxi

In December 1986 an experimental aircraftnamed Voyager became the first pilotedaircraft to circle the earth without refueling.

Atlantic Ocean

Atlantic Ocean

Pacific Ocean

Flight data courtesy of Len Snellman and Larry Burch, Voyager meteorologistsMapped by David DiBiase and John Krygier, Department of Geography, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1987

40 N

20 N

0

20 S

40 S

020 W60 W

040 W80 W 40 E120 W

100 W 20 E 60 E

DAY 9 DAY 8 DAY 7 DAY 6 DAY 5

HoursAloft

216hours

192hours

168hours

144hours

120hours

96hours

Fuel on landing: 18 gallons

104112128136152160176184200

Distance 10,000 miles to go12,532 miles previous record

5,000 miles to go26,678 miles traveled

Alti

tude

(fee

t)

20,00015,00010,0005,000

sea level

Visibility

WNW

NNW20

NW10-15

ENE18

ESE14

E37

E34

E20

E10-20

WNicaragua

Costa RicaCameroon

GabonCongo Zaire Tanzania

Kenya

Uganda

SomaliaEthiopia

United States

Triumphant landingat Edwards AFB

Engine stalled;unable to restart

for five harrowingminutes

Transitionfrom tailwindsto headwinds

Rutan disabledby exhaustion

Oil warninglight goes on

Thunderstormforces Voyagerinto 90 bank Flying among

the redwoods:life and death

struggle to avoidtowering

thunderstorms

Passing betweentwo mountains,

Rutan and Yeagerweep with relief

at having survivedAfricas storms

Discoveryof backwards

fuel flow

Squall line

Worried about flyingthrough restricted

airspace, Rutan andYeager mistake themorning star fora hostile aircraft

Coolantseal leak

What do you need to know to make this map?

Pacific Ocean

Indian Ocean

40 N

20 N

0

20 S

40 S

140 W180140 E

120 W160 W160 E120 E80 E

60 E 100 E

DAY 4 DAY 3 DAY 2 DAY 1

96hours

72hours

48hours

24hours

Take-off

HoursAloft

Fuel on takeoff: 1,168 gallons

40 32 16 864 568088

DistanceTake-off15,000 miles to go 20,000 miles to go

Altitude(feet)

20,00015,00010,0005,000sea level

Visibility

W

E22 SE

24

E15

NE33

SE12

ENE15

ENE20

NNE28

NW15

NE10

Sri LankaVietnam

Philippines

India

Thailand

UnitedStates

THE FLIGHT OF VOYAGERDecember 14-23, 1986

Mercator map projectionScale at equator is

1:43,000,000

Wind speed,direction,& cloud cover

Voyager pilots: Dick Rutan and Jeana YeagerVoyager designer: Burt Rutan

Squall line

Rendezvous teamnot permitted

to take offCoolantseal leak

Voyager squeezesbetween restricted

Vietnamese airspaceand thunderstorms

Autopilotfailure

TyphoonMarge

Voyager fliesbetween feeder band

and main storm tomaximize tailwinds

Impromptu rendezvouswith chase plane

Dramatic takeoff;wingtips scraped off Edwards

AFB

Atlantic Ocean

Atlantic Ocean

Pacific Ocean


40 N

20 N

0

20 S

40 S

020 W60 W

040 W80 W 40 E120 W

100 W 20 E 60 E


HoursAloft

216hours

192hours

168hours

144hours

120hours

96hours


104112128136152160176184200



Alti

tude

(fee

t)

20,00015,00010,000

5,000sea level

Visibility

WNW

NNW20

NW10-15

ENE18

ESE14

E37

E34

E20

E10-20

WNicaragua

Costa RicaCameroon


Kenya

Uganda

SomaliaEthiopia

United States










thunderstorms





fuel flow

Squall line



Coolantseal leak

Where did the flight path andmeteorological data for themap come from?

What type font is this, andwhy was it chosen?

Whom was this map madefor? Who is its audience?

Where is the rest of the world?

Why are some, but not all,country names on the map?

Why is the latitude/longitudegrid only on the water?

Why is the ocean typeitalicized?

How were these symbolschosen?

Was this map created to beshown in a book? On theweb? On a sheet of paper?

How was this map created?On the computer? What kindof software was used?

Pacific Ocean

Indian Ocean

40 N

20 N

0

20 S

40 S

140 W180140 E

120 W160 W160 E120 E80 E

60 E 100 E


96hours

72hours

48hours

24hours

Take-off

HoursAloft


40 32 16 864 568088


Altitude(feet)

20,00015,00010,0005,000sea level

Visibility

W

E22 SE

24

E15

NE33

SE12

ENE15

ENE20

NNE28

NW15

NE10

Sri LankaVietnam

Philippines

India

Thailand

UnitedStates



1:43,000,000



Squall line





Autopilotfailure

TyphoonMarge





AFB

1Start by looking; what do you see? Looking at maps is easy. Not really. You canglance at the Mona Lisa in a second. But to get the Mona Lisa you have to lookmore carefully. What do you see on the Voyager map? Words, lines, continents, agrid. A story, some information with the story. What do you notice first? Black lines,gray lines, white lines ... why are they different? Making maps requires that youanswer such questions, and many more. Throughout this book, in nearly everychapter, we annotate The Flight of Voyager. By the end of the book, you willunderstand how to really see and make a map.

CH

AP

TER

How to Make a Map

Isnt every map supposed tohave a north arrow?

Why is this line darker thanother lines on the map?

Why are the days runningbackwards on the map?

Why isnt there color on themap? Would color make themap better?

Where did data for the stormsand typhoons come from?

5

Making Maps is HardWhether looking at or making maps, there is a lot to see, think about, and do. Throughoutthis book, myriad subjects are considered in general and in relation to The Flight of Voyagermap. A systematic critique of an existing map or the successful making of your own map isaccomplished by considering the following issues. When making maps, think about everythingbefore starting; then, when your map is complete, reconsider them all once again.

The Whole Map

Write out exactly what the map is supposed toaccomplish: does the map meet its goals?

Are you sure a map is necessary?

Is the map suitable for the intended audience?Will the audience be confused, bored, interested,or informed?

Look at the map in its final medium: does itwork? Has the potential of a black-and-whiteor color design been reached?

Is the map, its authors, its data, and any otherrelevant information documented and accessibleto the map reader?

Look at the map and assess what you see, is it:

confusing or clear interesting or boringlopsided or balancedamorphous or structuredlight or darkneat or sloppyfragmented or coherentconstrained or lavishcrude or elegantrandom or orderedmodern or traditionalhard or softcrowded or emptybold or timidtentative or finishedfree or boundedsubtle or blatantflexible or rigidhigh or low contrastauthoritative or unauthoratativecomplex or simpleappropriate or inappropriate

Given the goals of the map, are any of theseimpressions inappropriate?

The Maps Data

Do the data serve the goals of the map?

Is the relationship between the data and thephenomena they are based on clear?

Does the map symbolization reflect the characterof the phenomena or the character of the data?

Does the origin of the data primary, secondary,tertiary have any implications?

Are the data too generalized or too complex,given the maps goals ?

Is the map makers interpretation of the datasound?

Are qualitative and quantitative characteristicsof the data effectively symbolized?

Have the data been properly derived?

Has the temporal character of the data beenproperly understood and symbolized?

Is the scale of the map (and inset) adequate,given the goals of the map?

What about the accuracy of the data? Are thefacts complete? Are things where they shouldbe? Does detail vary? When were the datacollected? Are they from a trustworthy source?

Have you consulted metadata (data about data)?

Does the map maker document copyright issuesrelated to the data?

Is the map copyright or copyleft licensed?

The Maps Framework

What are the characteristics of the mapsprojection, and is it appropriate for the dataand map goals? What is distorted?

