MANAGEMENT - Health, sport and recreation books and … · 2016-04-29 · MANAGEMENT of Park and Recreation Agencies ... Betty’s career in parks and recreation lasted over 50 years,

MANAGEMENTof Park and Recreation Agencies

Third Edition

Edited by Merry Moiseichik

Published by the Sponsored by the National Recreation and Commission on Accreditation forPark Association (NRPA) Park and Recreation Agencies (CAPRA)

More about this book: http://www.sagamorepub.com/products/management-park-and-recreation-agencies-3rd-ed?src=fdpil

ii

Cover design by Rosemary Moak, SayYes DesignText design by Mike MinnicinoComposition by Beth Kincaid, Kincaid Designs

© 2010By the National Recreation and Park Association22377 Belmont Ridge RoadAshburn, VA 20148

The National Recreation and Park Association is a nonprofit association.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means—electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise—without prior permission of the publisher.

Printed in the United States of America1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

ISBN 978-0-9830493-0-2


iii

This third edition of this manual is dedicated to Dr. Betty van der Smissen. The concept of this book was hers. She strongly believed in accreditation for all organizations including camps, university curricula, and recreation agencies. She had a hand in writing the initial professional accreditation standards for each of these professional agencies. She believed that the best way to create credibil-ity in our profession was to insist on a minimum quality and to develop a single set of requirements similar to that of other professions.

Betty’s career in parks and recreation lasted over 50 years, teaching in eight universities. In that time she impacted literally thousands of students, many of whom used her thoughts to influence others. She felt strongly that we must be ethical in our practices, support rising professionals, and use research to improve our profes-sion. She was extremely thorough in everything she did, and her imprint can be felt throughout the book as she identified what needed to be included and at what level of detail.

With that in mind, she wanted the standards for agency accreditation to be explained in detail so that the young professional could be successful in providing thehighest quality service to their agencies. She was unbending in pushing for the best in everyone and in everything she touched. Our profession was her life and her students her passion. Dr. Betty van der Smissen touched us all in ways many will never realize.

Betty died on November 6, 2008 as this third edition began to take shape. She continues to make a difference in our field.

Dedication

Betty van der Smissen



v

Chapter page

Dedication..................................................................................................................................................... iiiIntroduction.................................................................................................................................................xxi

1 Management:WhatIsIt?.............................................................................................................................. 1History of Management ................................................................................................................................. 1Growth and Change ....................................................................................................................................... 4Change Factors ................................................................................................................................................ 6Issues and Challenges .................................................................................................................................... 7

Conceptual Understanding of Management ...................................................................................... 8Accountability and Privilege ................................................................................................................ 9

The Roles of Managers ................................................................................................................................. 10Manager as Leader ............................................................................................................................... 10Manager as Communicator ................................................................................................................ 10Manager as Coach ................................................................................................................................ 10Manager as Mentor .............................................................................................................................. 11Manager as Change Agent .................................................................................................................. 11Manager as Power Broker ................................................................................................................... 11

Five Core Qualities of Managers ................................................................................................................ 12Ethics and Values ................................................................................................................................. 12Groups and Group Process ................................................................................................................. 12Service Matters ...................................................................................................................................... 12Alliances and Partnerships ................................................................................................................. 12Positive and Productive Work Climate ............................................................................................. 13

Specific Managerial Competencies ............................................................................................................. 13Executive Core Competencies ............................................................................................................ 13Competencies for the CEO .................................................................................................................. 14Competencies for Parks and Recreation ........................................................................................... 14

Management in Relation to the Standards ................................................................................................ 15Resources ........................................................................................................................................................ 16Authors, Consultants, and Contributors ................................................................................................... 17

2 ManagementandtheLaw.......................................................................................................................... 19Legal Authority to Operate ......................................................................................................................... 19The “Force of Law” ....................................................................................................................................... 19

Constitutional Law ............................................................................................................................... 20Statutory Law........................................................................................................................................ 20Common Law ....................................................................................................................................... 20

Table of Contents


vi

Administrative Law/Executive Policy ............................................................................................... 20Operational Policies ............................................................................................................................. 20Professional Standards ........................................................................................................................ 20

The Fields of Law .......................................................................................................................................... 22Tort Law ................................................................................................................................................. 22Contract Law ......................................................................................................................................... 26Human Rights ....................................................................................................................................... 27Environmental Law ............................................................................................................................. 27Criminal Law ........................................................................................................................................ 27Property Law ........................................................................................................................................ 27Commercial/Business Law .................................................................................................................. 28

The Legal System .......................................................................................................................................... 28Legal Audits ................................................................................................................................................... 28

Legal Entity (Chapter 3) ...................................................................................................................... 28Interagency Relationships (Chapters 4 and 6) ................................................................................... 28Planning (Chapters 7, 8, 9 and 11) ..................................................................................................... 29Human Resources (Chapters 4, 16, 17 and 18) ................................................................................. 29Records Management (Chapter 16) ................................................................................................... 29Fiscal Policy and Management (Chapters 19 and 20) ..................................................................... 29Programs and Services (Chapters 8, 9 and 10) ................................................................................. 29Facility and Land Use Management (Chapters 11, 12 and 13) ...................................................... 29Security and Public Safety (Chapter 22) ........................................................................................... 29Risk Management (Chapter 21) .......................................................................................................... 29

Resources ........................................................................................................................................................ 30Authors, Consultants, and Contributors ................................................................................................... 31

3 LegalauthorityandJurisdiction.............................................................................................................. 33Legal Entities ................................................................................................................................................. 33

Private For-Profit Sector ...................................................................................................................... 33Nonprofit Sector ................................................................................................................................... 37Public Sector .......................................................................................................................................... 38

Governing Authority .................................................................................................................................... 41Types of Boards/Commissions, Their Authority and Election ...................................................... 41Board Responsibilities ......................................................................................................................... 42Board Structure ..................................................................................................................................... 47Board Operating Procedures .............................................................................................................. 51Citizen Advisory Boards ..................................................................................................................... 53

Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................................... 54Resources ........................................................................................................................................................ 55Authors, Consultants, and Contributors ................................................................................................... 56

Chapter page


vii

4 politicsandadvocacy................................................................................................................................. 57Politics ............................................................................................................................................................. 57

The Park and Recreation Professional as a Politician ..................................................................... 57Internal and External Organizational Politics .................................................................................. 59Participation in the Policy Process ..................................................................................................... 60NRPA’s Role in Public Policy .............................................................................................................. 62

Advocacy ........................................................................................................................................................ 62What is Advocacy? ............................................................................................................................... 62Advocacy Requires Leadership.......................................................................................................... 63Advocacy Strategies ............................................................................................................................. 63How Do Park and Recreation Professionals Get Started Advocating? ........................................ 65

Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................................... 67Resources ........................................................................................................................................................ 68Authors, Consultants, and Contributors ................................................................................................... 69

5 OrganizationStructureandadministrativeOperations..................................................................... 71Mission ................................................................................................................................................... 71Goals and Objectives ............................................................................................................................ 72Vision ..................................................................................................................................................... 72Values ..................................................................................................................................................... 73

Organizational Structure ............................................................................................................................. 73Formal Organizational Structure ....................................................................................................... 74The Organizational Structure ............................................................................................................. 77

Informal Organizational Structure ............................................................................................................. 84Organizational Culture........................................................................................................................ 84Frames of Organizational Culture ..................................................................................................... 85Selection Process ................................................................................................................................... 85Actions of Management ...................................................................................................................... 86Internal Communication ..................................................................................................................... 86Socialization .......................................................................................................................................... 87

Administrative Manuals .............................................................................................................................. 87Policies and Procedures ...................................................................................................................... 87Rules and Regulations ......................................................................................................................... 88Position Descriptions ........................................................................................................................... 89

Management Audits ..................................................................................................................................... 89Administrative Operations .......................................................................................................................... 90

Support Staff ......................................................................................................................................... 90Administrative Offices ......................................................................................................................... 90Support Services ................................................................................................................................... 90Records Management .......................................................................................................................... 91

Chapter page


viii

Conclusions .................................................................................................................................................... 91Resources ........................................................................................................................................................ 92Authors, Consultants, and Contributors ................................................................................................... 93

6 partnerships.................................................................................................................................................. 95General Partnership Information ................................................................................................................ 95

Extent of Partnerships .......................................................................................................................... 95Benefits of Partnerships ....................................................................................................................... 96Qualities Influencing Partnership Success ........................................................................................ 97

Types of Partnerships ................................................................................................................................... 98Joint Programs and Special Events .................................................................................................... 99Social Issue Ventures............................................................................................................................ 99Joint Publications .................................................................................................................................. 99Cooperative Research ........................................................................................................................ 100Joint Facility Development and Management ............................................................................... 100Staffing ................................................................................................................................................. 101Cooperative Purchasing Agreements .............................................................................................. 102Sponsorship ......................................................................................................................................... 102Grants and Foundations .................................................................................................................... 103Donations ............................................................................................................................................ 104Community Councils ......................................................................................................................... 104Franchising .......................................................................................................................................... 104

Partnership Processes and Policies ........................................................................................................... 105Partnership Processes ........................................................................................................................ 105Partnership Policies ............................................................................................................................ 106Liaisons ................................................................................................................................................ 106

Determining Partnership Potential ........................................................................................................... 107Step 1: Educate Yourself and Others to “Include Involvement” ................................................. 107Step 2: Conduct a Needs Assessment and Resources Inventory ................................................. 107Step 3: Identify Prospective Partners and Investigate Their Needs and Resources ................. 107Step 4: Compare and Contrast Needs and Resources ................................................................... 108Step 5: Develop a Partnership Proposal Designed to “Achieve Success” .................................. 108Step 6: Propose a Partnership Agreement ...................................................................................... 108

The Future of Partnerships ........................................................................................................................ 108Resources ...................................................................................................................................................... 109Authors, Consultants, and Contributors ................................................................................................. 110

7 planningforStrategicManagement...................................................................................................... 111Role of the Manager .................................................................................................................................... 111Creating the Necessary Environment Before Planning Begins ............................................................ 112

Social Capital ...................................................................................................................................... 112Communication and Facilitation ..................................................................................................... 113

Chapter page


ix

Strategic Planning ....................................................................................................................................... 114Planning Stages ........................................................................................................................................... 114

Implementation of the Strategic Plan .............................................................................................. 119Evaluation of the Strategic Plan ....................................................................................................... 119

Comprehensive Parks and Recreation Planning .................................................................................... 120Other Planning Efforts ............................................................................................................................... 121Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................... 121References .................................................................................................................................................... 124Authors, Consultants, and Contributors ................................................................................................. 125

8 recreationprogramplanning.................................................................................................................. 127The Planning Process.................................................................................................................................. 127

Step 1: Establish a Task Force ........................................................................................................... 127Step 2: Assistance of the Organization Planning and Research Unit ......................................... 127Step 3: Preparation of the Preliminary Plan ................................................................................... 127Step 4: Review of the Preliminary Plan ........................................................................................... 127Step 5: Adoption by Governing Body ............................................................................................. 127Step 6: Implementation ...................................................................................................................... 128Step 7: Evaluation and Update ......................................................................................................... 128Step 8: Modifications/Update ........................................................................................................... 128

Information Base ......................................................................................................................................... 128Community Information ................................................................................................................... 128

The Plan Components ................................................................................................................................ 137Why a Plan? ........................................................................................................................................ 137Goals and Objectives .......................................................................................................................... 138Operational Database ........................................................................................................................ 139Program Segmentation ...................................................................................................................... 140Program Master Plans ....................................................................................................................... 141Resources Needed for Implementation .......................................................................................... 141Interagency Partnerships .................................................................................................................. 143Program Prioritization and Timelines ............................................................................................. 144Comprehensive Plan Annual Review ............................................................................................. 145

