MangoBooklet No. 53

Fruit Production: FPS - 1

ContentsPreface I. Introduction II. Climate III. Soil IV. Varieties V. Propagation VI. Fertilizer Application VII. Irrigation VIII. Pruning and Training IX. Weed Control X. Problems of Unfavourable Climatic Conditions XI. Flowering and Fruiting XII. Harvesting and Yield XIII. Grading, Storage and Marketing XIV. Intercropping XV. Uses and Composition XVI. Rejuvenation of Orchards XVII. Economics of Cultivation

Preface

Mango is one of the most important indigenous fruit of India and is called the "king of fruits". Its cultivation is highly lucrative both in terms of nutrition as well as income. Besides, mango is one of the few Indian fruits which have tremendous export potential. This booklet discusses all the important aspects of mango cultivation. Inclusion of latest varieties (hybrids as well as seedling selections) and methods of propagation (such as veneer grafting and epicotyl grafting) is the main feature of this booklet.

Dr. K.T. Chandy, Agricultural & Environmental Education

I. Introduction

Mango (Mangifera indica L) is the most common, popular and the choicest fruit of our country which occupies nearly half of the total area under fruits in the country. It is considered to be the 'King of Fruits'. Botanically it belongs to the family Anacardiaceae. It has probably originated in the regions of India adjoining Burma, thus has an Indo-Burman origin. India is the largest mango producer in the world accounting for 66.2 % of the total world production. It is now widely cultivated and is a common fruit of Mexico, Brazil, Pakistan, Philipipines, Indonesia, China, Haiti and Bangladesh. The important mango growing states in India are U.P., Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Madras, Orissa, Bombay, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh and Punjab. Mango occupies over 50 % of the total area under fruits in India with a total production of 8.21 million tonnes. Uttar Pradesh has the largest area (33.2%) followed by Bihar (13.5%) and Andhra Pradesh (13.4 %). It has both medicinal and industrial importance and almost all the parts of the tree are used for multifarious uses. It is available to the common man, is rich in

vitamin A (4800 IU/l00g) and vitamin C (13 mg/l00g) of ripe mango, has an excellent flavour, taste and fragrance and can be used for canning purpose.

II. Climate

Mango is essentially a tropical fruit but also thrives well under subtropical conditions. It can grow up to an altitude of 1500 m above sea level. However, cultivation above 600 m results in poor fruiting because of rains at flowering time which adversely affect pollination and eventually fruit set besides greater incidence of pests and diseases. Ideal growth takes place between 75-80. F. Both the quantity and distribution of rainfall are important in mango growing. It can grow successfully in areas receiving rainfall from 30 to 75 inches per annum and with a dry distinct summer. High temperature coupled with low humidity, strong winds, hail and frost is injurious to mango cultivation.

III. Soil

Mango grows well in all types of soils such as lateritic, alluvial, sandy loam and sandy soils. However, the best soil for profitable mango cultivation is deep (2-2.5m), well drained soil of loamy texture. Extremely sandy, shallow and stony soils or the soils having hard pan within the subsurface and affected with alkalinity should be avojded. The soil pH considered suitable for mango ranges between 5.5. and 7.5. The water table below 180 cm throughout the year is desirable.

IV. Varieties

The number of commercial varieties of mango is estimated to over 1,000. All these varieties have originated as superior chance seedlings arising from natural crossing or gene mutation. Of these, however, only about 20 varieties are grown commercially. Some of the important commercial varieties are given, according to the period or time of maturity and different region suitable for their cultivation.

1.Early varieties: Bombay Green, Bombay Yellow, Bombai, Himsagar, Kesar, Suvarnarekha, etc.2. Mid-season varieties: Alphonso, Bangalora, Banganpalli, Dashehari, Kishenbhog, Langra, Mankurad, Vanraj, Zardalu, Mallika, etc.3. Late season varieties: Fazli, Fernandin, Mulgoa, Neelum, Samarbehist Chausa, etc.

The most popular commercial varieties of different regions are:

1. Northern region: Dashehari, Langra, Chausa and Bombay Green.2. Eastern region: Himsagar, Langra, Fazli, Zardalu, Krishnabhog, and Gulabkhas.3. Western region: Alphonso, Pairi, Kesar, Rajapuri, Malkurad and Jamadar4. Southern region: Bangalora, Neelum, Swarnarekha, Pairi. Banganpalli, Mulgoa and Badami.