Is the coordinate system appropriate and notedon the map?

6

The Design of the Map

Does the title indicate what, when, and where?

Is the scale of the map appropriate for the dataand the map goals? Is the scale indicated?

Does textual explanation or discussion on themap enhance its effectiveness?

Does the legend include symbols that are notself-explanatory?

If the orientation of the map is not obvious, isa directional indicator included?

Are authorship and date of map indicated?

Are inset and locator maps appropriate?

Is the goal of the map promoted by its visualarrangement, engaging path, visual center,balance, symmetry, sight-lines, and the grid?

Has the map been thoroughly edited?

Does the map contain non data ink?

Has detail been added to clarify?

Do the data merit a map?

Do variations in design reflect variations in thedata?

Is the context of the map and its data clear?

Are there additional variables of data that wouldclarify the goals of the map?

Do visual differences on the map reflect datadifferences?

Do important data stand out as figure, and theless important as ground, on the map? Are thereconsequences of data not included on the map?

Have visual difference, detail, edges, texture,layering, shape and size, closure, proximity,simplicity, direction, familiarity, and color beenused to reflect figure-ground relationshipsappropriate to the maps goals?

Are the level of generalization and the dataclassification appropriate, given the maps goals?

Do map symbols work by resemblance,relationship, convention, difference,standardization, or unconvention? Are thechoices optimal for the maps goals?

How do the map symbols relate to the conceptsthey stand for? Is the relationship meaningful?

Have the map symbols been chosen to reflectthe guidelines suggested by the visual variables?

If symbolizing data aggregated in areas, is themost appropriate method used? How will thechoice affect the interpretation of the map?

What do the words on your map mean? Howdo they shape the meaning of the map?

Has the chosen typeface (font) and its size,weight, and form effectively shaped the overallimpression of the map as well as helping tosymbolize variations in the data?

Does the arrangement of type on the mapclarify, as much as possible, the data and thegoals of the map?

Do color choice and variation reflect data choiceand variation on the map?

Is color necessary for the map to be successful?Does color add anything besides decoration?

Do color choices grab viewers attention whilebeing appropriate for your data?

Does the maps design reflect the conditionsunder which it will be viewed?

Are color interactions and perceptual differencesamong your audience accounted for?

Have symbolic and cultural color conventionsbeen taken into account and used to enhancethe goals of the map?

7

Responsible Map Making

Areas crossed by two or more radioactive cloudsduring the era of nuclear testing (1951-1962)in the American Southwest. Richard Millerpainstakingly created his map showing wherehumans, animals, and the environment werecontaminated by nuclear fallout.

Steven R Holloway's Right Map Making (nextspread) is his manifesto, proclamation or mapmakers creed to stimulate and encourageright action. Making maps means engagingyour mind and your heart. Develop an ethicsof map making, however you may define it.The maps you make make a difference.

8

Who died and made you the map police?

Jill, Home Improvement (1991)

For the execution of the voyage to the Indies, I did not make use of intelligence, mathematicsor maps.

Christopher Columbus, Book of Prophecies (15th century)

I presume you have reference to a map I had in my room with some X's on it. I have noautomobile. I have no means of conveyance. I have to walk from where I am going mostof the time. I had my applications with the Texas Employment Commission. They furnishedme names and addresses of places that had openings like I might fill, and neighborhoodpeople had furnished me information on jobs I might get.... I was seeking a job, and I wouldput these markings on this map so I could plan my itinerary around with less walking. Eachone of these X's represented a place where I went and interviewed for a job.... You can checkeach one of them out if you want to.... The X on the intersection of Elm and Houston is thelocation of the Texas School Book Depository. I did go there and interview for a job. In fact,I got the job there. That is all the map amounts to.

Lee Harvey Oswald, Interrogation after Kennedy assassination (November 24, 1963)

12

More...The blog for this book, makingmaps.net, contains a delightful collection of materials onmaps and mapping and serves as an extension of this book. Check out cartotalk.com, a greatdiscussion forum about maps and map design chock-full of cool map people.

Engage your thinking about maps: Jeremy Crampton, Mapping: A Critical Introduction toCartography and GIS (Wiley-Blackwell, 2010); Brian Harley, The New Nature of Maps (JohnsHopkins University Press, 2002); Alan MacEachren, How Maps Work (Guilford Press, 2004);Mark Monmonier, How to Lie with Maps (University of Chicago Press, 1996); and Denis Wood,Rethinking the Power of Maps (Guilford Press, 2010). For a terrific overview of the diversityof maps througout history, see Brian Harley and David Woodwards multi-volume History ofCartography (1987-date, University of Chicago Press) series. Tony Campbells websitewww.maphistory.info is a tremendous resource for the history of mapping.

This book, like all books, draws from numerous other texts, old and new, that can be consultedfor more information than youll ever want or need: R.W. Anson and F.J. Ormeling (eds.),Basic Cartography (International Cartographic Association, 1984); Borden Dent, Jeff Torguson,and Thomas Hodler, Cartography: Thematic Map Design (McGraw-Hill, 2008); J.S. Keates,Cartographic Design and Production (Wiley, 1973); Menno-Jan Kraak and F.J. Ormeling,Cartography: Visualization of Spatial Data (Longman, 1996); Juliana Muehrcke, A. Jon Kimerling,Aileen Buckley, and Phillip Muehrcke, Map Use: Reading and Analysis (ESRI Press, 2009); ArthurRobinson, Joel Morrison, Phillip Muehrcke, and A. Jon Kimerling, Elements of Cartography(Wiley, 1995); Erwin Raisz, General Cartography (McGraw-Hill, 1938) and Principles ofCartography (McGraw-Hill, 1962); Terry Slocum, Robert McMaster, Fritz Kessler, and HughHoward, Thematic Cartography and Geovisualization (Prentice Hall, 2008); and Judith Tyner,Principles of Map Design (Guilford Press, 2010). These folks are the map police.

Check out the journal Cartographic Perspectives and the North American CartographicInformation Society (nacis.org), the journal Cartographica and the Canadian CartographicAssociation (cca-aac.org), the Cartographic Journal and the British Cartographic Society(www.cartography.org.uk), and the International Cartographic Association (icaci.org).

Sources: Richard Miller, Areas crossed by two or more radioactive clouds during the era of nucleartesting in the American Southwest, 1951-62 in Under the Cloud: The Decades of Nuclear Testing (Two-Sixty Press, 1999), between chapters 4 and 5. Right MAP Making copyright 2007 by Steven R Holloway.Designed and produced by toMake.com Press. Right MAP Making is intended to articulate thefundamental principles of ethical conduct in mapping and maps and to stimulate right action. Setin Operina and Dante and printed from a freely distributed digital file. Forty letterpress copies are signedand numbered by the author. Editioned on the occasion of the 2007 Pecha Kucha of the North AmericanCartographic Information Society.

13

Whats the point?

The point, according to Mark Twain, is...

2What was Twains map of Paris for? To make us laugh. But first it was to make Twainlaugh. It was a dark time for Twain. He swung between deep melancholy and halfinsane tempests and cyclones of humor. In one of the latter moments, he got aboard and with a jackknife carved a crude and absurd map of Paris under siege.The map was a parody of those found in the newspapers of the time and was wildlypopular. Whos your map for? How will you show it? How will you document,evaluate, and review it? Your answers will profoundly shape your map.

CH

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Whats Your Map For?

19

The first thing you need to decide is whether you need a map. You may not. There are secretsthat dont want to be mapped. There are circumstances where maps are inappropriate. Andsometimes there are more effective ways of making your point: a graph, a drawing, a photo.

But Do You Really Need a Map?

The Not Mappable

Typically land claims by native peoples areaccompanied by maps. This is so obviouslythe place for a map that it seems perverseto question it, but increasingly Indigenouspeoples have been arguing that maps cantcapture their relationship to the land.