Programs/Services Performance Evaluation ........................................................................................... 145Levels ................................................................................................................................................... 147Publics .................................................................................................................................................. 147Timelines ............................................................................................................................................. 149Utilization ............................................................................................................................................ 149Criteria ................................................................................................................................................. 149Dimensions .......................................................................................................................................... 149

Resources ...................................................................................................................................................... 152Authors, Consultants, and Contributors ................................................................................................. 153

Chapter page


x

9 programServicesandeventManagement........................................................................................... 155Programming Concepts ............................................................................................................................. 155Program/Service Determinants ................................................................................................................. 155

Conceptual Foundations of Play, Recreation, and Leisure........................................................... 156Organization Philosophy, Goals, and Objectives........................................................................... 156

Community Opportunities ........................................................................................................................ 159The Nature of Service ................................................................................................................................. 160Program Delivery Design Elements ......................................................................................................... 160

Role of Leadership ............................................................................................................................. 160Scope of Program Content ................................................................................................................ 162Type of Participant Involvement ...................................................................................................... 162Structural Format ............................................................................................................................... 165

Goals and Objectives .................................................................................................................................. 165Goals for the Organization ................................................................................................................ 165Objectives for a Program or Service ................................................................................................ 165Benefits Outcome as a Goal .............................................................................................................. 167Benefits-Based Programming and Vision, Insight, and Planning ............................................... 168

Education for Leisure ................................................................................................................................. 172Some Guidelines to Program Planning.................................................................................................... 174

Guideline #1: Role of Park and Recreation Programmers ............................................................ 176Guideline #2: Participant-Centered Program Planning ................................................................ 176Guideline #3: Availability of Programming (Outreach) ............................................................... 177Guideline #4: Keeping Programs Dynamic .................................................................................... 177Guideline #5: Administrative Considerations ................................................................................ 179Guideline #6: Program Evaluation ................................................................................................... 179

Special Events and Events Management ................................................................................................. 180Function or Purpose of Special Events ............................................................................................ 183Typology/Categories of Special Events ........................................................................................... 184Management Aspects ......................................................................................................................... 185


10 Supervision................................................................................................................................................. 193What Is Supervision? .................................................................................................................................. 193Duty to Supervise ....................................................................................................................................... 193Who Is the Supervisor? .............................................................................................................................. 195Types of Supervision .................................................................................................................................. 196

General Supervision ........................................................................................................................... 197Specific Supervision ........................................................................................................................... 197Transitional Supervision ................................................................................................................... 197

The Supervisor’s Responsibilities ............................................................................................................. 197

Chapter page


xi

General Principles of Supervision ............................................................................................................ 199Movement ............................................................................................................................................ 199Proximity ............................................................................................................................................. 199Scanning .............................................................................................................................................. 199Intervention ......................................................................................................................................... 200Discipline ............................................................................................................................................. 200Communication .................................................................................................................................. 200

Supervision Plans ........................................................................................................................................ 202Summary ...................................................................................................................................................... 203Resources ...................................................................................................................................................... 204Authors, Consultants, and Contributors ................................................................................................. 205

11 physicalresourceplanning..................................................................................................................... 207Property ........................................................................................................................................................ 208

Legal Authority................................................................................................................................... 208Rights in Real Property ..................................................................................................................... 208Modes of Acquisition ......................................................................................................................... 209Disposal of Lands and Buildings ..................................................................................................... 213

Feasibility Studies ....................................................................................................................................... 215Programmatic Analysis ..................................................................................................................... 216Physical Site Analysis ........................................................................................................................ 216Financial Analysis .............................................................................................................................. 217

The Physical Resources Planning Process ............................................................................................... 218Step 1. Strategy and Work Sessions ................................................................................................. 220Step 2. Identify and Confirm Goals and Objectives ...................................................................... 220Step 3. Design of Planning Study ..................................................................................................... 224Step 4. Agency Approval for Funding ............................................................................................ 225

Collection of Information ........................................................................................................................... 226Step 5. Data Collection ....................................................................................................................... 226Step 6. Area and Facility Inventory ................................................................................................. 227Step 7. Preparation of Base Maps ..................................................................................................... 227Step 8. Map (Area and Facility) Overlays ....................................................................................... 228Step 9. Preparation of a Needs Assessment .................................................................................... 228

Completing the Process .............................................................................................................................. 228Step 10. Prioritization of Projected Improvements ........................................................................ 228Step 11. The Approval Process ......................................................................................................... 229Step 12. Implementation and Evaluation ........................................................................................ 230

Area and Site Planning ............................................................................................................................... 230Site Master Plan .................................................................................................................................. 230Natural Resource Management Plan ............................................................................................... 232

Trends ........................................................................................................................................................... 235

Chapter page


xii

Specialty Parks ............................................................................................................................................. 236Resources ...................................................................................................................................................... 237Authors, Consultants, and Contributors ................................................................................................. 238

12 physicalresourceManagement............................................................................................................. 239Undeveloped Natural Areas ..................................................................................................................... 239

Ecological Considerations ................................................................................................................. 240Principles of Management ................................................................................................................ 241Visitor Management........................................................................................................................... 244Interpretation as a Management Tool ............................................................................................. 246Lake and River Management............................................................................................................ 248

Developed Areas and Facilities ................................................................................................................. 250Legal Requirements ........................................................................................................................... 251Facility Safety and Security ............................................................................................................... 253

Play Area Safety and Maintenance ........................................................................................................... 258Play Area Hazards ............................................................................................................................. 258Development of a Playground Safety Program ............................................................................. 259


13 ManagementofOperations..................................................................................................................... 267The Components of Managing Maintenance Operations ..................................................................... 267Management of Maintenance Operations as a System .......................................................................... 268

Trend: A Shortage of Research.......................................................................................................... 268Sources of Maintenance Operations Management Information ................................................. 269

Coping With Entropy and Inertia ............................................................................................................. 269The Five “Spheres” ..................................................................................................................................... 270Human Relations to the Natural Environment ...................................................................................... 270Geographic Information Systems ............................................................................................................. 272

Geographic Positioning Systems ...................................................................................................... 272Facilities, Areas, and Envelopes ................................................................................................................ 273Maintenanceandops .................................................................................................................................... 275

“Stuff” and Staff ................................................................................................................................. 277The Systems Approach: Analysis Before Action .................................................................................... 278

Interfaces and Critical Incidents ...................................................................................................... 279Legal Considerations ......................................................................................................................... 281

The Systems Approach: Decision to Action ............................................................................................ 283Proaction, Reaction, and Inaction .................................................................................................... 283Maintenance Operations Managers’ Minimum Obligations ....................................................... 284

Sustainability and Sustainable Practices.................................................................................................. 288Biomimetics ......................................................................................................................................... 291

Chapter page


xiii

Recycling ............................................................................................................................................. 291LEED-ing the Way .............................................................................................................................. 292Energy Management .......................................................................................................................... 292Trees and Rooftop Vegetation .......................................................................................................... 293Alternative Modes of Transportation .............................................................................................. 294The Sustainable Tourism Criteria Initiative .................................................................................... 294

Developing a Maintenance Program and Plan ....................................................................................... 295Guidelines ........................................................................................................................................... 295Identifying and Assessing Maintenance Requirements ............................................................... 296Computerized Maintenance Management Systems ..................................................................... 296Fleet Maintenance and Management .............................................................................................. 297Creating a Maintenance Plan With a Systems Approach ............................................................. 297Facilities and Equipment Depreciation and Replacement ........................................................... 298Managing Property and Equipment ................................................................................................ 299

Trend: A Systems Approach ...................................................................................................................... 300Resources ...................................................................................................................................................... 301Authors, Consultants, and Contributors ................................................................................................. 304

14 InformationtechnologyManagement.................................................................................................. 305What is IT? ................................................................................................................................................... 305Evolution of IT Management .................................................................................................................... 306

The Data Processing Era .................................................................................................................... 306Management Information Systems Era ........................................................................................... 307Information Services Era ................................................................................................................... 307Information Technology Era ............................................................................................................. 308

Why IT? ........................................................................................................................................................ 308IT Solves Business Problems ............................................................................................................. 308IT Increases Personal Productivity .................................................................................................. 308

The Manager and IT ................................................................................................................................... 309Information Resources ............................................................................................................................... 310

Sources ................................................................................................................................................. 310Information Types .............................................................................................................................. 310

IT as a Management Tool ........................................................................................................................... 311Records Management ........................................................................................................................ 312The Internet ......................................................................................................................................... 313Intranets and Organizational Communication .............................................................................. 316Electronic Messaging ......................................................................................................................... 316Geographic Information Systems .................................................................................................... 320Global Positioning Systems .............................................................................................................. 324

Disaster Recovery and Business Continuity ........................................................................................... 325

Chapter page


xiv

Disaster Mitigation and Security ..................................................................................................... 325When Disaster Strikes ........................................................................................................................ 326Malware: Malicious Software ........................................................................................................... 327Disaster Recovery ............................................................................................................................... 330

Understanding IT Infrastructure .............................................................................................................. 330Workstations ....................................................................................................................................... 331

Networks ...................................................................................................................................................... 332The Information Technology Plan ............................................................................................................ 334

The Planning Process ......................................................................................................................... 334Paradigm Shifts in Information Technology .................................................................................. 335

Assessing IT Needs ..................................................................................................................................... 337The IT Business and Planning Team................................................................................................ 339Costs of a Growing IT Infrastructure .............................................................................................. 340Professional and Staff Development ............................................................................................... 340


15 Public Relations, Marketing, and Customer Service................................................................................. 349What Is Marketing? .................................................................................................................................... 349Historical Evolution of Marketing ............................................................................................................ 350Social/Behavioral Change and Experience Marketing .......................................................................... 352

New Perspectives in Park and Recreation Marketing ................................................................... 353Components of a Marketing Plan ............................................................................................................. 359

Component 1: Organization’s Mission, Goals, and Objectives .................................................... 360Component 2: Situation Assessment ............................................................................................... 360Component 3: Marketing Objectives ............................................................................................... 365Component 4: Marketing Research ................................................................................................. 365Component 5: Marketing Mix Design ............................................................................................. 372Component 6: The Marketing Budget ............................................................................................. 379Component 7: Implementation ........................................................................................................ 379Component 8: Marketing Evaluation Process ................................................................................ 385

Summary ...................................................................................................................................................... 387Resources ...................................................................................................................................................... 388Authors, Consultants, and Contributors ................................................................................................. 389

16 humanresources:employment............................................................................................................ 391Planning for Human Resources ................................................................................................................ 391

What Is Human Resources Planning? ............................................................................................. 391Why Is Human Resources Planning Important? ........................................................................... 392What Is Involved in Human Resources Planning? ........................................................................ 392Legal Framework for Making Employment Decisions ................................................................. 393

Chapter page


xv

Recruiting and Selecting Personnel .......................................................................................................... 402Strategic Recruitment ................................................................................................................................. 403Creating a Recruitment Plan ..................................................................................................................... 403

Recruitment Process ........................................................................................................................... 404Evaluating Recruitment Efforts ........................................................................................................ 406Managing Job Application Materials .............................................................................................. 406Communicating with Job Applicants ............................................................................................. 406Screening Job Applicants .................................................................................................................. 407Administrative Control of Selecting Qualified Employees .......................................................... 407Policy and Procedure Manual for Employee Selection ................................................................. 407The Selection Process ......................................................................................................................... 408

Employee Compensation ........................................................................................................................... 414Comprehensive Compensation Plans ............................................................................................. 414