The new mango varieties and their parent stock of few states are given in table 1.

Table 1: New mango varieties and their parents of few states

Sl.No State Variety Parents1 Andhra pradesh

i. Neelgoa (Neelum x Yerramalgoa)

ii. Neeleshan (Neelum x Baneshan)iii. Neeludhin (Neelum x Himayiddin)iv. Swanjahangir (China Swarnrekha x

Jahangir)v. A.U. Rumani (Rumani x Mulgoa)vi. Manjeera (Rumani x Neelum)

2 Bihar i. Prabha Shankar (Bombai x Kalapaddy)ii. Mahmood Bahar (Bombai x Kalapaddy)iii. Alfazli (Alphonso x Fazli)iv. Sunder Langra (Langra x Sundar Pasand)

3 Delhii. Mallika (Neelum x Dashehari)ii. Amarpali (Dashehari x Neelum)

4 Gujarati. Neelphanso (Neelum x Alphonso)ii. Neeleshwari (Neelum x dashehari)iii. Neeleshan Gujarat (Neelum x Baneshan)

5 Maharashtrai. Ratna (Neelum x Alphonso)

6 Karnatakai. Hybrid-10 (Banganpalli x Alphonso)ii. Hybrid-13 (Alphonso x Banganpalli)

A. Promising varieties

1. DashehariThis is the most popular variety of northern India known for its excellent quality, taste

and pleasing flavour. It is a mid-season variety maturing towards the end of June. The fruits are medium in size, elliptical-oblong in .shape and have an attractive greenish-yellow colour. It is a good cropper, though biennial in bearing. It is good for canning and cold storage.

2. Langra It is the second leading commercial variety of North India after Dashehari. It is also a mid

season variety. The fruits are large in size, oblongish-oval in shape and have lime-green colour. Fruit quality is good and keep- ing quality medium. It bears heavily but irregularly.

3. ChausaIt is a late variety maturing towards the end of July 1 or beginning of August. It is one of

the sweetest mangoes lacking acidity. The fruits are large sized, oblong with a characteristic straight line formed by the beak and the apex. Biennial bearing, susceptibility to mango malformation and very vigorous growth habit are its major '1 drawbacks.

4. Bombay Green

It is a very early variety, commonly grown in North India, maturing during the first half of June. The fruits are medium, ovate and yellowish-green. Biennial bearer and highly susceptible to malformation. Fruit quality us good and keeping quality is medium.

5. HimsagarMost popular variety of West Bengal which matures during second week of June. Fruits

are medium sized, oval in shape with yellowish-green colour and rough skin. Sweet in taste and both fruit and keeping quality are good. It is an early variety.

6. FazliIt is a very late maturing variety (matures late in August) with very large sized, green

colour fruits. The tree is very vigorous and medium to heavy cropper with biennial bearing habit. It has moderately good keeping quality.

7. KrishnabhogIt is a mid-season variety, which originated in Bengal. The fruits are medium to large

sized, round and have light yellow colour towards the basal end of the fruit. Both fruit quality and keeping quality are good. It is a heavy yielder and biennial in habit.

8. GulabkhasIt is the foremost commercial variety of Bihar and : has spread recently in West Bengal

and U.P. It is favoured for its characteristic rose flavour and very sweet taste. Fruits are small and medium size, oblong to oblong- oblique in shape, amber-yellow with reddish blush towards the base and the sides. The flesh is firm. and fibreless. This is a heavy yielder but biennial bearing. Both fruit quality as well as keeping quality are very good.

9. AlphonsoIt is the leading commercial variety of Maharashtra and one of the best varieties of India.

It thrives best in a humid coastal climate. The fruits are medium sized, ovate-oblique with a prominent ventral shoulder and yellow in colour. Besides, being a table variety, it is also suitable for canning and cold storage. It has excellent fruit and keeping quality and is one of the few fruits exported from India. It is susceptible to spongy tissue disorder.

10. PairiThis is an excellent variety of western and southern India and is very popular in Madras,

Maharashtra, Mysore, parts of Andhra Pradesh and Kerala. The medium sized ovate fruit has a prominent red blush and is very attractive. It is an early variety maturing around mid-May and June. The bearing is heavy and fruit quality is good. It is a biennial bearer.