In 1987 the Gitxsan and the Wetsuwetenin British Columbia entered the Gitxsanadaawk (a collection of sacred oral traditionsabout their ancestors, histories, andterritories) and the Wetsuweten kungax(a spiritual song or dance or performancetying them to the land) as evidence in theirsuit seeking title to their ancestral lands.In 1997 the Canadian Supreme Courtfound that forms of evidence like thesehad to be accepted in Canadian courts.

The Secret

Sometimes its better not to map stuff youcould easily map. Military sites, sacredindigenous locations, and archaeologicalsites are often left off of maps.

HelipadHelipadHelipad

PortalsPortalsPortalsA & BA & BA & B

AntennasAntennasAntennas

PortalsPortalsPortalsC & DC & DC & D

GateGateGate

GateGateGate

GuardGuardGuardStationStationStation

The Silly

How surprised are you that Chicago hasbeen eliminated from the potential hostcities for the 2016 Olympics?

Chicago

ESPN SportsNation Poll & Map

StunnedNot surprised

The U.S. Geological Survey topographicmap of Raven Rock Mountain inPennsylvania (above) doesnt show theextensive infrastructure of Site R thebunker where U.S. Vice President DickCheney hunkered down after 9/11.Architect John Young tracked down themissing data and mapped it as part of hiscryptome.org Eyeballing project (below).

20

Knowing the intended audience for your map will help you design it. Your audience mayor may not be familiar with the area being mapped, an expert on the mapped topic or anovice, an eight-year-old or a college student. In each case, consider how your map canfunction better for the people who will actually use it.

Whos Your Map For?

Experts

Experts know a lot about the subject ofthe map. Experts are highly motivated andvery interested in the facts the mappresents. They expect more substance andexpect to engage a complex map.

Less peripheral information on map explainingcontent and symbols

More information, more variables of information,more detail

Follow conventions of experts: consider using a spectral (rainbow) color scheme for ordered data if the user is accustomed to using such colors to show ordered data (such schemes are usually not good for other users)

Novices

Novices know less about the map subjectand may not be familiar with the waymaps are symbolized. They need a mapthat is more explanatory. Novices may beless motivated than expert users, but theywant the map to help them learnsomething.

More peripheral information on map explainingcontent and symbols

Less information, fewer variables of information,less detail

Follow map design conventions, which enhancecomprehension of the map

Mike...

Social worker Mike Rakouskass map of WakeCounty, North Carolina. The numbers refer topages in the county street atlas he uses, andthe shaded numbers are client sites. He usesthis map to rationalize his trip planning and asan index to the atlas. It was made with a wordprocessor. Peculiar! Clever! And perfect for Mike.

21

Consider the final medium of your map before making it. Most maps are made on computermonitors, but the monitor is not the final medium. Rather, it might be a cell phone screen,a piece of paper, a poster, a slide projected on a screen during a presentation, a yard sign,handbill, or protest sign. What looks great on your computer will probably not look so greatwhen printed or projected or shown on a tiny phone screen.

How Are You Going to Show It?

A yard sign complete with map in oppositionto a road that would really mess up a lot ofstuff in Raleigh, North Carolina.

22

Black and White, on Paper

Most maps are created on computermonitors, with less resolution and areathan is possible on a piece of paper. Whenpaper is your final medium, design for thepaper and not for the monitor. Alwayscheck design decisions by printing themap (or having your printer create a proofif your map is to be professionally printed).While all computers offer color, finalprinting with color is not always an option.Dont despair! Much can be done withblack and white.

Map size should match final paper size, with appropriate margins

10-point type works well on a printed map, but you may have to zoom in to see it on the computer monitor

Point and line symbols can be smaller and fineron a printed map than on the computer

More subtle patterns can be used than on a computer monitor map

More data and more complex data can be included on a printed map

Substitute a range of grays and black and whitefor color. Remember that printers cannot always display as many grays as you can create on a monitor; subtle variations in grays may not print clearly

Black will be more intense than white; use whiteto designate no information or the background, dark to designate more important information

Monochrome copiers sometimes reproduce gray tones poorly

Very light gray tones may not print

Color, on Paper

Color on a computer monitor is createdin a different manner than color on desktopprinters or on professionally printed maps.Select colors on the computer, then printand evaluate (or ask for a proof). Alwaysdesign for the final medium: adjust thecolors on the monitor so they look bestfor the final output. The same colors willvary from printer to printer. Reproducingcolor is often more expensive than blackand white. Finally, keep in mind that usersmay reproduce your color map in blackand white. Will it still work?

Map size should match final paper size, with appropriate margins

10-point type works well on a printed map, butyou may have to zoom to see it on the computer monitor

Point and line symbols can be smaller and fineron a printed map

More subtle patterns can be used than on a computer monitor map

More data and more complex data can be included on a printed map

Use color value (e.g., light red vs. dark red) toshow differences in amount or importance.Use color hue (blue vs. red) to show differences in kind. Desktop printers cannotdisplay as many colors as you can create on a monitor; subtle variations in colors may not print

Dark colors are more intense than light; use light colors to designate less important information and background, and dark todesignate more important information

Never print a color map in black and white; redesign it for black and white

23

LG + Sam

sung

Sony Ericsson Xperia

Treo

Centro

Computer Monitors

Designing maps for final display on acomputer must take into account screenresolution and space limits. Desk or laptopcomputer monitor resolution is typically72 dots per inch (dpi), compared to 1200or more for many printers. Computermonitors also have limited area, typically7 by 9 inches (gray area on this spread),or less if the map is displayed in a webbrowser window. Design a map so that alltype and symbols are visible withoutmagnification. Also avoid maps that requirethe viewer to scroll around to see the entiremap. Use more than one map if you needmore detail, or consider web tools thatallow you to zoom and pan over a map.

The entire map should fit on the screen withoutscrolling (if pan/zoom is not possible)

Increase type size: 14 point type is the smallestyou should use on a monitor

Make point and line symbols 15% larger thanthose on a paper map

Use more distinct patterns: avoid pattern variations that are too fine or detailed

You may have to limit the amount and complexity of data on your map, comparedto a print map

Use color: but remember that some monitors cannot display billions of colors; subtle colorvariations may not be visible on every monitor

White is more intense than black. Take care when using white to designate the lack of information or as background color, it maystand out too much.

Save static maps for the internet at 72-150 dpi. Size the map to fit in a browser window

Design your map so it works on different monitors (RGB, LCD, portables)

Interactive maps require attention to additionalissues such as pan, zoom, interactivity, etc.


24

Ap

ple iPhone

Nokia Tube

QVGA Type 2.2

Palm TX

Portable Monitors

Maps on smart phones, PDAs, GPS units,and other portable devices pose the samedesign challenges as on desktop monitors,with the further limitation of screen size.Typical portable monitor sizes are shownon this spread. Many portable monitorsare touch-sensitive, allowing users to panand zoom, thus overcoming some of thelimitations of the small monitor size.

Static maps on portable devices can follow desktop monitor design guidelines, taking into account the limited display size

Interactive maps should use appropriate interfacemetaphors: zoom in is up on a slider bar, or two fingers diverging outward. Pan is touchand slide in the appropriate direction

Interactive maps should vary map design specifications with scale

Generalize more as the user zooms out on the map: for example, local roads and roadnames disappear when zoomed out

Generalize less as the user zooms in on the map: local roads and their names appear when zoomed in

Aerial photographs may be more appropriate than maps for users with limited navigationabilities

Maps may be more appropriate than aerial photographs for users with better navigationabilities

Ground-view images may be more helpful fornavigation than maps alone, but using bothshould increase navigation success

Map symbols should not be too complexColors should be more intense to account for

varying lighting conditionsSerif fonts may be easier to read on portable

monitors than sans serif

25

Projections

It is increasingly common for maps to beshown on a large screen with a computerprojector. When projected, white andlighter colors will be more intense, blackand darker colors subdued. Computerprojectors vary in the amount of light theycan project. Some projectors wash outcolors. Consider previewing your projectedmap and adjusting the projector. Projectedmaps must be designed with the viewingdistance in mind (find out the size of theroom). A map projected to an audiencein a small room can have smaller type andsymbols than a map projected in anauditorium. Always check that the map islegible from the back of the room in whichthe map will be displayed.