Standards of Conduct and Employee Discipline ................................................................................... 422Employee Discipline ................................................................................................................................... 423Managing Complaints, Grievances, and Dispute Resolution .............................................................. 427

Dispute Resolution Programs .......................................................................................................... 427Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................... 430Resources ...................................................................................................................................................... 431Authors, Consultants, and Contributors ................................................................................................. 432

17 humanresourceManagement............................................................................................................... 433The Manager ................................................................................................................................................ 433

Management Levels ........................................................................................................................... 433Skills of the Manager ......................................................................................................................... 434Managing for Service Quality .......................................................................................................... 434Managing Effective Work Teams ..................................................................................................... 436Managing for a Diverse Work Force ................................................................................................ 437

Working within the Human Resource Framework ................................................................................ 438Personnel Law ..................................................................................................................................... 439

Staffing .......................................................................................................................................................... 439Job Analysis ......................................................................................................................................... 439Workforce Health and Wellness ....................................................................................................... 441Employee Orientation ........................................................................................................................ 442Personnel Manuals ............................................................................................................................. 443Performance Appraisals .................................................................................................................... 445In-Service Education .......................................................................................................................... 448Professionalism ................................................................................................................................... 451

Part-Time and Seasonal Employees.......................................................................................................... 451Pay ........................................................................................................................................................ 452Fringe Benefits .................................................................................................................................... 453

Chapter page


xvi

Co-Workers and Customers .............................................................................................................. 453Supervision.......................................................................................................................................... 454Scheduling Flexibility ........................................................................................................................ 454Design of Work ................................................................................................................................... 454

Volunteers .................................................................................................................................................... 454Motivation to Volunteer .................................................................................................................... 455Volunteer Task Descriptions ............................................................................................................. 455Recruitment and Selection ................................................................................................................ 456Developing Volunteers ...................................................................................................................... 457Recognition of Volunteers ................................................................................................................. 457Volunteers and Liability .................................................................................................................... 458

Consultants .................................................................................................................................................. 458Resources ...................................................................................................................................................... 459Authors, Consultants, and Contributors ................................................................................................. 460

18 Supervisionofpersonnel......................................................................................................................... 461Understanding the Unique Role of Supervision .................................................................................... 461

What is Supervision? ......................................................................................................................... 461Who is a Supervisor? ......................................................................................................................... 461What are the Duties and Responsibilities of Supervisors? ........................................................... 463What are the Qualifications Required for a Supervisor’s Position? ............................................ 463How are Supervisors Selected? ........................................................................................................ 464

Developing and Improving Supervisory Relationships........................................................................ 464Making an Effective Transition to the Supervisor’s Position ....................................................... 464Common Problems ............................................................................................................................ 464Establishing Trust with Employees ................................................................................................. 465Communicating Effectively with Employees ................................................................................. 468Motivating, Coaching and Giving Effective Feedback to Employees ........................................ 470

Developing and Improving Personal Skills to Improve Supervisory Performance .......................... 472What is Delegation? ........................................................................................................................... 472Why is it Important for Supervisors to Develop Effective Delegation Skills?........................... 472Why do Some Supervisors Fail to Learn or Use Delegating Skills? ........................................... 473What are the Steps Involved in Effectively Delegating? ............................................................... 474What Should Not Be Delegated?...................................................................................................... 475

Effective Time Management ...................................................................................................................... 475What are “Time Wasters?” ................................................................................................................ 475What are the Techniques and Suggestions for Resolving Time Management Problems?....... 476

Conducting Effective Staff Meetings ........................................................................................................ 478What is Involved in Planning a Staff Meeting? .............................................................................. 479What is Involved in Conducting a Staff Meeting? ......................................................................... 480What is Involved After a Staff Meeting? ......................................................................................... 481

Chapter page


xvii

References .................................................................................................................................................... 483Authors, Consultants, and Contributors ................................................................................................. 484

19 FinancialManagement.............................................................................................................................. 485Fiscal Policy .................................................................................................................................................. 487

Accountability ..................................................................................................................................... 487Capital Project Financing .................................................................................................................. 488Debt Policies ........................................................................................................................................ 489Cash Management.............................................................................................................................. 489Privatization Policy ............................................................................................................................ 491Enterprise Funds ................................................................................................................................ 492Insurance Policy.................................................................................................................................. 493Entrepreneurship ............................................................................................................................... 493

Financing Park and Recreation Services .................................................................................................. 494Revenue Forecasting .......................................................................................................................... 494Taxation ................................................................................................................................................ 495Bonds .................................................................................................................................................... 497Certification of Participation ............................................................................................................. 499Fees and Charges ................................................................................................................................ 500Concession Operations ...................................................................................................................... 506Grants ................................................................................................................................................... 508Fundraising ......................................................................................................................................... 509Corporate Sponsorships .................................................................................................................... 510Gifts and Donations ........................................................................................................................... 511Partnerships ........................................................................................................................................ 514Membership Dues .............................................................................................................................. 514

Purchasing and Inventory Control ........................................................................................................... 515Purchasing ........................................................................................................................................... 515Inventory Control ............................................................................................................................... 517

Accounting and Auditing .......................................................................................................................... 517Accounting System ............................................................................................................................ 517Auditing ............................................................................................................................................... 520

Creating Your Financial Management Strategy ..................................................................................... 523Resources ...................................................................................................................................................... 525Authors, Consultants, and Contributors ................................................................................................. 526

20 Budgeting.................................................................................................................................................... 527Budgetary Functions .................................................................................................................................. 527

A Policy Document ............................................................................................................................ 527An Operations Guide ......................................................................................................................... 527A Financial Plan .................................................................................................................................. 527A Communication Device ................................................................................................................. 527

Chapter page


xviii

Aspects of Management ............................................................................................................................. 528Budgeting as a Management Tool ............................................................................................................ 528Budgeting as a Process ............................................................................................................................... 529Effective Budgeting Characteristics .......................................................................................................... 530

Stakeholders ........................................................................................................................................ 530The Politics of Budgeting .................................................................................................................. 530Presenting and Justifying the Budget .............................................................................................. 531

Common Components and Elements ...................................................................................................... 531Budget Organization .................................................................................................................................. 532

Relation to Mission and Objectives ................................................................................................. 532Budget Organization .......................................................................................................................... 532

Calendars and Timelines—The Budget Cycle ........................................................................................ 534Budget Instructions and Policies .............................................................................................................. 535Budgeting Approaches ............................................................................................................................... 537

Incremental Budgeting ...................................................................................................................... 537Itemized Budgeting ............................................................................................................................ 544Fixed Allocation Budgeting .............................................................................................................. 544Variable Expense Budgeting ............................................................................................................. 550

The Budget Document .............................................................................................................................. 551Categories of Budgets ................................................................................................................................. 551

Operating Budgets ............................................................................................................................. 551Capital Budgets .................................................................................................................................. 564

Managing Budgets ...................................................................................................................................... 571Variances: Budget-to-Actual Outcomes .......................................................................................... 571Monitoring Tools ................................................................................................................................ 572Performance Monitoring ................................................................................................................... 575


21 riskManagement...................................................................................................................................... 579What Risks are Managed? ......................................................................................................................... 579What is Risk Management? ....................................................................................................................... 579Who Should Engage in Risk Management? ............................................................................................ 580Why Risk Management? ............................................................................................................................ 582Principles of Risk Management Programs .............................................................................................. 582

Who Facilitates Risk Management? ................................................................................................. 582Phases of Risk Management ...................................................................................................................... 583

Phase I: Risk Identification and Assessment .................................................................................. 583Phase II: Risk Response Strategies ................................................................................................... 589Phase III: The Risk Management Plan ............................................................................................. 594

Policies and Procedures Manual ............................................................................................................... 595Monitoring Performance ................................................................................................................... 595

Chapter page


xix


22 LawenforcementandSecurity............................................................................................................... 601Law Enforcement ........................................................................................................................................ 602

Jurisdiction .......................................................................................................................................... 604Authority ............................................................................................................................................. 606Training ................................................................................................................................................ 612Types of Law Enforcement ............................................................................................................... 616

Law Enforcement Procedures ................................................................................................................... 620Seizure of Persons .............................................................................................................................. 621Dealing with Juveniles ....................................................................................................................... 622Handling of Evidentiary Items ......................................................................................................... 622Interviewing Witnesses ..................................................................................................................... 623Writing Reports .................................................................................................................................. 623

Liability and Law Enforcement ................................................................................................................ 624Traffic Control and Managing Access ...................................................................................................... 624

Enforcement of Traffic Laws ............................................................................................................. 624Traffic Patterns around Areas and Facilities ................................................................................... 625Control of Traffic for Special Events and Occasions ..................................................................... 625Accommodations for Recreation Activities .................................................................................... 625Accident Management and Disaster Emergencies ........................................................................ 627

General Security .......................................................................................................................................... 627Crime Prevention ........................................................................................................................................ 628Premises Security ........................................................................................................................................ 631Emergency Management ........................................................................................................................... 634Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................... 637Resources ...................................................................................................................................................... 638Authors, Consultants, and Contributors ................................................................................................. 640

23 evaluationandactionresearch............................................................................................................. 641Definitions and Terms ................................................................................................................................ 641

Utilization-Focused Evaluation ........................................................................................................ 641Timing of Evaluation ......................................................................................................................... 642Types of Evaluation ............................................................................................................................ 642

Benefits of Evaluation ................................................................................................................................. 643To Improve Programs, Events, and Services .................................................................................. 643To Identify and Eliminate Detrimental Elements .......................................................................... 643To Manage Risks and Enhance Safety ............................................................................................. 643To Measure Predetermined Goals and Objectives ........................................................................ 643To Improve Decision-Making ........................................................................................................... 643To Justify Expenditures, Accountability, and Documentation .................................................... 643To Increase Participant Satisfaction ................................................................................................. 643

Chapter page


xx

To Comply with Internal or External Standards ........................................................................... 644To Meet Obligations for Professional Practice ............................................................................... 644

Staffing the Evaluation Program ............................................................................................................... 644Influences on Evaluation Processes .......................................................................................................... 644

Ethics and Professionalism in Evaluation ....................................................................................... 645Politics in Evaluation ......................................................................................................................... 645Cultural Biases in Evaluation ........................................................................................................... 645

Guiding Questions ...................................................................................................................................... 646Why? .................................................................................................................................................... 646Who? .................................................................................................................................................... 646What? ................................................................................................................................................... 646When? .................................................................................................................................................. 646Where? ................................................................................................................................................. 647How? .................................................................................................................................................... 647

Evaluation Models ...................................................................................................................................... 647Intuitive Model ................................................................................................................................... 647Evaluation by Goals and Objectives ................................................................................................ 647Gantt and PERT Planning Charts .................................................................................................... 648Evaluation by Standards ................................................................................................................... 648Logic Model ........................................................................................................................................ 648Importance–Performance Analysis .................................................................................................. 649Cost-Benefit Analysis ......................................................................................................................... 650Economic Impact Analysis ................................................................................................................ 652STEEPLED and SWOT Analyses ..................................................................................................... 653Benchmarking ..................................................................................................................................... 655Trends Analysis .................................................................................................................................. 656Balanced Scorecard ............................................................................................................................ 656Focus Groups ...................................................................................................................................... 657Nominal Group Technique ............................................................................................................... 657Delphi Technique ............................................................................................................................... 658

Action Research ........................................................................................................................................... 658Sampling .............................................................................................................................................. 659Data Collection ................................................................................................................................... 660

Reliability, Validity, and Usability ............................................................................................................ 663Data Analysis ............................................................................................................................................... 664Interpreting and Reporting the Analysis ................................................................................................. 665Resources ...................................................................................................................................................... 668Authors, Consultants, and Contributors ................................................................................................. 669Index............................................................................................................................................................. 671

Chapter page


xxi

Introduction

This text, Management of Park and Recreation Agencies,is sponsored by the Commission on Accreditation for Park and Recreation agencies (CAPRA) in order to share with professionals—now and in the future—the desirable practices of the profession embodied in the Standards for National Accreditation for Park and Recreation Agencies. These standards are used as the guideline for what should be included in the book. Each chapter addresses specific standards needed for accreditation.