11. RajapuriIt is a commercial variety of Gujarat, the fruits are very large sized, ovate to ovate-oblong

In shape; golden yellow in colour. The bearing is moderate and the fruits mature by the beginning of June. It is a good quality mango but biennial in habit.

12. BangaloraA leading variety of South India. It is a heavy yielder and one of the few regular bearing

varieties of mango. It is also commonly known as 'Totapuri' in Bangalore. Fruits are medium to large, oblong with a prominent beak and sinus and apricot-yellow in colour. Fruit quality is poor to medium but is preferred by the processing industry because of its, regular supply and long shelf life.

13. NeelumThis is another commercial, high yielding and highly regular bearing variety indigenous

to Tamil Nadu. It has a very good keeping quality thus easily transportable to distant markets. The fruit is medium sized and the shape is ovate-oblique. Fruit colour is orange-yellow and the taste is good with an acidic blend. It is a late variety.

14. SwarnarekhaAlso known as Chinnaswarnarekha and Sundari in the Delhi market. It has an attractive

deep-red blush on the skin. Fruit size is medium, ovate-oblong shape and has a fairly good fruit quality. It is a very early variety found in coastal Andhra Pradesh. The bearing is heavy but biennial in habit.

15. BanganpalliIt is a commercial variety of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. It is also known as

Baneshan in the South and Safeda in the North. Bearing is heavy and it is a mid-season fruit. It does well in the dry regions. Fruit is large, obliquely oval, golden-yellow arid flavour is pleasant. It has a thin and smooth skin. Both fruit and keeping quality are good and can stand transport to distant markets. It is also good for canning purpose.

16. Mulgoa It is a commercial table variety of the south. It is an excellent late variety. Fruit size is

large, roundish oblique, base obliquely flattened. The taste is very sweet and flavour delightful. Both fruit and keeping quality are good. It is suitable for making preserves and two strains namely red and white are reported.

B. Promising hybridsAfter working incessantly for decades, various re- search centres have now released

some promising hybrids for general cultivation. The common features of these hybrids are regular annual fruiting, good fruit quality and can be used for high density orchard plantation.

1. Hybrids from Sabour

a. Prabha shankhar (Bombai x Kalpady)It is same as Bombai in shape and size of the fruit but ripens by the end of June, about a

fortnight later than Bombai. Keeping quality is good. It is a regular bearer. Pulp is very sweet. Trees are of medium height with good yield potential.

b. Mahmud bahar (Bombai x Kalpady)Trees are sturdy and of medium stature. Bearing is fairly regular and yield potential is

good. Fruits are almost like Prabha shankar in physical appearance but smaller in size. Pulp is completely fibreless and sweet.

c. Rajendra mango-1 (Langra x Sunderprasad)Tree is medium and spreading. Bearing is moderate and regular. Fruits are large and

similar to those of Langra in physical appearance. Pulp is yellow, firm, sweet and mildly flavoured. Keeping quality is fair. It matures in the last week of June.

d. Rajendra mango-2 (Alphonso x Fazli)Tree of this hybrid grows somewhat tall and erect and bears a medium crop regularly.

Fruits are greenish and bigger in size like Fazli. Pulp is fibreless but of average quality. It ripens in the end of June, about a month earlier than Fazli.

2. Hybrids from IARI, New Delhi

a. Amrapali (Dashehari x Neelum)It is a dwarf, regular bearer, late variety and rich in Vito A content. It yields on an

average 16 tonnes/ha and 1600 plants of this variety are planted/ha at the distance of 2.5 x 2.5 m. It is highly susceptible to mal- formation of panicles.

b. Mallika (Neelum x Dashehari)A regular bearing, mid-season variety. Fruits are medium sized and have firm fruit

texture. They have a long storage life. However, the variety is susceptible to bacterial canker in northern India and gives low yield.

3. Hybrid from Sangareddy Manjeera (Rumani x Neelum)It is a regular bearer, heavy yielder with medium sized fruits. Fruits are light yellow in

colour, fibreless and sweet in taste.

4. Hybrid from Vengurla Ratna (NeelumxAlphonso)Tree is moderately vigorous, yet highly regular and is a precocious bearer. Fruits are

free from spongy tissue disorder and possesses attractive fruit shape, size, colour and good fruit quality. Flesh is firm and fibre less and fruits have long storage capacity.

