Management Principles

Craig W. Fontaine, Ph.D.

Motivation

Some definitions:• Performance is a product of motivation and

ability moderated by situation constraints• Ability is an individual’s capacity to perform certain tasks• Situational constraints refers to factors in the workplace

that hinder performance

Motivation………..

The Context of MotivationThe Context of Motivation

Defining MotivationDefining Motivation

Key Elements

1. Intensity: how hard a person tries

2. Direction: toward beneficial goal

3. Persistence: how long a person tries

Key Elements

1. Intensity: how hard a person tries

2. Direction: toward beneficial goal

3. Persistence: how long a person tries

Motivation

The processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal.

The Nature of Motivation (cont’d)The Nature of Motivation (cont’d)

Intrinsic Motivation– Behavior that is performed for its own sake.

• The source of the motivation that comes from actually engaging in the behavior.

• The sense of accomplishment and achievement derived from doing the work itself

Extrinsic Motivation– Behavior that is performed to acquire material

or social rewards or to avoid punishment.• The source of the motivation is the consequences of the

behavior and not the behavior itself.

Theories of MotivationTheories of Motivation

Hierarchy of Needs Theory (Maslow)Hierarchy of Needs Theory (Maslow)

Hierarchy of Needs Theory

There is a hierarchy of five needs—physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization; as each need is substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant.

Self-Actualization

The drive to become what one is capable of becoming.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of NeedsMaslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Lower-Order NeedsNeeds that are satisfied externally; physiological

and safety needs.

Higher-Order NeedsNeeds that are satisfied

internally; social, esteem,

and self-actualization needs.

Source: Motivation and Personality , 2nd ed,, by A.H. Maslow, 1970. Reprinted by permission of Prentice Hall, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.

Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of NeedsMaslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Self-actualization

Esteem

Social

Safety

PhysiologyFood

Achievement

Status

Friendship

Stability

Job

Friends

Pension

Base

NEEDS

General Examples Organizational Examples

jobChallenging

title

at work

plan

salary

Alderfer’s ERG Theory Alderfer’s ERG Theory

ERG Theory is slightly different then Need Theory (Maslow)– People’s needs are grouped into three overlapping

categories—existence, relatedness, and growth.– Maslow’s hierarchy is collapsed into three levels:

• Existence needs related to physiological and safety needs.

• Relatedness needs that are similar to social and esteem by others.

• Growth needs encompass needs for self-esteem and self-actualization.

– ERG theory assumes that:• Multiple needs can be operative at one time (there is no absolute

hierarchy of needs – Unlike Need Theory

• If a need is unsatisfied, a person will regress to a lower-level need and pursue that need (Frustration Regression).

Physiological

Safety & Security

Social

Esteem

SA

Existence

Relatedness

Growth

Need Theory compared to ERG TheoryNeed Theory compared to ERG Theory

Theory X and Theory Y (Douglas McGregor)Theory X and Theory Y (Douglas McGregor)

Theory X

Assumes that employees dislike work, lack ambition, avoid responsibility, and must be directed and coerced to perform.

Theory Y

Assumes that employees like work, seek responsibility, are capable of making decisions, and exercise self-direction and self-control when committed to a goal.

Naturally indolent (Lazy) Lack ambition, dislike

responsibility, and prefer to be led

Inherently self-centered and indifferent to organizational needs

Naturally resistant to change Gullible, not bright, ready dupes

Adapted from Table 5.1 which is from “The Human Side of Enterprise” by Douglas M. McGregor, reprinted from Management Review, November 1957. Copyright 1957 American Management Association International. Reprinted by permission of American Management Association International, New York, NY. All rights reserved. http://www.amanet.org.

Assumptions of Theory XAssumptions of Theory X

Experiences in organizations result in passive and resistant behaviors; they are not inherent

Motivation, development potential, capacity for assuming responsibility, readiness to direct behavior toward organizational goals are present in people

Management’s task—arrange conditions and operational methods so people can achieve their own goals by directing efforts to organizational goals

Adapted from Table 5.1 which is from “The Human Side of Enterprise” by Douglas M. McGregor, reprinted from Management Review, November 1957. Copyright 1957 American Management Association International. Reprinted by permission of American Management Association International, New York, NY. All rights reserved. http://www.amanet.org.

Assumptions of Theory YAssumptions of Theory Y

Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene TheoryHerzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory

Intrinsic factors are related to job satisfaction, while extrinsic factors are associated with dissatisfaction.– Motivator needs relate to the nature of the work

itself—autonomy, responsibility, interesting work.

– Hygiene needs are related to the physical and psychological context of the work—comfortable work environment, pay, job security.