The purpose of the book is to help administrators of every area of recreation and parks, including those in for-profit, nonprofit, commercial, and public operations. The emphasis is on public recreation and parks, since those are the agencies for which the standards were written. However, each standard can be used by any agency that provides park and recreation facilities, programs, or services. It is geared to managers and what they need to know, not to the program or maintenance supervisors.

Organization of the BookThe book is divided into four parts:

Management Overview;Management Organization;Management of Program and Facilities; andManagement Systems

Management Overview (Chapters 1–4)These four chapters give the overview of the context in which management exists. Chapter 1 discusses what manage-ment includes and what it takes to provide a strong organization within the context of today’s agencies. Chapter 2 discusses the legal contexts in which management must work. Chapter 3 includes the authority and jurisdiction that allow the agencies to operate, including board structures and operations. Chapter 4 includes politics that affect the operations and how managers can work within the system.

Management Organization (Chapters 5–7)The next three chapters develop an understanding of the organization as a whole that must be created for all other services and operations to occur. Chapter 5 discusses the organizational structures and the choices available to design the agency. Chapter 6 focuses on partnerships, or how to work within the community to combine resources to create a better place for everyone. Chapter 7 covers planning, especially strategic planning, so that agencies can be proactive rather than reactive.

Management of Programs and Facilities (Chapters 8–13)Chapters 8 and 9 are dedicated to program planning and provision, while Chapter 10 focuses on the supervision of pro-grams. Chapters 11, 12, and 13 focus on parks and facilities’ planning, management, and maintenance respectively.

Management Systems (Chapters 14–23)The last half of the manual takes each of the management systems and discusses them as they relate to the parks and recreation field. Chapter 14 is an in-depth look at technology systems used in the parks and recreation agencies today; it includes a variety of options for developing and maintaining technology and analyzes the advantages and disad-vantages of each type. Chapter 15 discusses marketing and public relations, providing a variety of systems being used in the field today. Chapters 16, 17, and 18 focus on personnel: hiring, managing, and supervising employees. Chapters 19 and 20 develop the financial systems. Chapter 19 focuses on the various methods to control finances, while Chapter 20 is an in-depth look at budgeting and the many different types available today. Chapters 21 and 22 focus on risk management, safety, and security to protect resources. Finally, Chapter 23 explains evaluation and the many different options and methods for answering the questions: where we are now, and what do people want?

••••


xxii

Features of the Book

Chapter AuthorshipEach chapter was written by a professor who specializes in the chapter topic; the professor was guided by a practi-tioner consultant who identified what needed to be covered and provided field examples to increase meaningfulness to the reader. Authors come from 16 different universities from as far east as the Carolinas and as far west as Western Washington; from as far south as Florida and as far north as Canada. The examples given also have a similar diversity so as to provide as many different perspectives as possible. Because of the variety of authors, there is diversity in writ-ing styles. Every chapter was reviewed by the editor for current coverage of the standards.

CompendiumThis text also includes a compact disc containing a Compendium with field examples for every plan, method, or process described. The examples come from park and recreation agencies across the country. If a standard requires certain documents, the Compendium has examples of what other agencies have done. It also includes digital copies of forms used by some agencies which may give other agencies a head-start in creating their own. The Compendium also includes the full and most up-to-date version of the standards, case studies that can be used by professors, and a current list of books and articles on the subject.

AudienceThis book was not meant to be a textbook although it can be used for that. It really is written for the practitioner, espe-cially those in agencies seeking accreditation. There are in-depth descriptions so that a manager can develop any of the many plans or documents described. If there is any book that should be on every park and recreation manager’s shelf, it is this one. It is meant to be a reference book—a how-to book – and, therefore, the discussions are not general, but specific and detailed. Obviously, it is impossible to be exhaustive on so many topics, but you should find the material comprehensive.

StandardsA standard is a statement of desirable practice as set forth by experienced and recognized professionals. Standards are an indirect measurement of effectiveness. If a desirable standard is practiced, then a favorable outcome should be forthcoming. Standards can be a dynamic force for change by stimulating park and recreation professionals and corporate policy bodies toward improved services, programs, and innovations.

This book is organized around the CAPRA standards to assist a manager in achieving a minimal standard of excel-lence and in correcting deficient or sub-standard operations. It should be the goal of a manager to not only meet, but also to exceed, these standards. By providing the management components, roles, and qualities necessary for the park and recreation organization to exceed these standards, the manager has succeeded beyond the norm and has created an exceptional park and recreation service organization. The CAPRA standards, therefore, are presented in this book as a management tool and as a guide to further excellence and recognition of the manager’s park and recreation organiza-tion. It is hoped that the standards included in this book will assist in the quest to develop managerial excellence.

The standards are dynamic and the Commission endeavors to keep them up to date with changing times. The standards commentary reproduced in the Compendium for each chapter was revised in 2009. Be sure to obtain the most recent version, as they will continue to be revised from time to time.

Accreditation ProcessFor an agency to become accredited, it makes a preliminary application to CAPRA and then undertakes a self-assess-ment of its compliance with the standards. The self-assessment is the key phase in the accreditation process, because it engages the entire organization: employees, volunteers, citizen boards and committees, and the governing body. When the self-assessment is complete, the organization submits a formal application to the Commission. A team of trained visitors then spends three or four days on-site with the organization to verify compliance. The team prepares a written report to which the organization may respond. Twice a year, the national accreditation Commission meets to consider granting of organization accreditation, based on 100 percent compliance with the fundamental standards and at least 85 percent of the remaining standards. Accreditation is granted for five years with an annual status report submitted by the organization.


Management:WhatIsIt? �

Management: What Is It?Lynn M. Jamieson Practitioner ConsultantIndiana University Barry Weiss City of San Carlos, CA (retired)Stephen A. WolterEppley Institute for Parks and Public Lands

No factor in the effective delivery of park and recreation services is more crucial than management of the orga-nization. Most of what is known about management has its roots in United States business and industry. The role of management has shifted and changed with the historical development of parks and recreation in the United States, moving from a near-monopoly by the government of park and recreation services, to a highly-competitive marketplace combining public, non-profit, and profit-making organizations in the lei-sure and entertainment industry. This shift has brought about significant change in management requirements for park and recreation services. This chapter provides a broad survey of park and recreation management. Key sections in this chapter are:

a brief history of the field of management,growth and change in the park and recreation industry,change factors,issues and challenges faced by managers,a conceptual understanding of management,accountability and privilege,roles of managers,core qualities of managers,specific managerial competencies, andmanagement in relation to the CAPRA accredi-tation standards.

The verb “manage” derives from the Latin word manus, or “hand,” and from the Italian verb maneggiare, or “to handle.” The term is widely used to describe an organization’s activities that gather people together to accomplish desired goals and objectives. Generally, management in an organization is thought to have a limited number of functions, including, but not lim-ited to, planning, organizing, staffing, controlling, and problem-solving. Other terms, such as budgeting (a form of planning) or resourcing (a form of staffing), are also frequently used to describe the functions of management. This view has changed little since 1916 when Henri Fayol wrote that management consisted of seven components:

••

••••••••

planning,organizing,leading,coordinating,controlling,staffing, andmotivating.

History of ManagementManagement history serves as an important frame-work for the delivery of park and recreation services. According to Bennis and Mische (1995), several cen-turies of industrial expansion have influenced the way business, and therefore government, is managed today. From the 18th through the late 19th centuries, this framework emphasized “high market growth, continued economic expansion, strong nationalism, massive migration of European cultures to the U.S., standardization of products and manufacturing tech-niques, increasing personal income, simplification of work to its smallest elements, homogeneous markets, strict chains of managerial control, and the vertical integration of the enterprise” (Bennis & Mische, 1995, p. 20). They note that current situations are much differ-ent and cannot support the same historic management techniques. Management is a dynamic process. Other types or forms of management have been created to respond to major changes in the American economy and how it is defined in a global marketplace. This redefinition of management is also reflected by rapid changes of management practices in park and recre-ation organizations. Important to this change is the value of the customer (i.e., the participant) in park and recreation services. Both the participant and non-participant (who also pays for services, either through taxes, fees, or other methods) have become increasingly important to the satisfactory provision of park and recreation services.

A look at management history places the chang-ing role of the park and recreation service manager in proper perspective. This history, according to Kreitner

�.2.�.�.5.6.�.

1


2 Management:WhatIsIt?

and Kinicki (1992), generally outlines five eras which influenced the way in which managers operate:

the Pre-scientific Era from pre-1800 to 1880, the Classical Era from 1880 to1930, the Behavioral Era from 1930 to 1960, the Modern Era from 1960 to 1990 and finally,the Emerging Era from 1990 to 2001.

The Emerging Era ended with the attack on the World Trade Towers and other significant events. While no specific “era” label can be placed on what lays ahead, fundamental changes are taking place which may change much of how we manage. For now, we will refer to these changes as trends from 2001 to present, rather than as an era.

The Pre-scientific Era (pre-1800 to1880) marked the first time in which management was studied as a body of knowledge. Before this, management existed as governments and other organizations such as churches and guilds grappled with issues such as defense and rules of conduct. However, it was not until the Pre-sci-entific Era that management was thought of as a specific skill. That era’s challenges to management included slave-like work conditions for employees, crude tools, massive projects, and poor working conditions in com-parison to those more humane conditions experienced by owners, managers, and the wealthy. Of note during this era was the total lack of environmental concern, leading to the historic abuse of natural resources in America.

Gradually, the trends of more-advanced manu-facturing technology gave way to the Industrial Revolution. The managerial focus of the Industrial Revolution shifted from private individuals managing their own smaller firms to larger organizations which hired various levels of managers. At the end of this era, the first school of business was created at the University of Pennsylvania, the Wharton School of Finance.

Subsequently, the Classical Era (1880 to 1930) of management generated the basic theories of administra-tion and scientific management. Among these, Henry Fayol’s theory divided the manager’s role into “plan-ning, organizing, command, coordination, and control” (p. 19). This theory first gave rise to the traditional forms of management still in practice today. “Scientific Management” became established around a system-atic form of “observation, experiment and reasoning” (p. 19). Frederick Taylor, known as the father of scien-tific management, focused on the steel industry and on factors that contributed to improved productivity. His major effort was to standardize work behavior to create a “science for each man’s work,” thereby improving the output of manufactured goods. The resulting develop-ment of management efficiency tools, like assembly lines, production quotas, and standardized procedures, are the visible legacies of this management era.

�.2.�.�.5.

The Behavioral Era (1930–1960) of management recognized that human factors were important to suc-cess in managing operations. Human factors make it difficult to totally standardize work. The all-out focus of the Classical Era on ruthlessly maintaining efficiency as a fundamental part of productivity was rethought during this era. The value of increased supervision, work conditions, and good worker selection were seen as important to productivity in research. One of the most famous research projects in experimental psychology occurred during this era at the Hawthorne Works plant in Chicago. The study attempted to deter-mine if increased lighting, as an environmental factor, increased productivity of the workers at the plant. The resultant improvement in morale (widely known as the “Hawthorne effect”) was found to be the result of the increased attention given to the workers which led to increased productivity. Because of this study, provi-sion of a supportive environment for workers became as important to management as the physical environ-ment. Researchers began emphasizing the importance of the individual and development of a supportive work environment as a successful management tool. While many findings in this era were rudimentary, the effect of management techniques on employees and productivity was at least viewed as more complex than previously thought.