5. Hybrids from Kodur Neelphonso-(Neelum x Alphonso)N eeleshan-(N eelum x Baneshan)Neeleshwari-(Neelum x Dashehari)

All these hybrids have been developed from Gujarat Agricultural University, Paria. They are dwarf in nature Iand have high total soluble solids (TSS), total sugars and vitamin C contents.

6. Hybrids from llHR, Bangalore

a. Hybrid-10 (Banganpalli x Alphonso)A dwarf, regular bearer with profuse bearing habit. Fruits are large in size, attractive skin

colour with red blush. Pulp is fibreless having good flavour and free from spongy tissue disorder.

b. Hybrid-t3 (Alphonso x Banganpalli)It is a heavy and a regular bearing tree. It is a semi

-vigorous plant type. Fruit is medium sized with attractive red skin colour. Pulp is firm, fibreless and free from spongy tissue problem. Keeping quality is very good and is suitable for export market.

Table 2: Important mango varieties cultivated in different states

Sl.No State Varieties grown1 Andhra Pradesh Allumpur,Baneshan, Banganpalli, Bangalora,

Cherukrasam, himayuddin, Swarnarekha.2 Bihar Batbua, Bombai, Himsagar, Kishenbhog, Sukul,

Fernandin, Mankurad.3 Goa Fernandin, Mankurad

4 Gujarat Alphonso, Kesar, Rajapuri, Vanraj.5 Haryana Dashehari, Langra, Sarauli.6 Karnataka Alphonso, Bangalora, Mulgoa, Neelum, Pairi.7 Kerala Mundappa, Olour, Pairi.8 Madhya Pradesh Alphonso, Bombai, Langra.9 Maharashtra Alphonso, Mankurad, Mulgoa, Pairi.

10 Orissa Baneshan, Langra, Neelum, Swarnarekha.11 Punjab Dashehari, Langra, Samarbehisht, Chausa.12 Tamil Nadu Banganpalli, Bangalora, Neelum, Rumani, Mulgoa.13 U.P. Dashehari, Langra, Safeda, Lucknow, Samarbehist,

Chausa, Bombay Green, Fajri.14 West Bengal Bombai, Himsagar, Kishenbhog, Langra, Zardalu.

C. Monoembryonic and polyembryonic mangoesThere are two distinct races in mango viz. mono-embryonic and poly-embryonic. Mono-

embryonic mangoes consist of a single embryo which gives rise to a single hybrid plant not true to the type (i.e. do not have the characteristics of parents) therefore, they are raised by asexual propagation. Almost all the varieties of India are mono-embryonic. But there are mango seed which contains several embryos out of which only one will be the result of crossing of two different varieties, while the remaining ones will be breeding true to type like parents. Poly-embryonic types are nowadays used for raising gene- tically uniform clonal rootstock which are presently lacking in mango. These are mostly concentrated in the South especially Malabar. Also found in the moist tropics of S.E. Asia such as Malaysia, the Philippines and Indonesia. Some of the poly-embryonic varieties are Bappakai, Chandrakaran, Goa, Kurukkan, Olour, Bellary, Kasargod, Mazagoan, Nileshwar, Dwarf and Salem.

V. Propagation

Mango can be propagated by seed as well as by vegetative or asexual means. Asexual propagation is preferred, to obtain uniform and standard quality crops. The commercial method of vegetative propagation in mango are veneer grafting, side grafting and inarching. The other methods include epicotyl/stone grafting, budding, layering and cutting.

1. Selection of seed stoneRoot-stock are generally raised from mango stones, selected from fully ripe fruits which

should be obtained from healthy, disease free and high yielding trees of seedling mangoes during July-August. Stones may be collected from local trees or nearby markets during the season. Stones are stored in the shade for about a month in layers of wood charcoal and should be free from pulp.

2. Preparation of nursery bedMango stones should be sown within a week of extraction as there are chances of losing

their viability. A seed : nursery should be prepared under the shade of tall trees away from their trunk for protection from frost, hot winds and heavy rain. The bed may be well prepared and manure with 8-10 tonnes of farmyard manure (FYM) t per hectare. Medium clay soil or silt is the best sowing medium for easy lifting of seedlings with ball of earth. The soil should be worked to a fine tilth up to a depth of 20-30 cm and free from pebbles, stones, etc. to avoid developing crooked stem seedlings. The stones are sown in lines 45 cm apart at a depth of about 3 cm. Stone to stone distance within the line is kept at 15 to 20 cm. They are placed in the soil with the plumule up in order to avoid distortion of seedlings. Mulching the beds with rice straw, sarkanda,

etc increases seed germination. The bed is immediately irrigated after sowing; and subsequent Irrigations are given to keep the soil moist. Germination takes place in about three weeks. The seedlings can be grafted when they attain the height of about 45 cm and 0.75 to 1.5 cm thickness at 20 cm from the ground level. For inarching, the seedlings are transferred to the earthen pots when they are 6-9 months old and attain inarchable height of 30-45 cm with a thickness of 0.75 to 1.50cm.