Greater map size is offset by the increased viewing distance

Increase type size so that smallest type is legiblefrom the back of the room

Increase point and line symbol size to be legiblefrom the back of the room

More distinct patterns: avoid pattern variationsthat are too fine or detailed

You may have to limit the amount and complexity of data on your map comparedto print maps

Older or lower-output projectors may wash-outcolors, so intensify your colors for projection

If your map will be projected in a dark room, use black as background, darker colors for less important information, and lighter colorsfor more important information

If your map will be projected in a well-lightedroom, use white as background, lighter colorsfor less important information, and darker colors for more important information

Posters

Posters are similar to projected maps,although usually viewed in well-lightedconditions. Viewers should be able to seekey components of the map (such as thetitle) from afar, then walk up to the mapand get more detail. Design the poster,then, so information can be seen bothclose and at a distance. The size of postermaps is limited by the largest printer youcan use; always check color and resolutionof the printer used to reproduce yourposter. You may want to request a testprint of the colors you plan to use toevaluate your color choices.

Design map title and mapped area so they arelegible from across the room

The majority of type, point, and line symbols should be slightly larger than on a typical printed map, but not as large as on a monitoror projected map. Design this part of the map so it is legible from an arms length

More complex information can be included ona poster map than on a computer monitor or projected map

Follow color conventions for color printed mapsMost posters are viewed in a well-lighted room,

so use white as background, lighter colors for less important information, and darker colors for more important information

Right: a portion of the poster-sized map GuidePsychogeographique OWU, made by a group ofmiddle-school kids and John Krygier during asummer class, Mapping Weird Stuff, at OhioWesleyan University, June 2009.


26

Constantly cast a critical eye on your work. Document what you do and continually evaluatewhether the map is serving its intended goal, meeting the needs of its intended audience,and working well in its final medium.

Document, Evaluate, Review

NASAs Bob Craddock set about revisinga 1986 map of Mars with new imageryfrom the Viking Orbiter. Craddocktransferred details from the 1986 mapwhile referencing his new data, drawinglines and labeling what he thought he saw,evaluating the data as he worked. Craddockused the old interpretations when the newdata supported them, and modifiedfeatures clarified by the new data.

When complete, the new map was sentto other experts for review and evaluation.The reviewers annotated the map whereverthey disagreed with Craddocks inter-pretations or saw alternatives. Craddock,in turn, revised his map with the reviewerscomments, not necessarily agreeing withall of them but, in the end, producing amap of the geology of Mars that was betterbecause of the expert evaluation andreview.

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Documentation

What were those six great shades of red Iused on that map I made last month?What font did I use on the last poster mapI made? How big was the title type? Howlong did it take me to make that map forthe annual report last year? Where did weget that great data set? Was it licensed?Who printed that large format map for uslast year? How much did it cost to printand fold those color maps?

Documentation of the details involved inmaking a map may seem tedious but cansave time and effort in future map making,both for yourself and others who may needto make similar maps. Working toward afew general styles that are effective forspecific types of commonly produced mapsis useful. Documentation of mapped datais vital if the map is to be published.

Documenting General Issues

Document your goal for the map and...the intended audience, and what you know

about them...the final medium, and details about the

medium that will affect map design and reproduction

...the amount of time it takes to create the map,and any major problems and how you solvedthem

Keep copies of the map as well as informationon where it was published or presented

Documenting Data

Document the source of the data, including contact information and copyright information

...the age, quality, and any limitations of the data

...how the data were processed into a form appropriate for mapping

...map projection and coordinate system information

Documenting Design

Document specifics of map size, scale, and sketches of layouts

...a list of information on the map, arranged interms of importance, and associated symbols

...data classification and generalization information

...sources and details of map symbols

...details of type size, font, etc.

...color specifications for all colors used

...design problems encountered and solutions

...software problems encountered and solutions

29

Formative Evaluation

Ongoing formative evaluation is as simpleas asking yourself whether the map isachieving its goals throughout the processof making the map. Formative evaluationimplies that you will re-form the map soit works better, or maybe even dump it! Itis never too late to bail if the map is notserving your needs. It is a good idea to askothers to evaluate your map as well: Whatdo you think of those colors? Can you readthat type from the back of the room? Doeswhat is most important on the map actuallystand out? What is the boss going to think?Simply engaging your mind as you makeyour map, and being open to critique andchange, will lead to a better map.

Ask yourself...

Is this map doing what I want it to do?Will this map make sense to the audience I

envision for it?How does the map look when printed, projected,

or viewed in the final medium, and what changes will make it better?

Are the chosen scale, coordinate system, and map projection appropriate?

Does the layout of the map and the map legendlook good? Could it be adjusted to help makethe map look better and easier to interpret?

Does the most important information on the map stand out visually? Does less importantinformation fall into the background?

Are data on the map too generalized or too detailed, given the intent of the map?

Does the way I classified my facts help to makesense out of them? Would a different classification change the patterns much?

Do chosen symbols make sense, andare they legible?

Is the type appropriate, legible, and is itssize appropriate, given the final medium?

Is color use logical (e.g., value for ordered data,hue for qualitative data) and appropriate, and will the chosen colors work in the final medium?

Do I want a series of simpler maps, or one morecomplicated one?

Is a handout map needed, if presenting a mapon a poster or projected?

...then re-form your map.

Document, Evaluate, Review

30

Impact Evaluation

Impact evaluation is a range of informaland formal methods for evaluating thefinished map. It may be your boss or apublisher reviewing the map, or publicfeedback on the maps efficacy. You shouldbegin any map making with a clear senseof who may have the final say on theacceptability of your map, and factor intheir wants, needs, and requirements atthe beginning of the process.

Ian Thomas, a contractor for the U.S.Geological Survey, was fired, allegedly formaking maps of caribou calving areas inthe ecologically and politically sensitiveArctic National Wildlife Refuge. Thomasargues he was fired for publicizing factsthat would undermine the push for oilexploration in the refuge. Others claimthe maps were of out-of-date informationbeyond Thomass area of expertise andhad nothing to do with his firing. In eithercase, it is obvious that making maps canpiss off your boss.

An old Japanese map from the DavidRumsey digital map collection was addedto Google Earth in early 2009. A label onthe map described a village as populatedby eta, the untouchable caste ofburakumin (translation, filthy mass).Because some idiots in Japan discriminateagainst the burakumin, it is commonpractice to remove such references. Rumseyinitially decided not to censor the map,but after an uproar the offendingnomenclature was removed.

Caribou Calving AreasArctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR)

1% - 24%25% - 49%50% - 75%

Arctic Ocean

Percent Likelihood of High Density Calving Area

ANWR

31

The Flight of Voyager map was publishedin 1987 in the book Voyager by JeanaYeager, Dick Rutan, and Phil Patton

The map was made for readers of the bookVoyager (1987), with its general, educatedaudience, including those with a specialistinterest in flight and aerospace. Given theaudience, the map was designed tocontain a significant amount of informationincluding detailed data, sure to resonatewith pilots.

David DiBiase and John Krygier designedand made a map to tell the story ofVoyager and its pilots. The map wascreated for a map design course at theUniversity of Wisconsin-Madison taughtby David Woodward.