In the Modern Era (1960–1990), the human factors of management were included in theories about human nature and its effect on the workplace. These theories, inaugurated by McGregor, were styled Theory X and Theory Y. Ouché later developed Theory Z. Theory X assumed that people disliked work; Theory Y, that work is natural and desired by people; Theory Z posited some combination of these two theories. The idea of situ-ational managers, or individuals who use techniques appropriate for the circumstances, was developed in the Modern Era. Further, with the application and advancement of technology to support everyday tasks and with the vast changes otherwise affecting society, management practices became more complex and fused with the day-to-day operation of an agency or business. Trends in this era led to the concept of the leader-man-ager and to research evaluating the effectiveness of management practices.

The Emerging Era (1990 to 2001) was characterized by the recognition of the complexity of managing numer-ous forms of organizational structures within a public, private, and “third” sector umbrella. Current manage-ment thought has been based upon two main factors:

managerial systems that permit a structured approach to meeting goals, andmanagerial skills—more or less “soft” skills—developed by managers to handle the com-

�.

2.



plexities of management through leadership development.

The managerial systems concept emerged to “hard-wire” a structure for management or change in an organization. These systems are constantly changing, but the main theme is clear: a system is needed to affect a solid organization. As a result, systems such as total quality management (TQM), strategic management, re-engineering and others offer a method for managers and employees to continue or improve organization effectiveness. The managerial skills concept is more focused on those interpersonal skills and characteris-tics of a manager that are developed through continu-ing education and experience (Cohen, 1995; Nutt & Bachoff, 1992; Perry, 1996). A commitment to develop-ing managerial and leadership, or “soft,” skills at the same time that new managerial systems (or “hardwired structures”) are developed has been a touchstone of the Emerging Era.

As the 20th century drew to a close, it became widely believed that management in the private sector consists of six separate units or functions, including:

human resource management, operations management or production man-agement, strategic management, marketing management,financial management, and information technology management respon-sible for management information systems.

These functions are somewhat paralleled in the public sector, but there are major functions relating to gover-nance, stakeholder management, and policy manage-ment that are not easily transferable between the public and private sectors. In addition, the changing needs of public organizations have given way to a concept called the “New Public Management” that expands the idea of public administration to include non-profit management and social entrepreneurship. This has coupled with the changing societal needs of the late 20th century, needs that focused on the individual’s demand for greater and more personal service, greater choice, and, of course, greater say in the nature of how public organizations such as park and recreation agencies were managed. This era was marked by efforts to manage the public sector through the privatization of public services. In the end, this emphasis on “New Public Management” in the late 1990s and early 21st century is marked by specific principles that help define evolv-ing management in public and nonprofit organizations. These seven principles are:

a focus on hands-on and entrepreneurial man-agement,

••

••••

�.

more explicit standards and measures of per-formance,use of output controls in evaluating agency services,promoting the decentralization of public ser-vices,increased emphasis on competition in public services,migration from public sector to a more private sector approach to managing the public agency, andgreater discipline in allocation of resources to the public agency.

A new era of management is yet likely to rise out of the events that began on September 11, 2001 with the ter-rorist strike on the United States. The sudden realization that the nation was vulnerable to the disruption and vio-lence that other parts of the world had faced for decades set the tone for this new era. Security has become of paramount importance at all levels of government; this has altered funding priorities and created social change that has included increased airport security, questioned breaches of First Amendment rights, and introspection by the American public. Management, particularly in public organizations, has changed as government funding priorities shifted, as public demand for close-to-home recreation has increased, as large gatherings for cultural and leisure activities require increased security, and as risk management for security increas-ingly dominates events and activities.

Another series of recent events also changed thinking about management: American business and finance became the focus of criminal and civil investiga-tions. One of the largest companies in America, Enron, had its top management arrested for breach of fiduciary duty. Next, there were scandals at WorldCom, insider transactions on Wall Street, and allegations of scandals in high levels of government. In many of these cases, company management mismanaged funds and lied to stockholders. This created havoc with retirement funds, raising a new cry for accountability. Professional ethical codes were not enough to ensure good business practices. Ongoing allegations of favoritism and ethical breaches spilled over into government. These scandals, combined with war and increased secrecy by the federal government, resulted in less trust in all levels of govern-ment from 2001 to 2009.

The fiscal year 2008–09 saw a deep recession, bank collapses, large corporations going out of busi-ness, unprecedented number of home foreclosures, and massive government bailouts of troubled indus-tries. As the economy faltered, the effect has been far-reaching, affecting every part of society. At this writing, California is threatening to close 220 state

2.

�.

�.

5.

6.

�.


� Management:WhatIsIt?

parks so that tax dollars could be diverted to the increasing deficit (California State Parks Foundation, 2008). On the other hand, as the government works to correct the situation, recovery money becomes avail-able for social needs and grant aid is more available. It will be up to the astute manager to write grant pro-posals and rein in spending, as has been done in other economic crises in recent history.

It is clear that society still values diversity and recognizes it as an American heritage and strength. Society will become more diverse over the next decades, and Americans seem to recognize that diversity adds value to the collective culture. This trend probably will require that, as new cultures and communities emerge, their differing interests and values will change the way society meets these needs.

Finally, rapid technological change affects man-agement approaches and techniques. On one hand, the use of Internet-based voting, direct customer and client contact through e-mail (including “spam”), text messaging, Web 2.0 and other wireless technologies generate privacy and information concerns; but, on the other, they allow more direct democratic participation on most issues. Managers must be more responsible and responsive to customers, clients, and the public as technology brings change not only to how agencies are run, but in what people do.

Throughout this text, managers will see how these issues are addressed in themanagementofparkandrecre-ationagencies. The leisure industry is just as affected by world events as any service provider. Managers must answer to constituents about where and how money is spent, who they serve, and show effective cost account-ing, as well as responding to public need. Indeed, accountability for management and leadership is one category that all the post-9/11 events seem to fit. How we will handle these new realizations will produce a great deal of introspection and analysis. The new era has affected us and this book reflects the changes these recent major events created.

Growth and ChangeThe park and recreation industry has consisted of two main, but divergent tracks since the first playgrounds and urban parks were established in the later 1800s: a public component consisting of a social service orienta-tion in park and recreation service delivery; and another track consisting of services provided for those willing and able to pay (see Exhibit 1.1).

These two tracks have expanded while the indus-try impact and importance continues to grow. Park and recreation service delivery systems have public, private, and commercial sectors parallel to other industries. The

industry itself is a multinational conglomerate includ-ing organizations that rival top corporations as well as small, recreation-specific organizations or businesses. The growth of the industry has resulted in demands for managers to be increasingly adept and agile at meet-ing the specific requirements of a particular sector. For example, managers from the public sector may be called upon to exhibit one set of core competencies, while a manager in a “third sector” (Nutt, 1992, p. xviii) may need to develop a different set of competencies. With increasing specialization and corporate-like structures, managers must consider unique challenges facing their organization. For example, Wilbur, Fiou, & Frielond (1994) address the unique factors of managing a non-profit association. Because many park and recreation service organizations are nonprofit (i.e., YMCA, Boys and Girls Clubs, Girls Inc.), it is logical that managerial competence should be professionalized in this area and provide opportunities for cooperation among associa-tions in a community.

The trend has been toward the partnering of nonprofit with public forms of service. In many ways, the management skills and abilities used in each of these service sectors have moved to embrace a greater service orientation, reflecting the needs of the local community. As such, managerial demands are much more dependent upon local need. Gone are the national standards for open space and recreation programs that used to drive management and goals and objectives in public agencies up until the early 1990s. Now, each area creates its own standards when responding to community needs and interests. These shifts in mana-gerial orientation have resulted in significant changes in park and recreation operations; some departments have become much more “corporate” or business-like, while neighboring organizations have returned to the historic roots of recreation as an integral social service provided to assist the community’s disadvantaged. In between these two extremes lie many other depart-ments whose purpose is defined by community and quality of life issues. Exhibit 1.1 shows this continuum of leisure service setting.

The multi-faceted role of park and recreation as social service provider, community builder, and business operator has been recognized with greater frequency in recent years and the pressures on park and recreation managers to meet these ever demand-ing roles have increased. Consider the juxtaposition of many managers of public park and recreation programs who find they must:

be more productive with less funding, requiring more building of alliances and partnerships; ensure the demand for higher quality and more diverse services are met;

•

•


Management:WhatIsIt? 5

increase revenue generation, thus moving toward a “market model” for provision of park and recreation services without compet-ing unfairly with private park and recreation service providers; meet demand for more open space and green-ways for urbanizing areas, even though fund-ing for maintenance of these areas is difficult to obtain; support those who are economically and socially disadvantaged through programs to meet childcare, social, recreation, nutritional, and other needs; and measure and document intended outcomes as evidence of successful management.

The paradox of managing for park and recreation services delivery is that managers have to be more creative, visionary, cooperative, and politically skilled than Classical Era managers who simply had to “plan, organize, command, coordinate and control.” Today’s manager has to contend with citizens who are less will-ing to pay taxes for services. The result is a demanding job that requires managers to be competent in many different skills. Demands for improved, enlightened, and responsible management are accelerating and will be at the forefront of the successful park and recreation service operation.

A current trend in park and recreation manage-ment is towards benefit- or outcome-based manage-ment that reflects an overall effect on the quality of lives of all who participate and benefit from park and recre-ation opportunities. Managers of park and recreation service organizations play a pivotal role in representing the value and benefits of park and recreation opportuni-ties that help to justify (and sometimes “sell”) services to decision-makers and the greater community. The main way that park and recreation managers use benefit or outcome measurement is to communicate the well-researched, clearly-formulated, and convincing ben-efits of park and recreation. Community-wide benefits must also be demonstrated to those not currently par-ticipating in parks and recreation. The benefits-based management framework relates parks, recreation, and leisure to individual, community, economic, and envi-ronmental outcomes. Some outcomes are:

•

•

•

•

the beneficial impact on individual and com-munity health through wellness and lifestyle activities; the building of a broader community through recreation activities; improved financial effects from increased tour-ism; and the lowering of community costs from flooding by developing parks in floodplains.

Generalized research data about these beneficial out-comes is often used, and some organizations are begin-ning to track these outcomes specific to their community (see Chapter 9).

California park and recreation agencies have car-ried the benefits trend one step further. Their “Vision, Insight and Planning” (VIP) program is being adopted by agencies across the country. The purpose of the VIP program is to utilize the benefits model while creating a “brand” for the parks and recreation profession. The need to communicate to governmental administrators that parks and recreation have real value is crucial; but, it was also realized that the profession needs to adopt a single name and a shared vision. They recommend all communities use “Parks and Recreation” in their department title, and that the vision (some believe the word should be, “mission”) of “Creating community through people, parks and programs” be adopted. If the recreation profession communicates the same message with the same titles, and measures and communicates the benefits, it will be able to better speak to city, state, and national administrators, who will then be hearing a consistent message. (See Chapter 8; also see http://www.cprs.org/creating-trends.htm for more information and how to get involved.)