Raising of seedlings as rootstock in polythene bags is also becoming a common practice among various nurserymen. The soil is removed around the seedling and the roots are covered with moss grass or hay. The roots are then dipped in water and the intact plant is kept under shade for around 8 days and watered regularly. The roots and moss are then wrapped tightly in polythene film and used for grafting and hung directly from the scion branch. Humid weather is favourable for transplanting the seedlings. Transplanting of seedlings over 8 months of age should be avoided as it might result in i! the death of the seedling.

3. Land preparation for plantingFor planting the seedlings in the field, the field should be deeply ploughed, harrowed,

leveled and cleared of weeds. While leveling, a gentle slope should be made uniformly in one direction so as to facilitate the flow of irrigation water. Proper drainage facilities should be provided, the mango seedlings cannot withstand water logging which results in the easy damage of its roots. In the soils, where drainage is a problem, adequate safeguards by trenching or tilling should be made from the beginning to avoid serious loss subsequently. In rainfed areas, water tank or tube wells should be constructed, to conserve the excess water during rains which can be used during drought seasons. Dig planting pit of 1m x 1m x 1m size in the month of May, keeping the top soil and subsoil separate. Mix the top soil with a mixture of about 20 to 25 kg well rotten farmyard manure, 2.5 kg superphosphate and 1 kg muriate of potash or sulphate of potash. The top 30 cm of the filled pit should be incorporated with l50 gm of Aldrin dust (5 %) to avoid insect damage. The pits should be filled before the setting in of heavy rains and left to settle down under the influence of the early showers before the planting is done. Alternately, the pits may be irrigated after being filled for setting the soil before planting.

4. PlantingThe most popular meth04 of planting commonly used in mango is the Square system.

The best time for planting all over India is during the monsoon when there is sufficient moisture in the atmosphere. However, in northern and western India, July-August is the best time, , whereas July to December is the most suitable period in many parts of South India. The spacing depends on several factors such as nature of the soil, type of the tree i.e. whether grafted or seedling, and the variety. The grafted mango trees need to be spaced 9 to 12 m apart in the square system, while the seedling trees may be , spaced 12 to 14 m apart. In general, planting distance varies between 10 to 12m. The dwarf varieties like AmraIpalli are planted at a distance of 2.5 x 2.5m thus accommodating about 1600 plants per hectare. Planting is done during the rainy season, in the evening. While planting, care should be given to the earth ball from breaking and the graft union should be well placed above the ground level. In areas where frost is a menace, the young plants are protected with thatch cover on three sides and the top during cold periods leaving the eastern side open for the entrance of light. To avoid the hot winds of summer in North India, temporary live hedges are planted. Often the young plants produce some flowers, which should be pinched off during the first five years.

VI. Fertilizer Application

Nutritional requirement of mango varies in different regions depending on the type of soil and age of the tree. Recommendations based on age of the tree are described here.

A. Quantity of fertilizers and manuresThe quantity of fertilizers and manures for nonbearing and bearing trees are mentioned

below.

1. Non-bearing ageFor non-bearing tree, nitrogen application is of vital importance to promote optimum

vegetative growth in the beginning of the year. However, one year old plant should be supplied with a mixture of 10 kg FYM, 2.5 kg bonemeal and I kg of sulphate of potash. These quantities should be increased every year by 5 kg of FYM, 0.5 kg of bonemeal and 0.4 kg of sulphate of potash till the age of 10 years.

2. Bearing treeA bearing tree requires 726 g of nitrogen, 182 g of P2Os and 671 g of K20. It is also

recommended that in the year of heavy fruiting, the dose of nitrogen should be doubled and extra dose of nitrogen fertilizer should be applied in July-August after the crop is harvested. These requirements may be met by applying 90.8 kg of FYM, 1.82 kg of castor cake, 4.54 kg of bonemea1, 908 g of Ammonium sulphate and 13.62 kg of wood-ash.