32

Atlantic Ocean

Atlantic Ocean

Pacific Ocean


40 N

20 N

0

20 S

40 S

020 W60 W

040 W80 W 40 E120 W

100 W 20 E 60 E


HoursAloft

216hours

192hours

168hours

144hours

120hours

96hours


104112128136152160176184200



Alti

tude

(fee

t)

20,00015,00010,0005,000

sea level

Visibility

WNW

NNW20

NW10-15

ENE18

ESE14

E37

E34

E20

E10-20

WNicaragua

Costa RicaCameroon


Kenya

Uganda

SomaliaEthiopia

United States










thunderstorms





fuel flow

Squall line



Coolantseal leak

The publisher of Voyager, Knopf, allowedus black and one color for the map. Wechose deep red for the most importantinformation (such as the flight path andrelated text). The map was redesigned inmonochrome for Making Maps, 2nd Ed.,as our publisher limited the use of colorin the book to keep costs down. The mapstill works!

The map was designed to be viewed atarms length.

Details of the maps design line weights,type size, percent gray of different areason the map, etc. were documented, aswe were taught in David Woodwardscourse and at the University of Wisconsin-Madison Cartographic Lab. Formativeevaluation was ongoing throughout theprocess, and the editors at Knopf providedthe final edit and evaluation of the map.

The map was split between the front andback book end-papers, half in the frontand half in the back. Each endpaper was9 high and 12 wide.

33

Pacific Ocean

Indian Ocean

40 N

20 N

0

20 S

40 S

140 W180140 E

120 W160 W160 E120 E80 E

60 E 100 E


96hours

72hours

48hours

24hours

Take-off

HoursAloft


40 32 16 864 568088


Altitude(feet)

20,00015,00010,0005,000sea level

Visibility

W

E22 SE

24

E15

NE33

SE12

ENE15

ENE20

NNE28

NW15

NE10

Sri LankaVietnam

Philippines

India

Thailand

UnitedStates



1:43,000,000



Squall line





Autopilotfailure

TyphoonMarge





AFB

Maps are full of the impertinence of the arbitrary.

Brian ODoherty, American Masters (1973)

The most remarkable escape story of all concerns Havildar Manbahadur Rai.... He escapedfrom a Japanese prison camp in southern Burma and in five months walked 600 miles untilat last he reached the safety of his own lines. Interrogated by British intelligence about hisremarkable feat, Manbahadur told them that ... he had a map, which before his capture hadbeen given to him by a British soldier in exchange for his cap badge. He produced the muchcreased and soiled map. The intelligence officers stared at it in awe. It was a street map ofLondon.

Byron Farwell, The Gurkhas (1984)

Borders are scratched across the hearts of menBy strangers with a calm, judicial pen,And when the borders bleed we watch with dreadThe lines of ink across the map turn red.

Marya Mannes, Subverse: Rhymes for Our Times (1959)

34

More...If youre making your map for any of the usual reasons, theres more than enough to readin the books we listed at the end of Chapter 1. If youve got something else in mind, theyreunlikely to be much help.

But there are a lot of other things to look at. Nato Thompsons Experimental Geography:Radical Approaches to Landscape, Cartography, and Urbanism (Melville House, 2008) is crammedwith examples of novel maps and map-fusions intended to blow your complacency if notyour mind. Lize Mogel and Alexis Bhagats An Atlas of Radical Cartography (Journal of Aestheticsand Protest Press, 2007) is a book and portfolio of maps in which the authors wear theirpolitics on their sleeves. Denis Woods Everything Sings: Maps for a Narrative Atlas (SiglioPress, 2010) is a sequence of maps intended to be read as poems or as chapters in a story.His introduction describes the difficulty he had in breaking out of the map mold. FrankJacobss Strange Maps: An Atlas of Cartographic Curiosities (Viking, 2009) is a collection lessstrange than the title implies, but nonetheless rich with suggestive directions.

Community and land use occupancy mapping is a whole other kettle of salmagundi. Twogreat textbooks are Terry Tobiass Chief Kerrys Moose: A Guidebook to Land Use and OccupancyMapping, Research Design, and Data Collection (Union of BC Indian Chiefs and Ecotrust Canada,2000) and Alix Flavelles Mapping Our Land: A Guide to Making Maps of Our Own Communitiesand Traditional Lands (Lone Pine Foundation, 2002). In the U.K., Common Grounds ParishMaps Project reaches a similar destination along a wholly different path. Common Ground(www.commonground.org.uk) offers Sue Clifford and Angela Kings useful pamphlet FromPlace to PLACE: Maps and Parish Maps (Common Ground, 1996), but Kim Leslies extraordinaryatlas, A Sense of Place: West Sussex Parish Maps (West Sussex County Council, 2006), not onlyhas gloriously reproduced examples of nearly a hundred parish maps made for the millenniumobservance, but also many descriptions by residents of how they made them.

If youre interested in making maps as art, the place to start is with Katherine Harmons TheMap as Art: Contemporary Artists Explore Cartography (Princeton Architectural Press, 2009).

Sources: The Mark Twain map and text were originally published in the Buffalo Express newspaper onSeptember 17, 1870. The NO to Century Boulevard yard sign is used courtesy of Ron Rozzelle. Mobilescreen sizes from the Sender11 blog. Bob Craddocks Mars map, created by him and Ronald Greeley,is titled Geologic Map of the MTM -20147 Quadrangle, Mangala Valles Region of Mars (U.S. Departmentof the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey, prepared for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration).The caribou calving map is re-created from data and maps at Ian Thomass web site. The Googleeta/burakumin map is used courtesy of Google and David Rumsey.

35

What do maps show us?

3Maps show us data. Or, sometimes, maps enable us to listen to data. Simon ElvinsFM Radio Map locates Londons FM and pirate radio stations. Power lines aredrawn in pencil on the back of the map which conduct the electricity from theradio to the front of the poster. Placing a metal pushpin onto each station thenallows us to listen to the sound broadcast live from that location. You can mapjust about any data you create or find.

CH

AP

TER

Mappable Data

41

Phenomena are all the stuff in the real world. Data are records of observations of phenomena.Maps show us data, not phenomena. Carefully consider the data you are mapping, how itrelates to the stuff in the world it stands for, how its similar, how its different, and how thatmay affect our understanding of the phenomena. Differentiate, for example, betweenindividual and aggregated data:

Individual and Aggregate

An old map shows the range of the pinoak tree in the U.S. The phenomena arenot trees but the range of a species, andthe data aggregated from other maps embody this abstraction.

D

M

M

M

Aggregating data changes phenomena,as here, from individual trees, to species,to forest.

A map of major vegetation zones in theeastern U.S. The area labeled D isbroadleaf deciduous forest. The adjacentM is mixed broadleaf and needleleafforest. The phenomena here are neithertrees nor species, but forest, and the data aggregated from many different maps embody this still greater abstraction.

A map of individual trees smacked flat bya tornado in a forest. The phenomena aretrees, and the data individually mappedby orienteers retain this individuality.The cross bar of the t point symbolis the root ball of the tree, indicatingthe direction the tree fell.

42

Continuous and DiscreteHere the issue is change, how the phenomena and/or data vary over space and time.Continuous phenomena vary gradually, continuously, more or less smoothly. Good examplesare atmospheric pressure and temperature. Discrete phenomena change abruptly, like lawsfrom one jurisdiction to another. There is no necessary relationship between phenomenaand data, as its possible to have many kinds of data for any given phenomenon.

We know that air temperature variescontinuously, but thermometers can onlyrecord it at points. We can map it this way,revealing the structure of the data...

...or we can transform the point data intocontinuous data by interpolating data thatmay exist between the readings, revealingthe structure of the phenomena.

There are many differences between real-world phenomena and the way they are portrayedon maps. Sometimes we believe it possible to intuitively show aspects of the phenomena,as here with eddies, kelp-beds, and half-sunken shipwrecks. At other times we simply displaythe data, as with a small circle indicating a snag; here words can do a lot of the work.