In addition, many public park and recreation agencies are dealing with difficult financing issues by looking toward nonprofit and social entrepreneur models that include creating complex, non-governmen-tal nonprofit organizations and/or foundations; these organizations can manage and operate whole units that were previously governmental, or they can signifi-cantly augment and influence government operations. The Anchorage AK Park Foundation is an example of this type, having raised approximately $15 million in private and public donations to improve Anchorage

•

•

•

•

Exhibit 1.1 The Park and Recreation Service Industry Continuum

Private park and recreation services Public good or social services100% Cost Recovery 0% Cost RecoveryThrough Charges Through Charges



community and neighborhood parks when the munici-pality found itself in a budget struggle. Similarly, the Orange County Great Park Foundation was formed to convert the El Toro Marine Air Station into a large urban community regional park; it designed, developed, and now operates seven square-miles of park in the center of Orange County CA.

Change Factors Representative of recent and future changes factors in park and recreation services are:

demand—requests for increased service that determine the types and scope of service delivery; technology—advances that affect the way in which the organization interacts in managing services; information—data, transmissions, messages, and channels that are used to inform clients and make decisions; and people—shifts in people factors, customers, clients, and interest groups involved in park and recreation services.

Demand is delineated by increases or decreases in needed/desired programs and services. Demand affects the way a manager creates a work program. Increased demand for services is often caused by changing popu-lation numbers, demographics, fads, and other trends, including the public’s insistence on greater entertain-ment options. Further, the increased commercialization of leisure services has a significant effect on the way public park and recreation agencies are managed. Some public agencies meet increased demand by charging fees that compare with the private sector. The influence of the media and other information channels also has increased leisure service demand in terms of quality and type. Since public agencies are generally inflexible in administrative procedures such as budget and finance, it has been difficult for some public agencies to modify work programs and meet rapidly changing needs. A manager must find ways to increase organization flex-ibility to adapt to changing demand.

Technology concerns the tremendous amount of information available to organization managers, staff, and the public created by technological advances in management systems. The computerization of staff duties that were repetitive or difficult to track (such as registration or maintenance scheduling) improves quality, visibility, and access to services and programs. Technology also provides a tool to better meet standards of safety, appearance, and use. New and powerful database tools track the condition of assets and their

�.

2.

�.

�.

location, the demographics of recreation users, the schedule of activities, and much other important infor-mation. The use of e-mail, the Internet, portable com-puters at remote recreation sites or in maintenance vehicles, and instant communication access via cell phone, pager, or radio are rapidly changing the face of park and recreation management. In addition, the Internet allows easy transactions for leisure services with the general public, and a much-increased flow of information back and forth. The new technologies can also be used for improving fiscal sustainability, strengthening public support, and enhancing staff skills and knowledge.

According to Peter Drucker (2002), the informa-tion economy is creating “knowledge workers,” and changes in work location and work time/day options for all workers. This will have a fundamental effect on the way society functions. Already, workers in dense urban areas with traffic problems telecommute from home. Some park organizations, such as the National Park Service, allow workers assigned to one area to live in another area of the county and complete work independent of the assigned work site. A manager must be prepared for those technological changes that create agility in the organization. As Drucker notes, manag-ing people in the future requires new organizational structures and an emphasis on alliances, while focus-ing on performance, key people, and money. Clearly, the changes to society from technology will positively affect managerial ability to deliver effective and high-quality park and recreation services (see Chapter 14 on Information Technology).

Information is related to technology, but is more specific to the sophistication and knowledge of the public. The changes in this factor make the specific message that is disseminated by park and recreation organizations more important than ever before. As the public becomes more informed and sophisticated due to technology, decision-making, marketing methods, organization image, and strategies for informing clients have been affected. The delivery of information about services and programs, as well as about the general bene-fits of park and recreation participation, has become more complex and poses new challenges. Organizations seek-ing an appropriate image and cost-effective methods to relay the services being provided will find a highly-competitive leisure and entertainment marketplace. Since displaying a consistent and positive image is critical in the allocation of funds to public parks and rec-reation agencies, marketing strategies have been devel-oped by the National Recreation and Park Association, among other organizations, emphasizing the overall benefits of park, recreation, and leisure services to the larger community. Coupling the information explosion with anticipated public requests for learning, park and



recreation managers also can anticipate demand for growing involvement in decision-making, and higher service levels (see Chapter 15).

People refers to the importance of understand-ing those who participate in programs and services. Organizations have often been surprised by extreme changes in demographics within a community. Such changes influence the park and recreation interests of the population, including increased interest in health and wellness, quality programs for children, and ser-vices to meet young people’s needs. The diversity of current and future participants must be understood for the successful provision of park and recreation services. A manager must be well-informed about the popula-tion being served and aware of the demographic, social and economic trends that affect service delivery. Major changes continue to occur rapidly in society with far-reaching effects across the country. These include new lifestyles, different activities, aging population, and increased diversity. Balancing the changing needs of our communities with the long-held traditions of parks and recreation calls for managers to be much more flexible, creative, and sophisticated (see Chapters 7 and 8).

Issues and Challenges Over the past few decades, the park and recreation services environment has become a conglomeration of public, nonprofit, and commercial organizations. Competition among these many types of organiza-tions has sometimes resulted in legal challenges; take,

for instance, the private health clubs’ challenge of the YMCA and YWCA’s nonprofit status (Selfspot, Inc. v. Butler County Family YMCA, 2003).

This environment is projected to become more complex, as governments promote reforms that allow private industry to compete for work and service jobs traditionally held by park and recreation employees (see Exhibit 1.2). This trend of “outsourcing” was used extensively in other countries (e.g., Australia, New Zealand, and Great Britain) under the label “Competitive Tendering” as a means to eliminate government employment positions and increase private contractual services in all aspects of govern-ment. In a recent effort, the U.S. Federal government is using an Office of Management and Budget circular (A-76, based on an Executive Order) to develop per-formance standards that determine the Most Efficient Organization (MEO) to perform certain duties. This program promotes the transfer of duties from govern-ment to private sector employees where possible at the federal level, including such positions as fee collectors and maintenance operations in national parks. This transfer from government to private sector already has occurred in state and local park and recreation agen-cies and is projected to continue as increased account-ability and declining fiscal resources affect park and recreation agencies. As a result, the line between the public, nonprofit, and commercial sectors depicted in Exhibit 1.2 will continue to blur, and public parks and recreation managers will be required, more than ever, to be extremely skilled concerning issues of resource capability, flexibility, and accountability.

Exhibit 1.2 The Blurring of Park and Recreation Service Providers



Conceptual Understanding of Management Many people think they can identify what managers do, but, in some cases, have developed distorted or stereotypical images of managers. They can tell you that managers approve things, set priorities, establish deadlines, and hire and fire; but, many people still believe that management is about designing standards, making decisions, and providing control in the form of procedures. However, changes and trends starting in the late 1980s continue to create a new understand-ing of park and recreation organization management. Management trends that appeared starting in the late 1980s included: pursuit of excellence; total quality man-agement (TQM); continuous quality improvement; and self-managed work teams. Despite all these, manage-ment perse has yet to be clearly defined.

Katz (1974) provided a fundamental treatise on managerial roles and duties in which he outlined three basic skills: technical, human, and conceptual. These three basic skills were found to be independent, but interrelated, in the performance of each manager’s role. Technical skills are those that require specialized knowledge in the procedures, operations, expertise, and techniques of a field. Human skills involve work-ing with, understanding, and motivating employees, as well as building teams. Conceptual skills concerned the philosophy, mission, goal and objective-development duties managers bring to organizations. The combina-tion of these three skills in managerial positions varies in importance, based on the level occupied within an organization. Katz found that top-level managers emphasize conceptual and human skills. Conversely, entry-level managers emphasize human and technical skills.

While Katz’s work outlined what managers do, the definition of management was never clearly specified. Mintzberg (1990) concluded that “even managers don’t always know” what they do (p. 163). Mintzberg found that managers filled three roles in an organization: inter-personal, informational, and decisional. In interpersonalroles, managers were found to serve as:

figureheads in performing ceremonial duties,leaders in motivating and encouraging employ-ees; and liaisons in making contacts outside the vertical chain of command.

In informationalroles, managers were found to serve as:

monitors in scanning the environment for infor-mation;disseminators in passing privileged information to subordinates; and

••

•

•

•

spokespersons to those outside and inside the organization who can control the organiza-tion.

Decisionalroles required managers to serve as:

entrepreneurs in improving the unit and adapt-ing to changing conditions;disturbance handlers who respond to changes beyond a manager’s control; resource allocators who decide who will get what; and negotiators in committing organizational resources.

Recently, an understanding has emerged that the focus of management is to cope with the complex-ity in organizations—using tools such as planning, budgeting, organizing, staffing, controlling, and problem-solving—to ensure delivery of products and services. In this scenario, management becomes a multi-faceted combination of roles, almost a blending of responsibilities that brings order and consistency to an organization of people who work cooperatively to deliver a service to customers that is needed, sought, and valued. Management tasks are generally thought to be related to:

planning and budgeting, organizing and staffing, andcontrolling and problem-solving.

Another recent trend is management becoming more closely associated with the term, “leadership.” According to Kotter (1990), organizations are often “over managed and under led” (p. 103). Implied in this concept is the idea that effective organizations are not just managed, but led. Dr. William Hitt, a leading teacher and writer on management,

became convinced of two things. First, effective manag-ers lead more than they manage. Enabling the devel-opment of leadership in others, a manager builds the capacity of the organization by sharing authority while retaining ultimate responsibility. Leadership is the key ingredient in management. Second, leadership poten-tial can be developed (Hitt, 1995, p. 10).

Hitt notes that leadership skills are required at whatever level an employee may be and that, while manage-ment of certain phases of delivering services is always required, so is leadership. Hitt found that the manage-ment function most often is not distinguished from the leadership function; however, leadership is an integral part of what many interpret as managerial success. Thus, leadership must be incorporated into an effective working concept of management.

•

•

•

•

•

�.2.�.



Leadership tasks are different than management tasks in that they more often deal with change and uncertainty. Leadership tasks include:

setting direction, aligning people and goals, andmotivating and inspiring.

These tasks are different than management tasks, but both are necessary. To draw a comparison between man-agement and leadership, look at the root of the word: “to lead” has its root in the Old English to “to go”—as in, to travel from one place to another, to explore. As noted above, the root of the word “manage” more suggests the idea of “handling” or maintaining the statusquo.

Kouzes and Posner (2002) extend the leadership discussion by defining management as subordinate to leadership in effective organizations. Their research found that leadership—which included credibility, honesty, forward-looking, competence, and inspira-tion—was essential for organizations to be effective. They identified five practices that characterize success-ful leadership in effective organizations and reinforce the differences between management and leadership:

�.2.�.

challenging the process; inspiring a shared vision; enabling others to act; modeling the way; and encouraging the heart.

(See Exhibit 1.3 for further discussion of the two com-mitments for effective leadership within each practice as sketched out by Kouzes and Posner.)

With this basic concept in mind, management of park and recreation services can be seen as a complex infusion of roles, including leadership, which ensures organization effectiveness, adaptation to trends, and the delivery of quality services to staff and customers.

Accountability and PrivilegeRegardless of the level of management, there are two factors that define the position during their “watch at the helm” of the organization: privilege and account-ability. Managers exercise great power, but also have great responsibility. This is especially true of public park and recreation managers. How a manager executes

�.2.�.�.5.

Exhibit 1.3 Practices Characterizing Successful Leadership



these two factors is an important mark of management ability and affects the organization long after the man-ager leaves.

Serving in a park and recreation managerial role carries a high level of accountability activities since agency actions and performance are closely reviewed by public watchdog groups, state auditors, board members, recreation oriented organizations, interest groups, and others. However, another form of accountability, one that is rarely discussed or considered, is as significant: the accountability measured by the manager’s influence on the future of the organization and the service will provide. In essence, every park and recreation manager is accountable for continuing the vibrancy, role, and ser-vices of the park and recreation organization they man-age. Serving as trustee or steward for the organization’s future should be paramount as the manager influences policy and makes decisions. Viewing the management of park and recreation organization as a trusteeship, a longer-term view should be taken, which can clarify issues, provide an analytical framework, and serve as a philosophical boundary in decision-making.