B. Time of applicationPlants in non-bearing stage can be supplied with fertilizers in several split dosage during

summer and rainy seasons to avoid leaching losses of nutrients at one time. However, for the bearing trees, time of application is related to the time of the vegetative flush and fruit bud differentiation. The fruit bud differentiation takes place about 4-5 months before flowering. For bearing trees, the fertilizers may be given in two split doses:

1. first dose containing full ammonium sulphate and half of phosphorus and potash just after the harvesting of fruits; and

2. second dose of remaining quantities of these two fertilizers during October, with the last irrigation.

C. Mode of applicationWeeds should be removed from the basin and the fertilizer mixture should be

broadcasted and incorporated up to a depth of 15 cm under the canopy of the plant leaving about 30 cm from the tree trunk.

VII. Irrigation

Under various soil and climatic conditions, the mango requires copious supply of water from the time of fruit setting to fruit ripening and prefers slight moisture stress at the time of bud differentiation and shortly before flowering. The newly set plants are irrigated every third day for the first four to five months during dry season. The bearing trees are generally given 2 to 3 irrigations after the fruit setting at the interval of 15 days. This helps in improving the fruit size and reducing the fruit drop. No irrigation is given during the rainy season. Irrigation of young trees should be done by the modified ring method and that of the bearing trees by flooding or ! by the furrow method.

VIII. Pruning and Training

Mango requires little pruning that involves the periodic removal of the dead and diseased branches and those arising within two feet from above the ground level. The best time for pruning is after the monsoon. Training is an essential practice in the initial 2-3 years which is done to provide a good framework so that the branches are spaced properly allowing proper distribution of sunlight, and preventing their breakage due to crop load during the bearing season.

IX. Weed Control

The orchard should be ploughed and harrowed at least twice annually, once in the beginning of the monsoon season and again at the end of the rainy season to remove the weeds and mulch the soil.

X. Problems of Unfavourable Climatic Conditions

For a profitable mango cultivation, a frost free, dry period at the time of flowering and sufficient heat during the ripening of fruits is essential. The bearing is not good if the humidity is high throughout the year. Frost at the time of flowering is very injurious as the mango blossom and the fruit set are affected. Frequent rains during the flowering period are not congenial to a good fruit set and also increase the incidence of serious pests and diseases such as powdery mildew and anthracnose and interfere with the activity of flies and other insects responsible for pollination. Wind storms at the time of fruit maturity are detrimental since they cause a heavy fruit drop.

Damage caused by winds can be minimized by:

a. planting windbreaks of tall and hardy trees around the mango groves; and

b. proper planning and placing of varieties susceptible to wind-storm, viz. Langra should be planted in the centre of the orchard and the hardy varieties like Taimuria and Safeda Malihabad on the outskirts.

For protection against frost, the young mango trees should be covered with thatch from all the three sides, keeping the eastern side open for sunlight. Effect of mild frost can be prevented by irrigating the field which raises the soil temperature.

XI. Flowering and Fruiting

Mango is a terminal bearer i.e. fruits are borne on terminal shoots and almost all the varieties show alternate or irregular bearing habit which requires certain amount of shoot maturity before flowering. The vegetative growth is produced in two to five flushes-one during spring season, the next at the time of flowering land the subsequent ones depending upon favourable climatic conditions till the tree goes to dormant phase in autumn. Flowering time is closely linked with the fruit- bud differentiation which varies with the variety and the area where it is grown. In most cases, fruit bud differentiation occurs between October and December. Though mango grafts start flowering in the second year, crop should be taken only after the 4th or 5th year. The flowering in mango takes place as early as November- December in Rayalasema area of A.P., February to March in north India and January-February in eastern parts of the country. The grafted mangoes come into bearing in five years and commercial production can be obtained in about seven years. Seedlings take about 10 years. Regular

cropping can be obtained by planting regular bearing varieties such as Totapuri, Neelum etc. Five sprayings of Ethrel at a concentration of 200 ppm coupled with 0.1 % urea are given, beginning from middle of) September at monthly intervals and deblossoming the trees in 'on' years. Mango inflorescence consists of two types of flowers, viz. male and perfect flowers. The number of flowers per panicle varies between 1000-6000, depending upon the variety. The proportion of perfect flowers determines the initial fruit set in mango, but final retention depends on the climatic conditions, Varietal characteristic,etc. Mango is a highly cross-pollinated crop and pollination is through insects and flies. Successful pollination requires a dry and frost free period. During rains and dew, insect activity is reduced, the pollen becomes sticky, increasing the incidence of pests and diseases and the resultant effect impedes pollination and fertilization. Commercial mango varieties such as Dashehari, Chausa, Langra and Bombay Green are self-incompatible and hence Bombay Green for Dashehari and Dashehari for Chausa should be used as pollinizers.