919186

86

87 8174

73 78

81

81

82 87 88

85

76 76

79 78

817974

76 69

68

68 66 67

72

74

71

73 74

73

68

For administrative reasons we usually mapdetailed census data into large single-valueareas, often political.

Sometimes we have continuous or nearlycontinuous data for more or less continuousphenomena but choose to map the dataas discrete units. For convenience we mapthe continuous change in time around theglobe into discrete time zones.

43

Data are records of observations of phenomena. These records may be made by machines(like those made by a recording thermometer) or by the map makers themselves. All theseare primary data, that is, records of observations made in the environment itself. Maps madefrom primary data can be considered evidence. Most map makers use secondary or tertiarydata sources created and published by others, but its surprisingly easy to create mappabledata yourself. It is common, and often necessary, to combine primary, secondary, and tertiarydata sources on a map.

Creating and Getting Data

Primary Data Sources

Data collection on existing maps. Its easyto collect primary data by marking themon an existing map. Researchers used acity property map to record the locationof electrical poles and powerlines. Suchdata can be digitized, scanned, or added(by hand) to, and used with, existing layersof data in GIS and other mapping software.

Remote sensing imagery. Images of theearth, taken from airplanes or satellites(remote sensing devices). Imagery isavailable at different resolutions and caninclude non-visible energy such asultraviolet. Imagery can also be used togenerate mappable data: roads can betraced or vegetation types delineated.Remotely sensed imagery is oftencombined with other map data in GIS.

Crowdsourcing. Websites can collectmappable data from anyone who canaccess the site and enter information.Thousands of users from around the worldare constructing the OpenStreetMap.orgopen source map of the world. In essence,the crowd is the data source.

Collecting data at addresses. Researchersrecorded 20 different facts about theexterior of houses (above: data collectionsheet). Such data can be geocoded(address matched) using GIS or webgeocoding tools. Geocoding providesmappable coordinates for your addresses,allowing it to be used in GIS and othermapping software.

Global positioning systems (GPS). A seriesof satellites relays signals used by a GPSreceiver to determine the location of thedevice. Inexpensive GPS receivers providelocation and elevation. More sophisticateddevices allow you to append attributeinformation (data at the location) andexport the data so that it can be mappedin GIS.

Cell phones. Cell phones can generateapproximate locations using your situationrelative to cell towers. Cell phones maysupplement these data by using wi-fi andGPS signals. Smart phone applicationsallow you to use your phone to collectlocations and attributes at those locations.

44

Primary data for The Flight of Voyager.Primary data for the Voyager map wereprovided by Len Snellman and Larry Burch,the two meteorologists responsible formonitoring weather conditions for theflight. The data consisted of annotatedmaps, data tables, and satellite imagery.

Snellman and Burch hand-compiled, onmaps (left, top three maps), detailed dataincluding a series of flight-path locations(latitude and longitude) for Voyager withassociated wind direction, wind velocity,airplane altitude, and time.

DiBiase and Krygier created a table ofrelevant data (left, bottom) to guide themapping of the Voyager path andassociated flight data.

Weather information was documented insatellite images (above) that served as thebasis for the depiction of storms on thefinal Voyager map.

Gathering data for your map can take alot of time.

45

Secondary data are derived from primarydata: aggregations of traffic counts,generalizations of vegetation types.

Scanned and digitized paper mapsFederal government data, including census,

economic, environmental dataRegional and local government data, including

detailed road, property, and zoning dataFor-profit data providersPublic domain data providers, such as

GeoCommonsNon-governmental organizations such as the

UN and World Bank

Secondary Data Sources Tertiary Data SourcesSecondary data can be assembled in turn;thus resulting in tertiary data. If mapsmade from primary data are evidence, andmaps made from secondary data are likereports of evidence, maps made fromtertiary data would be akin to indices oflaw cases.

Maps are often made from other maps.Map makers dont think about all thisassemblage as generalization, but it is.Each step away from the phenomenamakes the map less and less about thephenomena and more and more aboutthe data.

Secondary data sources for the Voyager mapconsisted of a basic Mercator map projection(taken from a printed paper map), place namesfrom an atlas, and sunrise and sunset informationfrom an ephemeris (below).

Creating and Getting Data

46

Interpreting DataMaking maps requires other maps, thinking, and interpretation. Erwin Raiszs fabulouslandform map of Mexico (excerpt, bottom) began with air photos and topographic maps,like the map with interpretive annotations by Raisz (top). Raisz reviewed and interpreted thedata he had contours and images and from them created caricatures of the key landformsin the region. Raiszs interpretations resulted in a map that is more than the sum of its originaldata sources.

47

Data OrganizationAt a basic level, mappable data can be organized into two broad categories, as eitherqualitative (differences in kind) or quantitative (differences in amount). Such data distinctionsguide analysis and map symbolization.

Qualitative

Differences in kind. Also called nominaldata.

House and business locationsRivers and lakesElectoral college wins, by state (Democrats or

Republicans)Dominant race in a block-by-block map of a

townLocation of different bird species seen in a

nature preserve

Symbolization: shown with symbols,pictographs, or icons; or with differencesin color hue (red, green, blue), as suchcolors are different in kind, like the data.

Quantitative

Differences in amount: includes ordinal,interval, and ratio data.

Estimated number of same-sex couples, livingtogether, in the U.S. (by county)

Total number of Hispanics in a block-by-blockmap of a town

Number of loggerhead shrikes counted in a nature preserve

Symbolization: shown with differencesin color value (dark red, red, light red),as such colors suggest more and less,like the data.

Levels of quantification

Ordinal: order with no measurabledifference between values.

Low-, medium-, and high-risk zones

Interval: measurable difference between values, but no absolute zero.

Temperature Fahrenheit (30 is not half as warm as 60)

Ratio: measurable difference between values, with an absolutezero value. Total population in countries

Things are complicated!

And unduly so! The differencebetween streets and alleys in theBoylan Heights neighborhood(left) is qualitative (alleys serve adifferent purpose than streets)and quantitative (streets are largerand carry more traffic). The mapsymbols reflect this complexity.

48

In the 21st century qualitative or quantitative data are likely to be digital. There are two basicways that digital geographic data are organized and stored: vector or raster. Vector dataconsist of points that can be connected into lines, or areas. Raster data consist of a grid ofcells, each with a particular value or values.

Vector Data

Vector data consist of located points(nodes), lines (a connected series of points),and areas (a closed, connected series ofpoints, also called polygons). Attributeinformation can be appended to a point,line, or area and stored in a relateddatabase. A line standing for a roadincludes attributes such as name, width,surface, etc. Design characteristics can beappended to points, lines, and areas.

Sources and use: GPS devices collect vectordata; many public and private sources ofmappable data (USGS, Census TIGER,KML/KMZ) provide data in vector format.Common GIS software uses vector formatdata. Graphic design software, such asIllustrator or Corel Draw, also use vectordata, making the conversion of GIS outputinto graphic design software relatively easy.

Raster Data

Raster data consist of a grid with valuesassociated with each grid cell. Higher-resolution raster files have smaller cells.Remotely sensed imagery is raster: eachcell contains a level of energy reflected orradiated from the earth in the area coveredby the cell. Raster data can have points(one cell), lines (a series of adjacent cells),or areas (a closed series of adjacent cells).Raster data can also include attributes.

Sources and use: Common raster datainclude satellite and aerial imagery availablefrom public and private sources. Most GISsoftware allows you to use raster and vectordata together. GIS software, such as theopen-source GRASS, works with raster data.Image editing software, such as Photoshopor the open-source GIMP, use raster dataand can import raster GIS output.