For example, the success of recreation services provided for youth programs can assist in the creation of future community leaders who are sensitive to the preservation of land for open space as a long-term community asset. The shape and condition of the orga-nization, as well as future opportunities, are the legacy managers leave when their trusteeship ends. This stew-ardship is expected of managers in every organization; a good manager will ensure that a legacy of significant assets is left behind.

With the high level of accountability of a manager comes privilege: rank, position, importance, and com-munity recognition. How managers of park and recre-ation organizations deal with these privileges is crucial. The importance of developing sound ethics is essential to avoiding an “appetite for privilege.” Arrogance, which sometimes derives from higher salaries, benefits, and perks, can result in both the downfall of a manager and an unfortunate decline in the fortunes of his or her organization. The end result can reduce park and recreation functions, funding, and services. Emphasis on character, ethics, and values help ensure that the privileges of rank are not liabilities to the future of the organization.

The Roles of Managers A managers’ role is described in many ways. Six par-ticular “job descriptions,” or charges, help us create a coherent picture of the role of a manager. These are the roles of communicator, leader, coach, mentor, change agent, and power broker.

Manager as Leader The manager leads groups to achieve goals, builds trust, and helps develop a self-adjusting organiza-tion. Managers should view their organization as a system that develops interrelationships, fosters open-ness, develops teamwork, and is adaptive and agile in responding to challenges, issues, and change. It is the manager as leader who can transform others who are in and associated with the organization to attain higher performance. As Bennis and Nanus (1985) state: “man-agers do things right while leaders do the right things.” Leadership by a manager is what gives the agency vision and translates that vision into reality. Consisting of many different components, leadership is commonly defined to include the following:

creating the vision; clarifying the values; empowering and advancing others;developing a team;creating strategies to achieve vision; and measuring performance.

Fearn (2002) also indicates that managers are lead-ers, and indicates that one of the myths of leadership is that the “person with authority is the group’s leader” (p. 30). In fact, Fearn suggests that effective leadership as a manager is tied to personal leadership, self-awareness, and introspection.

Manager as Communicator At the very base of management is the ability to commu-nicate. Communication skills are a basic requirement of all individuals in a park and recreation organization. Communicating effectively allows the organization to function in consistent and similar ways. The com-munication methods used are many: from personal communication in meetings, presentations, and other forums, to communications systems such as newsletters and e-mail. Each word and deed is subject to many inter-pretations. How a manager is viewed and respected has much to do with communications. It is important that managers communicate their thoughts and posi-tions effectively in each encounter to create values and standards of performance.

Manager as CoachAnother role of the manager is to develop strong employees. Some authorities cite this as a leadership role; others emphasize that in this role the manager serves as a teacher and gains the satisfaction of helping others achieve goals. In focusing on the achievement of major job functions by individuals, the manager can

••••••


Management:WhatIsIt? ��

improve overall performance in the organization. By creating higher performance expectations, the manager can transform the organization one small piece at a time. This role of challenging individuals to improve and continually achieve excellence links the manager to personal values and care for the employee. This particu-lar role takes a considerable amount of time, but brings considerable reward.

Effective managers view coaching of staff as one of their most important job roles. They have a staff development orientation, and demonstrate, through words and actions, a genuine interest in employees. The benefits of working well in this role include: creation of a more capable staff with a commitment to lifelong learning, greater productivity, higher esteem, higher motivation, and greater job satisfaction. A coaching manager also will find this role tends to be transferred to subordinates, who, in turn, take an interest in coach-ing the employees they supervise, thus creating a well-coached organization with associated benefits. Finally, as a manager’s reputation grows as a coach, he or she will stand out and attract committed, high-potential people.

Manager as MentorRelated to the coaching function is the time taken with employees to facilitate their eventual success outside of their major job function. Making new opportunities available, fostering advanced educational pursuits, and recommending them for position advancement within or outside of the organization is the role of the mentor. A mentor can have a lasting impression on an employee and can greatly assist in a person’s career development and, as such, has an extremely important role in an organization. Managers who spend time mentoring an employee enjoy many of the same benefits as those who coach. The difference is the intensity and proximity of care between a mentor and employee. Keen interest in the individual is generally mutual between mentor and employee, making the relationship much more intense, the commitment toward performance more deep, and the development process much more dramatic for the employee. Developmental managers who mentor help the employee improve and acquire skills. Generally, the employee grows rapidly, developing into an important part of the staff. Choosing to mentor employees is a choice to commit extraordinary amounts of time. A manager who chooses this role should carefully plan a strategy.

Manager as Change Agent The role of the manager in fostering change is a more highly developed skill. Change is present in all organi-zations, and a manager committed to change is helping

build an organization that can adapt to many changes without losing its key foci. For these managers, change is seen as an opportunity, rather than a problem or a defeat; in their organizations, employees are encouraged to grow and develop with a more flexible view of change.

Perhaps no role is as important to a manager as being a change agent. As technology advances and the demand for information increases, the pace of change will increase. Managers who can successfully bring change will be valuable. To be effective change agents, managers must view change as positive while coping with the logical and psychological effects of change. A manager facilitates change by:

developing a strategy;involving staff in change;creating enthusiasm for change;accepting its inherent difficulties; and establishing a climate that views change as an opportunity for rapid improvement.

Manager as Power BrokerManagers must also be aware of the political systems in which they work and adapt to the expectations of those in power and those who need to be served. Very often, conflict exists between the wishes of those serv-ing on policy or budgetary boards, and the customer and employees. Thus, a manager must become very adept at brokering agreements. Power of various types is provided to managers through their position. The use of this power is the key to getting things done. The implementation of power, sometimes referred to as politics, places managers where they can move an organization toward its goals. Power roles are used in an arena where the many skills a manager possesses come together to allow true collaboration. Very often, the agendas of many groups, including employees, simply do not parallel the wishes of a board or gov-erning body. A manager who can broker agreement through wise and judicious use of power can bring these opposing forces together in a compromise or agreement. This role is often referred to as a “soft” approach to power, where expertise, information, and authority emphasize collaboration. The result is a win/ win solution. Power has another side: one where the manager asserts authority, or uses reward and coercion to form a solution. That is a win/lose solution, with control being the goal.

The exercise of power is undeniably a manager’s role. How they use it, share it, and display it helps define the organization. By stipulating tactics for the use of power that have a high organization orientation and a high level of sincerity, managers can avoid the more ugly aspects of politics. The role of power then

•••••



becomes easier for a manager when it changes the focus from self-interests (with high levels of “Machiavellian” behavior) to the betterment of the organization. It allows managers to use power sources such as information, expertise, reverence, position and reward to find win/win solutions.

Five Core Qualities of Managers Five basic qualities form a core of values and knowledge that the manager must possess for success. These quali-ties provide the framework for effective management; they include: ethics and values, understanding groups and the group process, articulation of service, ability to form alliances and partnerships, and creating a positive, productive work climate.

Ethics and Values A manager should possess ethics and values that are appropriate for a park and recreation organiza-tion. These ethical behaviors should be modeled by employees, and they represent a universal approach to completing the business of the organization while serving customers, clients, participants and similar constituents. Making subordinates and others aware of the value system inherent in a wide variety of situations is important for promotion of ethical understanding. This has been especially true in the changing demo-graphics of society, where a manager must be sensitive to the differing value system inherent in employees or participants from other cultures. Managers must model appropriate values and provide the framework for establishing ethical and valued approaches to accom-plishing the agencies’ business. NRPA and other orga-nizations have created codes of ethics for the profession (see Compendium 1 for samples, including the National Recreation and Park Association Code of Ethics and the National Therapeutic Recreation Society Code of Ethics, as well as the Maricopa Ethics Handbook). In what may become the “Era of Introspection,” the development and implementation of a code of ethics has risen to great importance today.

As part of ethics, a manager must realize that this field occurs within the context of laws. These laws are established to protect all citizens under the Constitution. The current text has been developed to help the manager work within the boundaries of regulations, legislation, and common law and to create policies and procedures that guide all employees to provide the highest qual-ity of service within an ethical system. Many chapters below highlight the legal issues in creating quality service. (In particular, see Chapter 2, Management and the Law; Chapter 3, Legal Authority and Jurisdiction;

Chapter 10, Supervision; Chapter 16, Human Resources Employment; Chapter 21, Risk Management; and Chapter 22, Law Enforcement and Security.)

Groups and Group Process The role of personnel, constituents, and interactions among people is a constant challenge to managers. The manager must possess a good knowledge of group dynamics and develop an ability to navigate group processes involving personnel, interest groups, public and private pressure groups, and other forms of group interaction. The goal of gaining consensus or agreement through group decision-making is a con-stant challenge (see Chapters 4, Politics and Advocacy; and 5, Organization Structure and Administrative Operations).

Service MattersManagers are involved with outside constituencies, discretionary personnel, politicians, community deci-sion-makers, and others who must learn what are the goals and objectives of the organization. Managers are in the key position of interpreting client actions and needs to those inside the organization. A manager must be able to articulate to the employees and board members the needs and interests of constituents and clients. Specifically, a manager must be able to articu-late the quality, nature, and type of service to the staff in order for needs to be met. A manager must also be able to establish protocols for providing information to the many groups it serves. (See Chapter 4, Politics and Advocacy; Chapter 7, Planning for Strategic Management; Chapter 8, Recreation Program Planning; Chapter 9, Program Service and Event Management; and Chapter 15, Public Relations, Marketing, and Customer Service.)

Alliances and Partnerships Managers are involved with forming alliances and partnerships to provide important park and recreation services to their communities. Partnerships provide the manager with opportunities to facilitate or coordinate services by others with their organization or business, rather than being a direct service provider. For example, a manager might instigate a process by which a public/ private partnership is developed. Developing partner-ships may be difficult, but it is rewarding. The manager who is adept at assessing the key abilities of many pos-sible partners or allies, and can form a new relationship to help provide a full spectrum of park and recreation services, will find public opinion favorable toward the organization (see Chapter 6).



Positive and Productive Work Climate Finally, a manager should possess qualities that create a positive atmosphere in the workplace. Such an atmo-sphere often can be built upon the personal power of the manager who models positive, healthy, and happy attitudes toward serving the public. Creation of the work climate is also built upon trust, empowerment of employees, productivity, accountability, and positive conflict resolution. The manager facilitates these types of processes in daily operations within the workplace and instills a positive atmosphere at work and within the jurisdiction of the park and recreation organization (see Chapters 16, 17, and 18).

Specific Managerial Competencies

Executive Core CompetenciesDetermining the competencies or skills a manger needs is often difficult. Many models for managerial competency exist for public park agencies. One model the National Park Service uses is adopted from the Executive Core Competencies (EQC) of the Senior

Executive Service of the federal government. This model has five parent competencies including:

leading change;leading people; being results-driven; using business acumen; and building coalitions.

Exhibit 1.4 outlines the individual competencies within each of the parent competencies. Note that this set of competencies also includes a set of Fundamental Competencies which serve as the foundation for each individual in leadership and management roles in the National Park Service. For this reason, the competen-cies are referred to as Foundational Competencies in Exhibit 1.4. These competencies are defined as personal and professional attributes critical to successful perfor-mance in an executive role. This includes interpersonal skills, oral communications, integrity/honesty, written communications, continual learning and public service motivation. In this exhibit, competencies may be consid-ered different ingredients that are used depending upon the situation. Many larger organizations, including the federal government and state government agencies, have competency models that focus on their specific state personnel system needs. These are implemented to

�.2.�.�.5.