• Unsatisfied hygiene needs create dissatisfaction; satisfaction of hygiene needs does not lead to motivation or job satisfaction.

The Two-Factor Theory of Motivation

The Two-Factor Theory of Motivation

Satisfaction No satisfaction

Motivation Factors• Achievement• Recognition• The work itself• Responsibility• Advancement

and growth

Dissatisfaction No dissatisfaction

Hygiene Factors• Supervisors• Working conditions• Interpersonal relations• Pay and security• Company policies and

administration

Comparison of Satisfiers and Dissatisfiers

Comparison of Satisfiers and Dissatisfiers

Factors characterizing events on the job that led to extreme job dissatisfaction

Factors characterizing events on the job that

led to extreme job satisfaction

Source: Reprinted by permission of Harvard Business Review. An exhibit from One More Time: How Do You Motivate Employees? by Frederick Herzberg, September–October 1987. Copyright © 1987 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College: All rights reserved.

Contrasting Views of Satisfaction and DissatisfactionContrasting Views of Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction

David McClelland’s Theory of NeedsDavid McClelland’s Theory of Needs

nAch

nPow

nAff

Need for Achievement

The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed.

Need for Affiliation

The desire for friendly and close personal relationships.

Need for Power

The need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise.

Goal-Setting Theory

The theory that specific and difficult goals, with feedback, lead to higher performance.

Characteristics of Goals–Goal difficulty

• Extent to which a goal is challenging and requires effort.• People work harder to achieve more difficult goals.• Goals should be difficult but attainable.

–Goal specificity• Clarity and precision of the goal.• Goals vary in their ability to be

stated specifically.

Goal-Setting Theory (Edwin Locke)Goal-Setting Theory (Edwin Locke)

Other considerations– Acceptance

• The extent to which persons accept a goal as their own.

– Commitment• The extent to which an individual is

personally interested in reaching a goal.

Goal-Setting Theory (continued)Goal-Setting Theory (continued)

Reinforcement TheoryReinforcement Theory

Concepts:

Behavior is environmentally caused.

Behavior can be modified (reinforced) by providing (controlling) consequences.

Reinforced behavior tends to be repeated.

Concepts:

Behavior is environmentally caused.

Behavior can be modified (reinforced) by providing (controlling) consequences.

Reinforced behavior tends to be repeated.

The assumption that behavior is a function of its consequences.

Reinforcement Theory and LearningReinforcement Theory and Learning

Reinforcement Theory– Based on the idea that behavior is a function of

its consequences.• Behavior that results in pleasant consequences (reward)

is likely to be repeated.• Behavior that results in unpleasant consequences

(punishment) is less likely to be repeated.

“Responses that produce a satisfying effect in a particular situation become more likely to occur again in that situation, and responses that produce a discomforting effect become less likely to occur again in that situation”

From: Edward Thorndike’s “Law of Effect”

Types of Reinforcement in OrganizationsTypes of Reinforcement in Organizations

Positive Reinforcement– A reward or other desirable consequence that follows

behavior. Avoidance (Negative Reinforcement)

– Rather than receiving a reward following a desirable behavior, the person is given the opportunity to avoid an unpleasant consequence.

Extinction– Decreases the frequency of behavior by eliminating a

reward or desirable consequence that follows that behavior. Punishment

– An unpleasant, or aversive, consequence that results from behavior.

Types of Reinforcement – Examples of UseTypes of Reinforcement – Examples of Use

Positive Reinforcement and avoidance can be used to motivate desired behaviors by employees

Extinction and Punishment can be used to change undesired employee

Types of Reinforcemene – Example of UseTypes of Reinforcemene – Example of Use

Schedules of ReinforcementSchedules of Reinforcement

Continuous Reinforcement

A desired behavior is reinforced each time it is demonstrated.

Intermittent Reinforcement

A desired behavior is reinforced often enough to make the behavior worth repeating but not every time it is demonstrated.

Schedules of Reinforcement (cont’d)Schedules of Reinforcement (cont’d)

Fixed-Interval Schedule

Rewards are spaced at uniform time intervals.

Variable-Interval Schedule

Rewards are initiated after a fixed or constant number of responses.

Schedules of Reinforcement (cont’d)Schedules of Reinforcement (cont’d)

Fixed-ratio

2–

Intermittent Schedules of ReinforcementIntermittent Schedules of Reinforcement

Intermittent Schedules of Reinforcement (cont’d)Intermittent Schedules of Reinforcement (cont’d)

Related Aspects of LearningRelated Aspects of Learning

Reinforcement Generalization– The process of recognizing relationships between

behavior and reinforcement in different settings.