Digital Data Organization

49

Raw data, whether primary or secondary, may need to be transformed in order to make amap makers point. It may be more useful to use totals instead of individual instances; itcould make more sense to report phenomena as so many per unit area; an average temperaturemight be more meaningful than a bunch of daily highs and lows; or if your point has to dowith change, rates might be helpful. There is always a motivation behind data transformations;choose wisely for an effective map.

Transforming Data

Total Numbers

The total number of some phenomenonassociated with a point, line, or area.

Amount of pesticide in a wellPounds of road kill collected in a county

Symbolization: Variation in point sizeor line width. Represent whole numbersin areas with a scaled symbol for each area.

Densities

The number of some phenomenon perunit area. Divide the number of people ina country by the square area of the country.

Doctors per square km in a countryAdult bookstores per square mile in U.S. cities

Symbolization: Variation in color lightnessand darkness in the areas.

Averages

Add all values together and divide by thenumber of values in the data set. Can beassociated with points, lines, and areas.

Average monthly rainfall at a weather stationAverage age of murder victims in U.S. cities

Symbolization: Variation in point size orline width. Variation in color lightness anddarkness in areas.

Rates

The number of some phenomenon perunit time. May be associated with points,lines, or areas.

Cars per hour along a roadMurders per day in major cities

Symbolization: Variation in point size orline width. Variation in color lightness ordarkness in areas.

10-20Tweets

10-20Tweets

21-60Tweets

21-60Tweets

21-60Tweets

200+Tweets

Tweeting earthquake: The U.S.Geological Survey collects thenumber of Twitter messages withthe word earthquake to assessthe location of earthquakes aroundSan Francisco, California. Totalnumbers can be misleading, asmany more people live in the areawith the highest number of tweets.Instead, transform the data intothe percent of tweets per totalpopulation.

50

Map makers talk about space as though the spatial location of a phenomenon were key toits understanding. Location is important, but no more so than when it occurred. Everyphenomenon happens at some place and at some time. Many phenomena change overtime, and single maps or sequences of maps at regular intervals can effectively reveal spatialand temporal patterns. Such a sequence naturally suggests animation. But not all sequencesrequire animation.

Time and Data

startswimming

startwalking

The paths of a blindfoldedswimmer and walkerattempting to movein a straight line.

Change in ice thicknessdue to global warmingor pernicious Torngit.

increaseno change

decrease

Greenland Ice SheetThickness Change2003 to 2006

Tsunami Time TravelIndian OceanDecember 26, 2004

AustraliaIndonesia

Malaysia

India SriLanka

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EarthquakeEarthquakeEarthquake

A tsunami caused by a9.3 magnitude earthquakekilled over 230,000 peoplein 14 countries.

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HereFrancoMoretti usessmall multiplesto shed light onthe novels of CharlesDickens, which describea London not commonin the novels of his day.Dickenss novels came out inmonthly magazine installments.Morettis maps, corresponding tothe first eight monthly installments ofOur Mutual Friend (about half the novel),make it clear that in each installment Dickensintroduced a new part of London. Gradually the chaosof 19th century London is knitted into an almost coherent whole.

In Dickenss novelOur Mutual Friend, asocial gulf is opened,East and West Ends

The east-west spatialpolarization is throwninto doubt

The centrally locatedInns of Court becomea fulcrum for the action

Locational noveltycontinues to driveDickenss plot

Centrally situatedmiddle-class Londonbecomes dominant

Time and Data

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The middle classes knitEast and West Endsinto a unified city

Moving south of theThames, embracingstill more of London And more ofLondon...

Sounds heard during a neighborhood walkin Raleigh, NC, in 1982. Three of the dozenwalks are shown above. Different soundsare indicated by different symbols, volumeby height above the baseline,time in horizontaldistance.

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Does detail vary across the data set?

Wisconsin sand and gravel data combine detailed data from somecounties (east side of map) with crude data from other counties (west side of map).

There are many types of accuracy associated with data and maps. One approach to accuracyis to ask a series of questions about your data.

Data Accuracy

Ways to Think about Data AccuracyAre the facts accurate?

An Israeli tourism ad onthe London Undergroundincluded a map showingthe occupied West Bank,the Gaza Strip, and theGolan Heights as parts of Israel. Theyre not.

Are things where they should be?

The National Imagery and Mapping Agency put the Chinese Embassyin the wrong location ona map of Belgrade, Yugoslavia. In 1999 a NATO jet accidentally bombed the Embassy, killing 3 and injuring 20.

When were the data collected?

U.S. Census data are collected every 10 years;thus a map made in 2009 using 2000 U.S. Census data is using9 year-old data.

Are the data from a trustworthy source?

Just who says Sara Quick is a bitch? From thewebsite Bad Neighbor Map, with its crowd-sourced data.

What are the assumptions behind the data?

People with a high intelligence quotient tendto believe IQ is a valid way to assess humanintelligence. Always consider the assumptionsthat shape the creation of mappable data.

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Avg.IQ

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Route ofMarine jet

Ski lift cable(not on map)

hit by jet

20 Killed Near Cavalese, Northern Italy

Despite a long tradition of map makingand expensive new technologies for makingmaps, maps may still fail and kill.

A U.S. Marine Corps jet struck and severeda ski lift cable spanning an Alpine valley innorthern Italy in 1998, sending the ski liftgondola crashing to the earth, killing 20people.

The jet crew did have a map of the area,but not one that showed the ski lift cable.The cable was shown on Italian maps, butthe Pentagon prohibits the use of mapsmade by foreign nations.

Map users and makers must always becritical of maps. Maps have the potentialfor failure that every human-created objecthas.

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Widespread use of geographic information systems and the development of extensivedatabases of digital GIS data require an understanding of metadata and copyright.

Digital Data

Metadata

Metadata are data about data. Dependabledigital geographic data include suchdetailed information as

Identification information: general descriptionof the data

Quality information: which defines the data quality standards

Spatial data organization information: how spatial information in the data is represented

Spatial reference information: coordinate and projection information

Entity and attribute information: map data andassociated attributes

Distribution information: data creator, distributor,and use policy

Metadata reference information: metadata creator

Citation information: how to cite information when used

Temporal information: when data were collected,updated

Contact information: how to contact data creator

Metadata standards in the U.S. have beenset by the Federal Geographic DataCommittee (www.fgdc.gov). Geographicdata providers often follow such guidelines.

Copyright

Copyright is a form of protection providedby the laws of a country to the creators oforiginal works. Intended to reasonablycompensate them for their efforts, it wasoriginally of limited duration and includedexceptions such as the fair use doctrine.The exceptions have been weakened overtime, making current copyright laws moreburdensome. In the U.S., copy-rightsinclude:

Reproduction of copies of the original copyrighted work

Preparation of derivative works based on the original copyrighted work

Distribution/sale/transfer of ownership of the original copyrighted work

Maps, globes, and charts are covered underU.S. copyright law. This copyright doesnot extend to the data, the factsthemselves. What is copyrighted is therepresentation of the facts the lineweights, the colors, the particular symbols as long as this representation includesan appreciable amount of originalmaterial. So, you can make a map basedon the data included on a copyrightedmap, but you cant photographicallyreproduce it.

Works created since 1978 are automaticallycopyrighted, and theres no way to tell ifsomething is copyrighted or not by lookingat it (unless it has a notation to that effect).Given this opacity, its best to assume thatworks are copyrighted until you learnotherwise.

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Copyleft

Copyleft refers to an array of licensingoptions encouraging reuse, reproduction,distribution of, and modifications tocreative works within certain parameters.Copyleft counters the restrictions andprohibitions of copyright in that onlysome rather than all rights are reservedby the creator of a work. Copyleft strategiesare integral to the philosophy behind open-source software and collectively created,crowdsourced data (such as Wikipedia).

The GNU General Public License is used foropen-source software. For example, theraster GIS software GRASS is available undera GNU license.