• Creativity and Innovation

• External Awareness

• Flexibility• Resilience• Strategic

Thinking• Vision

• Conflict Management

• Leveraging Diversity

• Developing Others

• Team Building

• Accountability• Customer Service• Decisiveness• Entrepreneurship• Problem Solving• Technical

Credibility

• Financial Management

• Human Capital Management

• Technology Management

• Partnering• Political

Savvy• Influencing-

Negotiating

Foundational Competencies• Interpersonal Skills• Oral Communication• Integrity / Honesty• Written Communications• Continual Learning• Public Service Motivation

Lead

ing

Cha

nge

Lead

ing

Peop

le

Res

ults

Dri

ven

Busi

ness

Acu

men

Build

ing

Coa

litio

ns

Exhibit 1.4 National Park Service Leadership-Management Competencies


�� Management:WhatIsIt?

allow the large and complex organizations represented by state and federal government to promote stability and cope with the complexity. New York and Georgia are examples of states that include many of the federal management competencies in their models.

Competencies for the CEOAnother model of park and recreation managerial competencies was developed by Hurd (2001). In this research, Hurd surveyed public park and recreation directors to determine what competencies they thought the chief executive officer (CEO) in a public agency should have. The results identified seven different com-petency frameworks (Exhibit 1.5) for CEOs of public parks and recreation agencies.

The specific knowledge, skills, and abilities that managers require are diverse, complex, and ever-changing; this points to the difficulty of defining management with any degree of certainty. Given that management of a park and recreation organization is the essential key to successful, effective service provi-sion, these components need to be in place to complete the mission of the organization.

Competencies for Parks and Recreation

Understanding Park and Recreation BehaviorThe manager needs to maintain, on a daily basis, an understanding of what motivates people to participate in park and recreation facilities and programming; and he or she must be cognizant of the constraints to leisure

Competencies

• Business principles and financial management• Human resources management• Technology

• Communications-effective public speaking and facilitation• Marketing-knowledge of ability to work with media

• Customer service and accountability to the public• Community relations-assess needs of community• Build partnerships

• Leadership and management skills• Interpersonal skills• Conflict resolution and decision making

• Goals, objectives, mission and visioning• Planning-system, comprehensive, program and site• Evaluating programs and identifying trends

• Working with elected officials• Understanding the law• Legislative processes and governance

• Experience• Knowledge of technical areas• Professionalism

Exhibit 1.5 Park and Recreation CEO Competencies

Meta-competency

Business AcumenChapters 5, 14, and 16–20

Communication & Marketing

Chapters 14 and 15

Community RelationsChapters 4, 6, 8, and 15

Leadership & ManagementChapter 18

Planning & EvaluationChapters 7, 11, and 23

Political & Legislative Acumen

Chapters 2, 3, and 4

Technical & Professional Practices

Chapters 9 and 10



and the ways individuals negotiate those constraints to become involved in an organization’s facilities and programs. An understanding of the basic components of park and recreation education, as well as the psy-chological and sociological processes affecting these decisions, can create sensitivity toward the participant and assist in planning directions for service delivery (see Chapters 8 and 9).

Monetary Resources and BudgetNo manager can exist for very long without a working knowledge of budget planning and implementation. This includes the ability to identify sound income sources and articulate efficient ways to reduce cost and maximize service (see Chapters 19 and 20).

Human Resources: PeopleThe manager needs to recognize effective ways to deal with employees, both paid and volunteer. This skill is the area most often criticized by the public and within organizations. The ability to establish a personnel recruitment process that is sound and based upon per-formance objectives, job analysis, evaluation, and career development and training are important components of this area (see Chapters 16, 17, and 18).

Physical Resources: Land and PeopleThe use of physical resources and the provision of services for people often conflict. The manager must be adept at strategic planning of physical resources to improve the quality of life of users and surrounding areas and people. This framework includes the ability to achieve sound, supported master plans and to meet the goals in those plans. Today, there is added emphasis on maintaining environmental quality (see Chapters 7, 11, 12, and 13).

Service Resources: Programs and ServicesThe delivery of programs and other services is the most visible achievement of sound management. The manager must be able to organize services in the most

visible manner to achieve excellence and ensure par-ticipant satisfaction and return. With the prevailing assessment of fees and other charges, the customer has become a forceful element in the demand for quality, and responsiveness is the key to success. The manager must provide valuable systems of program and service development, implementation, and evaluation that are based upon immediate and long-range improvement (see Chapters 8, 9, and 10).

Management in Relation to the Standards

In conclusion, the ability to manage a successful opera-tion is a highly individual ability. The CAPRA standards assist a manager in achieving a minimal standard of excellence and correcting deficient or substandard operations. It should be the goal of a manager to not only meet, but exceed these standards. By providing the management components, roles, and qualities neces-sary for the organization to surpass these standards, the manager has succeeded beyond the norm and cre-ated an exceptional, extraordinary park and recreation service organization.

This text addresses the CAPRA standards as a guide to further excellence and recognition of the park and recreation organization. This process is only a start in the continued efforts to improve service. Further understanding of the role of these standards is to place them in the context of what a profession really is. Park and recreation management, a part of the park and recreation industry, addresses standards through cur-riculum accreditation, organization accreditation, and certification of professionals. The linkage provided by these three related components results in recognition that the field must be taken seriously as a profession. It is hoped that the standards included in this text will assist the reader with the quest to develop managerial excellence.



Resources

Bennis, W. and Nanus, B. (1985). Leaders:Thestrategiesfortakingcharge. New York, NY: Harper and Row.

Bennis, W. and Mische, M. (1995). The21stcenturyorga-nization. Oxford: Pfeiffer and Company.

California Park and Recreation Society (2009) Brandingproject. Retrieved June 18, 2009 from http://www.cprs.org/branding.htm

California State Parks Foundation (2008) Don’tcloseourstateparks. Retrieved June 18, 2009 from http://ga3.org/campaign/budget_may09

Cohen, S. & Einicke (1995). The new effective public man-ager. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Competency Management. Retrieved June 3, 2009 from http://www.spa.ga.gov/competencyManage/.

Daft, R.L. (2008). Theleadershipexperience. Mason, OH: Thompson-Southwestern, Thompson Higher Education.

Dillon, J. & Wolter, S.A., (2007, October). Are YouReady for Effective Fundraising? Education session presented at the National Recreation and Park Congress and Exposition, Indianapolis, IN.

Drucker, Peter F. (2002). Managing in the next society. New York, NY: St. Martin’s Press.

Fearn, M. (2002). Developing leadership skills in a time of change. California Parks and Recreation, 58(3). 28–32.

Fayol, Henri (1949) GeneralandIndustrialManagement (Constance Storrs, Trans.). New York: Harper & Row. (Original work published 1916).

Hitt, W.D. (1995). The leadership assessment inventory. Columbus, OH: Battelle Press.

Hurd, Amy (2001) The competencies of chief executive officers in public parks and recreation agencies. Unpublished doctoral thesis. Indiana University: Bloomington, IN.

Katz, R. L. (1974). Skills of an Effective Administrator. Harvard Business Review, 52, 90–102.

Kotter, J.P. (1990). What leaders really do. Harvard Business Review. 68(3), 103–111.

Kouzes, J.M. & Posner, B.Z. (2007). Theleadershipchal-lenge. San Francisco, CA. Jossey-Bass.

Kreitner, R., & Kinicki, A. (1998). Organizational behavior (4th ed.). Homewood, IL: Irwin.

Mitnzberg, H. (1975). The nature of management work. New York, NY: Harper & Row.

Mintzberg, H. (1990) The manager’s job: Folklore and fact. Harvard Business Review. 68(2), 163–176.

Nutt, P.C. & Backoff, R.W. (1992).Strategicmanagementofpublicandthirdsectororganizations:Ahandbookforbodies. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Osborne, S.P., & McLauglin, K. (2002). Newpublicman-agement:Currenttrendsandfutureprospects.New York, NY: Routledge.

Perry, J.L., Ed. (1996). Handbookofpublicadministration. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Selfspot, Inc. v. Butler County Family YMCA, (2003). Pa.Cmwlth 818 A.2d 587. US Office of Personnel Management (n.d.) Senior Executive Service, RecruitmentandSelection. Retrieved June 24, 2009 from, http://www.opm.gov/ses/recruitment/.

State of Georgia Human Resource Services (2009) Leader-shipandManagementCompetenciesList. Retrieved June 4, 2009 from https://www.cs.state.ny.us/ successionplanning / workgroups / competencies / competencylist.html.

Wikipedia (2008) Management. Retrieved June 27, 2009 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management.

Wilbur, R.H., Fian, S.K., & Freeland, Cohen (1994). Thecorporate guide to non profit management. New York, NY: John Wiley.

Wolter, S.A., (2008). The leadership challenge. Personal presentation at Executive Development Program, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN.



Authors, Consultants, and Contributors

Dr. Lynn M. Jamieson is a Full Professor in the Department of Recreation, Park, and Tourism Studies at Indiana University. She served as Chair of the Department for seven years, as Assistant Chair for six years and is formerly Coordinator and Professor in the Recreation Administration Program at California Polytechnic State University in San Luis Obispo, California. In addition to academic appointments, Dr. Jamieson served as an administrator in three park and recreation departments: Corpus Christi, Texas; San Diego, California; and Johnson County, Kansas. She is co-author of five texts and author of numerous articles and text chapters in the area of recreational sports, commercial recreation, management and tourism. In the area of research and evaluation, Dr. Jamieson emphasizes management, curriculum development in recreational sports, sport violence, visitor behavior, and youth development as it pertains to sport and leisure interest. Over 60 articles and 70 presentations have been delivered in her areas of expertise. She is a member of several professional organizations that represent various aspects of the leisure industry. More recently, she conducted lectures and research presentations in China, Hong Kong, Costa Rica, Taiwan, Scotland, Turkey, England, Canada, the United States, and Australia on the topics of sport curriculum, sport and leisure policy, sport and leisure management, tourism, and the mitigating factors in sport violence. Since 1986, Dr. Jamieson has been co-owner of the consulting firm Visions—a leisure and tourism planning company.

Stephen A. Wolter serves as the Executive Director of the Eppley Institute for Parks and Public Lands and leads major programs in technical assistance, research, training and education and planning for Indiana University. He has over 30 years of experience in parks, recreation, public lands, and facilities. Having served as a manager or executive in eight different organizations over his career, he enjoys the practical experience of strategic alignment and management for parks, recreation and public lands management. He has served as an executive for park and recreation, and recreational sports operations for local public agencies, which also adds fundraising and strategic philanthropy, event operations and public governance experience to his skill set. His primary efforts currently focus on long-range planning, asset management, strategy development, training certificate programs, and civic engagement for park, recreation and public lands agencies.

Barry Weiss has been in the Parks and Recreation profession since 1983, working his way up from Recreation Supervisor for the City of Alameda, General Supervisor for the City of Oakland, and Recreation Superintendent for the City of Palo Alto. He is the retired Director of Parks and Recreation for the City of San Carlos, California. He administered the award-winning parks and recreation department for eight years through 2008. Barry led San Carlos to 14 statewide awards from the California Park and Recreation Society, and 15 district awards including awards for facility design, park planning, economic development, and innovative programming. On March 6, 2009 Barry was inducted into the California Park and Recreation Society Hall of Fame.


Documents

MANAGEMENT - Health, sport and recreation books and … · 2016-04-29 · MANAGEMENT of Park and Recreation Agencies ... Betty’s career in parks and recreation lasted over 50 years,