Social Learning– Occurs when people observe the behaviors of others,

recognize their consequences, and alter their own behaviors as a result.

Equity TheoryEquity Theory

Adams proposed that a worker’s motivation is based on social comparison.

Individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with those of others and then respond to eliminate any inequities.

There can be:• Equity • Underpayment• Overpayment

Equity Theory (cont’d)Equity Theory (cont’d)

Condition Person Referent Example

EquityEquityEquityEquity OutcomesOutcomes = = OutcomesOutcomesInputs InputsInputs Inputs

OutcomesOutcomes = = OutcomesOutcomesInputs InputsInputs Inputs

Worker contributesWorker contributesmore inputs but alsomore inputs but also

gets more outputsgets more outputsthan referentthan referent

Worker contributesWorker contributesmore inputs but alsomore inputs but also

gets more outputsgets more outputsthan referentthan referent

UnderpaymentEquity

UnderpaymentEquity

Outcomes < OutcomesInputs Inputs

Outcomes < OutcomesInputs Inputs

Worker contributesmore inputs but also

gets the same outputsas referent

Worker contributesmore inputs but also

gets the same outputsas referent

OverpaymentOverpaymentEquityEquity

OverpaymentOverpaymentEquityEquity

OutcomesOutcomes > > OutcomesOutcomesInputs InputsInputs Inputs

OutcomesOutcomes > > OutcomesOutcomesInputs InputsInputs Inputs

Worker contributesWorker contributessame inputs but alsosame inputs but also

gets more outputsgets more outputsthan referentthan referent

Worker contributesWorker contributessame inputs but alsosame inputs but also

gets more outputsgets more outputsthan referentthan referent

Responses to Perceptions of Equity and InequityResponses to Perceptions of Equity and Inequity

Equity Theory – Related ConceptsEquity Theory – Related Concepts

Distributive Justice

Perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of rewards among individuals.

Procedural Justice

The perceived fairness of the process to determine the distribution of rewards.

A cognitive theory, assumes workers to be a rational decision maker who will expend energy on activities that lead to desired rewards

Three basics elements:• Expectancy an individuals perception that their

effort (E) will result in performance (P)• Instrumentality an individual’s perception that

performance will lead to desired outcome (O)• Valance the value the individual places on

outcome (V)

Expectancy TheoryExpectancy Theory

OutcomeEffort Performance

InstrumentalityExpectancy

Basic Concepts of Expectancy TheoryBasic Concepts of Expectancy Theory

Valance

Expectancy Theory Relationships SummaryExpectancy Theory Relationships Summary

Effort–Performance Relationship– The probability that exerting a given amount of

effort will lead to performance. Performance–Reward Relationship

– The belief that performing at a particular level will lead to the attainment of a desired outcome.

Rewards–Personal Goals Relationship– The degree to which organizational rewards

satisfy an individual’s goals or needs and the attractiveness of potential rewards for the individual.

The Porter-Lawler ModelThe Porter-Lawler Model

The model predicts that satisfaction The model predicts that satisfaction is determined by the perceived equity is determined by the perceived equity of intrinsic and extrinsic rewards for of intrinsic and extrinsic rewards for high-level performance.high-level performance.

Reference: Figure from Porter, Lyman W., and Edward E. Lawler, Managerial Attitudes and Performance. Copyright © 1968. Reproduced by permission of the publisher, McGraw-Hill, Inc.

Summary and Implications for ManagersSummary and Implications for Managers

Need TheoriesMaslow’s hierarchy, Two factor, ERG, & McClelland’s

Goal Setting TheoryClear and difficult goals often lead to higher levels of employee productivity.

Reinforcement TheoryGood predictor of quality and quantity of work, persistence of effort, absenteeism, tardiness, and accident rates.

Equity TheoryStrongest when predicting absence and turnover behaviors.Weakest when predicting differences in employee productivity.

Expectancy TheoryFocus on performance variablesIt is a “rational” model so be careful when using itThis theory may be better applied to employees with greater discretion in their jobs (i.e., as opposed to semi-skilled positions)

Popular Motivational StrategiesPopular Motivational Strategies

Empowerment and Participation– Empowerment

• The process of enabling workers to set their own work goals, make decisions, and solve problems within their sphere of influence.

– Participation• The process of giving employees a voice in making

decisions about their work.

– Areas of Participation for Employees• Making decisions about their jobs.• Decisions about administrative matters (e.g., work

schedules).• Participating in decision making about broader issues of

product quality.

SpecificActions that

Empower

Actions That Empower EmployeesActions That Empower Employees