Creative Commons Licenses are used forother creative works, including maps,geographic data (OpenStreetMap) andreproductions of historical maps (DavidRumsey Collection). Six licenses are offeredunder Creative Commons 3.0, includingthe Attribution-ShareAlike License:

You are free: to share to copy, distribute, andtransmit the work; to remix to adapt the work,under the following conditions:

Attribution: You must attribute the work in themanner specified by the author or licensor (butnot in any way that suggests that they endorseyou or your use of the work).

Share Alike: If you alter, transform, or build uponthis work, you may distribute the resulting workonly under the same, similar, or a compatiblelicense.

Public Domain

Creative works and content neither ownednor controlled by anyone are said to be inthe public domain. Public domain worksmay be used by anyone for any purposewithout restriction.

Anything copyrighted in the U.S. prior to1923 has now entered the public domain,and everything copyrighted is subject tothe fair use doctrine. As a general rule ofthumb, federal government maps and datain the U.S. are in the public domain.

Public domain and copyleft licensed mapsand geographic data are a great idea whenmaking maps. Consider using copyleftlicensing on maps and geographic datayou create. Creativecommons.org provideseasy methods for licensing your work.

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I wanna hang a map of the world in my house. Then Im gonna put pins into all the locationsthat Ive traveled to. But first Im gonna have to travel to the top two corners of the mapso it wont fall down.

Mitch Hedberg (no date)

The Atlas maps, writing, and illustrations were done by people who live in thatch-roof,wooden houses they made themselves and who eat food they grew themselves. They gotup early in the dark morning hours to make wood fires to cook tortillas and warm coffeebefore walking to their milpas to cultivate corn and beans, and then mapped their fields,rain-forest hunting grounds, traditional medicine places, and ancient ruins.

Maya Atlas (1997)

Ignorance exists in the map, not in the territory.

Eliezer Yudkowsky, Mysterious Answers to Mysterious Questions (2007)

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More...Data is a topic of much interest among philosophers of science. What are data? How arethey created? How are they used? The literatures vast, and an interesting place to start isBruno Latours Pandoras Hope: Essays on the Reality of Science Studies (Harvard UniversityPress, 1999). For a review of GIS, mapping, and data, try David DiBiases open-source webtextbook The Nature of Geographic Information (www.e-education.psu.edu/natureofgeoinfo).Also see Paul Longley, Michael Goodchild, David Maguire, and David Rhind, GeographicInformation Systems and Science (Wiley, 2010); Michael Zeiler, Modeling Our World (ESRI Press,1999); and David Arctur and Michael Zeiler Designing Geodatabases (ESRI Press, 2004). Forvery different perspectives on mappable data, see some of the books listed at the end of thepreceding chapter, Leslies A Sense of Place, Tobiass Chief Kerrys Moose, Woods EverythingSings, and Thompsons Experimental Geography.

Cartography 2.0 (cartography2.org) has great resources on time and maps in the contextof animated and interactive maps. There are lots of sites on the web for free mappable data,such as Natural Earth (naturalearthdata.com). For literary mapping and time see FrancoMoretti, Atlas of the European Novel (Verso,1998) and Graphs, Maps, Trees (Verso, 2005). TheCreative Commons web pages have super resources on copyright and copyleft licensing.Search for map copyright on the web for a diversity of materials on the subject.

Sources: Simon Elvins, FM Radio Map courtesy of the artist (simonelvins.com). Tree fall map redrawnfrom map created by Backwoods Orienteering Klub (backwoodsOK.org). Pin oak map from E.N. Munns,Distribution of Important Forest Trees of the United States (U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington,1938). Vegetation zones map redrawn from Goodes World Atlas (Chicago, 1990, p. 16). Map symbolsfor nautical dangers from Section O of Chart #1, Nautical Chart Symbols and Abbreviations (WashingtonDC, 1957). Erwin Raiszs Mexico maps from his A New Landform Map of Mexico, International Yearbookof Cartography 1, 1961 (plates between p. 124-125). Boylan Heights street and alley map from DenisWood, Everything Sings: Maps for a Narrative Atlas, Siglio Press, 2010. Delaware County, Ohio, airimagery courtesy of the DALIS Project, Delaware County, Ohio (dalisproject.org). Earthquake tweet datafrom the U.S. Geological Surveys Twitter Earthquake Detector (TED). Blind walker and swimmer datafrom Emily Davis, 1928, Why Lost People Go in Circles The Science News-Letter 14:378, pp. 3-4.Greenland ice sheet change data from NASAs Earth Observatory website (earthobservatory.nasa.gov).Indian Ocean tsunami data from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (noaa.gov).Charles Dickenss Our Mutual Friend data from Franco Moretti, Atlas of the European Novel (Verso,1998).Boylan Heights neighborhood sound diagram from Denis Wood, Everything Sings: Maps for a NarrativeAtlas (Siglio Press, 2010). NATO Belgrade map from NATO (nato.int). Wisconsin sand and gravel mapbased on Glacial Deposits of Wisconsin map (Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey, 1976).U.S. Census map of Delaware, Ohio, from the U.S. Census Bureaus American Factfinder(factfinder.census.gov). IQ map data from Wikipedia Commons (wikipedia.org). The Cavalese map iscourtesy of the Harvard Map Library, Harvard University.

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How is it made?

J.R.R. Tolkiens son, Christopher, made thisdiagram of the structure of his fatherscontinuously evolving map of Middle Earth.Sheet A was the first to be drawn, andincludes the lands mapped for the elderTolkiens first book, The Hobbit.The extension of the map (B) added the

coastlands necessary for the conclusion ofThe Return of the King.

The final part (D) of the evolving map wasreplaced again and again as Tolkien wroteand rewrote the first half of The Two Towers.Tolkien folded and unfolded the collagedmap so often that the crease marks arehard to distinguish from the joints betweenthe pieces.

Section C, pasted over the original mapwith a strong glue, replaced Tolkiensoriginal, sketchy versions for the setting ofThe Two Towers and The Return of the King.The elder Tolkien made his maps withcolored inks, pencil, and colored chalk.

4The reason a map is being made suggests the appropriate tools. Even if J.R.R. Tolkienhad known how to use GIS software, it would not have been any better than thepencils, paper, and glue he used for the maps he made while working on his Lordof the Rings trilogy. The map of Middle Earth was iteratively developed as Tolkienwrote his books, and consists of various pieces superimposed and glued togetherover time. Pencils, ink, chalk, paper, and glue are great map-making and thinkingtools. So too are internet mapping sites and GIS software. Choose appropriate toolsbased on what you need to do.

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Map Making Tools

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You certainly dont need a computer to make maps. Indeed, map making with pencils andpaper is appropriate, inexpensive, and effective in many instances. A sketch map made withpencils and paper may be your final map, or it may be a vital step in the process of producinga map with other tools. J.R.R. Tolkiens hand-drawn map of Middle Earth helped him envisionplots and settings in his trilogy. Visual thinking and discovery are not limited to any specificmap-making tools.

Making Maps without Computers

Empower without power. Computermapping doesnt work when you donthave a computer. Sketch mapping, herein the Philippines, engages communitymembers in compiling cultural andeconomic resources. In many parts of theworld, computers, computer skills, andelectricity are simply not an option. Sketchmaps are as useful as their computercounterparts, and certainly may be digitizedfor use on the computer.

Win the election. Volunteers for theDemocratic presidential candidate go doorto door in a key city in a swing state. Usinga map printed from an internet site and apen, they mark their opponents supportersas an X and their supporters as an O. Afilled O means a supporter who may notvote (such as an elderly person with notransportation). Addresses and phonenumbers of these supporters are enteredinto a spreadsheet. These people will becalled on election day to urge them tovote and to offer free transport to the polls.

Old-school map

Documents

Making Maps. a Visual Guide to Map Design for GIS.john Krygier and Denis Wood