XII. Harvesting and Yield

The fruits should be harvested when they have attained full size, so that they develop characteristic taste and flavour of the variety. Fruits mature between 90 to 120 days from the fruit set stage. The various criteria for judging maturity are:

1. physical development of the fruit, e.g. rounding of ventral edge, development of beak, outgrowing of shoulders, filling up of the hollow at the stem end and development of blush of pink or red colour

2. when one or two ripe fruits fall from the plant naturally;

3. when the specific gravity of fruits ranges between 1.01 and 1.02; and

4. total soluble solids are 12-15 brix.

The specific gravity method is more reliable. For this, fruit samples from various directions of the tree are taken and dropped in a bucket of water; the dipped fruits being indicative of the correct maturity. The most satisfactory tool used at present to harvest the fruits is the mango picker. This consists of a long bamboo pole fitted with a cutting shear at the distal end, under which a fruit collecting net is tied.

On an average, one may get 100 fruits per tree from 5th to 10th year and 500 fruits from 10th to 15th year.

XIII. Grading, Storage and Marketing

1. GradingThe need for standardization of grading in mango has become important due to the

expanding export market for this fruit. Therefore, it is essential to grade the fruit properly before marketing or processing. The grade " standards which are generally used are fruit size or weight, quality of the fruit, uniform colour and stage of maturity. Nevertheless, grading is practised on a small scale, though this is continued to topping where 25 % of the top fruits in the basket are of better quality while the remaining ones are of medium or low quality. This practice of l grading is common in Gujarat and Maharashtra, particularly for alphonso in Chittoor, and Vellore districts in South India for Bangalore, Grape (Pam) and Alphonso and for Dussehri in Uttar Pradesh.

2. StorageMango requires proper storage in order to reach the market in fresh condition and

overcoming the loss incurred during transportation. Green but mature fruits store better than those harvested ripe. The storage temperature for various varieties ranges between 5.6 and 11.1 degree C with a relative humidity of 85-90 per cent. To extend the transit and storage life under refrigerated as well as normal condition, a simple technique is to wash the fruits with an aquous wax emulsion made out of indigenous raw materials and drying them. To minimize spoilage in bruised fruits, fungicides like 1 % sodium orthophenyl phenate (SOPP) or 0.2 % Flit 406 should be applied along with wax emulsion. The addition of growth regulators like malic hydrazide at the rate of 1000-1500 ppm reduces the ripening rate thus extending the storage life. Attempts are also made to increase storage life by irradiation, gas-storage condition in which the fruits are stored in a sealed gas-tight room into which a known amount of CO2 is released and by freeze storage where the mangoes can be frozen as a whole or as slices in sugar syrup, dry slices coated with sugar or as pulp.

3. MarketingThe common practice usually followed by the growers of mango is to auction the

orchards at the flowering stage itself or when the fruits are in their early stage of development. These orchards are taken by the contractors who through other middlemen send their produce to the market. They assemble the fruits at a central place. The produce reaches the market through several agencies such as producers, contractors, commission agents, wholesale merchants and retailers. Co-operative channels of marketing are now being practised in few areas of Gujarat, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh.

XIV. Intercropping

In the initial years of orchard establishment especially up to 10 years of age, intercrops are grown for additional profit. The intercrops should preferably be a short duration vegetable crop or a quick growing fruit plant of short juvenile period. The vegetable crops which may be grown are onion, tomato, radish, carrot, beans, cauliflower, cabbage and palak. Amongst fruit crops, one may grow phalsa, papaya, guava: low chilling peaches, strawberry and pineapple.

XV. Uses and Composition

The mango, because of its great utility occupies a prominent place amongst the fruit crops grown in India and is acknowledged as the king of fruits of this country. Ripe fruits of mango are utilized for preparing squash, nectar, jam, cereal, flakes, custard powder, baby, food, mango leather, mango powder, toffee and soft drinks. Young and unripe fruits are utilized for culinary purposes as well as for preparing pickles and chutney. Various medicinal and industrial uses of mango are, discussed below.

A. Industrial importance1. Several products of mango such as syrups, squashes, jam, jellies, chutneys, mango powder, pickles, etc. are gaining importance in the export market.2. The bark is used in the tanning of leather3. The wood can be used as fuel, as timber for building houses and for making packing cases and percussion drums.4. The leaves can be used as fodder.5. Mango kernel contains 8-10% good quality fat which can be used for soap and as a substitute for cocoa in confectionary.

6. Seedling trees can be grown on the side of gulleys and streams, thus securing soil conservation.

B. Medicinal value1.The ripe fruit is fattening, diuretic and laxative. 2.The smoke of the burning leaves is supposed to cure\ hiccups and throat troubles.3. Kernel is effective against diarrhoea and asthma.4. Baked and sugared pulp is given to patients of cholera and the plague.5. The gum and the resinous substance exuded by the stem and of the harvested fruit are mixed with lime juice and given in cases of scabies and cetaceous afflictions.

The composition of mango fruit differs with the variety and stage of maturity. The unripe green mangoes are reported to have 90 % moisture. 0.7% protein, 0.1 % fat. 8.8 % carbohydrates, 0.01 % calcium, 0.02 % phosphorus, 4.5 mg/l00 g iron, vitamin A-150 IU and 30 mg/I00 g ascorbic acid.

The composition of ripe mango fruits is given in the Table 3.

Sl.No Constituent Amount (%)1 Moisture 86.12 Protein 0.63 Fat 0.14 Carbohydrate 11.85 Fibre 1.16 Mineral matter 0.37 Calcium 0.018 Phosphorus 0.029 Iron 0.03

10 Vitamin A 4800 I.U./100g fruit

11 Vitamin C 13 mg/100g fruit

XVI. Rejuvenation of Orchards

Mango orchards can be rejuvenated by the following methods.

1.Overcrowding of trees should be avoided which results in poor health and performance of the orchard. This is done by uprooting weak and sometimes even healthy trees for proper distribution of light and space and to prevent diseases and pests.2.Trees with hollow trunk resulting in their decline can be saved by filling the hollows with brick or cement mortar.3. By giving proper attention to their interculture, manuring and irrigation.4. The old and weak trees can be rejuvenated by top- working to change them over to superior varieties by side or crown grafting or by budding newly emerged shoots with scion of selected varieties.

XVII. Economics of Cultivation

Net return from one hectare of mango orchard can be cultivated by using the following format.

A. Fixed cost1.Cost of the land Rs. 2.Cost of farm building, storage, structure, etc. Rs. 3.Costoffencing Rs.4.Costofwindbreaks Rs.5.Costofclearing,leveling and bunding of the land Rs. 6.Cost of lay-out Rs. 7. Cost of digging and filling pits Rs.8. Cost of machines, instruments and other accessories Rs. 9. Cost of planting material (includ- ingcasualties) Rs. 10. Cost of roads and paths Rs.

B. Recurring cost1. Cost of manures and fertilizers Rs.2. Cost of insecticides, fungicides and weedicides Rs. 3Cost of other chemicals used such as NAA, Ethrel, etc. Rs. 4.Cost of farm power Rs. 5. Cost of transportation Rs. 6. Cost of farm labour (paid and unpaid)

a. Land preparation Rs. b. Training and pruning Rs. c. Irrigation Rs. d. Weeding Rs. e. Application of fertilizers and manures Rs. f. Application of pesticides Rs. g. Other operations weeding, thinning, etc. Rs h. Harvesting Rs. i. Grading and processing Rs. j. Storing and marketing Rs.k. Any other labour involvement Rs..

7. Interest on fixed cost(@10%) Rs.8. Rent or revenue on the land Rs.. 9. Depreciation

a. Farm structures Rs. b. Farm machinery Rs.

10. Repairs and maintenance Rs.

Tota recurring costs Rs.

C. Income1.Yield of the fruits Rs.2. Yield of woods, leaves etc. Rs.

Net profit = Gross income -Total recurring cost

Purchasing value-Junk valueDepreciation = -----------------------------------------------

Life span

Note: Junk value is calculated only on those articles which are saleable after their life span. The life span of farm building and farm machinery is 15 and 10 years respectively.

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