Mantissa’s assailant, Fuald, anesthetized by order of ... play hopscotch, a course is first laid out on the ground. Depending on the available surface, the course is either scratched

The hurdy-gurdy played not unpleasantly, but something seemed to go wrong in the middle, for the mazurka ended up with the song Marlbrook s'en va-t-en guerre and Marlbrook s'en va-t-en guerre finished quite unexpectedly with an old familiar waltz. Nozdryov had stopped turning the handle for some time, but one of the pipes in the hurdy-gurdy was quite incorrigible and simply refused to be put down and it kept whistling away by itself for a long time [N. Gogol, Dead Souls, David Magarshack, tr., (New York: Penguin, 1961), p. 84].

II — xii — An Undertaking of Immense Proportion.

Mantissa’s assailant, Fuald, anesthetized by order of Messimo, dreams of dark matter monsters at the fringes of the universe. Marta Meringue fields a telephone call from Iphgene Heppleweis. Opening arguments at the trial of Fr. Anselm hinge upon the admissibility of super–natural evidence. Berated at recess by his defence counsel, Piero, to relate the eldritch visitations, the sacrist narrates a ruse meant to distract visitors from their presence. The fjulsfut core sample, used by Ferguson to review the past, continues to deteriorate, mixing Marta’s telephone conversation with Iphgene, Fernand’s indoctrination, and a lengthy homily at the Worms Cathedral.

~ page 153 ~

Magpie hopscotch at Morecambe Pier, England. The rhyme reads: One for sorrow/Two for mirth/Three for a wedding/Four for a birth/Five for rich/Six for poor/Seven for a witch/I can tell you no more (photo by Lupin, April

11, 2004).*

hopscotch (Julio Cortazar)

Act II, Signature xii - (1)

Main Entry: 1hop£scotch

Pronunciation: ‚häp-ƒskäch

Function: noun

Etymology: 1hop + scotch (line)

Date: 1801: a child's game in which a player tosses an object (as a stone) into areas of a figure outlined on the ground and hops through the figure and back to regain the object

born Aug. 26, 1914, Brussels, Belg.

died Feb. 12, 1984, Paris, France

Argentine-French novelist and short-story writer. Born to Argentine parents, he was educated in Argentina. His first story collection, Bestiario (1951; “Bestiary”), was published the year he moved to Paris, where he spent much of the rest of his life. His masterpiece, Hopscotch (1963), is an open-ended novel, or antinovel, in which the reader is invited to rearrange the chapters. One of his stories became the basis for Michelangelo Antonioni's film Blow-up (1966).

*[Image & caption credit and following text courtesy of Wikipedia]:

The court (or course). To play hopscotch, a course is first laid out on the ground. Depending on the available surface, the course is either scratched out in dirt, or drawn with chalk on pavement. Designs vary, but the course is usually composed of a series of linear squares interspersed with blocks of two lateral squares. Traditionally the course ends with a "safe" or "home" base in which the player may turn before completing the reverse trip. The home base may be a square, a rectangle, or a semicircle. The squares are then numbered in the sequence in which they are to be hopped.

Playing the game. The first player tosses the marker (typically a stone, coin or bean bag) into the first square. The marker must land completely within the designated square and without touching a line or bouncing out. The player then hops through the course, skipping the square with the marker in it. Single squares must be hopped on one foot. For the first single square, either foot may be used. Side by side squares are straddled, with the left foot landing in the left square, and the right foot landing in the right square. Optional squares marked "Safe," "Home," or "Rest" are neutral squares, and may be hopped through in any manner without penalty. After hopping into the "Safe," "Home," or "Rest" the player must then turn around and return through the course (square 9, then squares 7 & 8, next square 6 and so forth) on one or two legs depending on the square until he or she reaches the square with their marker. They then must retrieve their marker and continue the course as stated without touching a line or stepping into a square with another player's marker.

Upon successfully completing the sequence, the player continues the turn by tossing the marker into square number two, and repeating the pattern. If while hopping through the court in either direction the player steps on a line, misses a square, or loses balance, the turn ends. Players begin their turns where they last left off. The first player to complete one course for every numbered square on the court wins the game.

Although the marker is most often picked up during the game, historically, in the boy's game, the marker was kicked sequentially back through the course on the return trip and then kicked out.

There are apocryphal stories of hopscotch being invented by Romans or Chinese [http://maf.mcq.org/jeux/jouets/vignettes/en/jd_mcq_marelle_153.php], but the first recorded reference to hopscotch dates back to 1677. In an entry of Poor Robin’s Almanack for that year, the game is referred to as "Scotch-hoppers." The entry states, "The time when schoolboys should play at Scotch-hoppers." The 1707 edition of Poor Robin’s Almanack includes the following phrase: "Lawyers and Physicians have little to do this month, so they may (if they will) play at Scotch-hoppers [The Journal of the British Archeological Association, Vol. 26]."

Since the game was known and popular in the seventeenth century, it is logical to assume that it existed at least a few decades (or perhaps even many centuries) before 1677. But no conclusive evidence has yet been presented to support this theory.

Variants. There are many other forms of hopscotch played across the globe [Lankford, Mary T., Karen Dugan, Hopscotch Around the World (New York: William Morrow, 1992)]. In India it is called Stapu or Kith-Kith, in Spain it's Rayuela. In Latin America, golosa. In Russian it is known as классики (diminutive for the word meaning classes). In Poland, it is called klasy, meaning classes. In Italy it is called campana (meaning bell), or mondo(meaning world). In the Netherlands and Flanders, Hinkelen. In Bosnia, Croatia and Serbia it is called školica, meaning little school. In Malaysia the most popular variant is called tengteng. In Mexico, it is called bebeleche (mamaleche) meaning drink milk or avioncito meaning little plane ("probably because of the shape"). In Puerto Rico

it is called "peregrina" (meaning "pilgrim"- female noun). In Romania the game is called şotron and is widely played by children all over the country. In Brazil it is called amarelinha. The name evolved from marelle, the French name for the game, but was identified to the radical amarelo (yellow) and its diminutive in -inho/a. In Breton, the name is reg or delech. The Albanian variant is call is called rrasavi, which is composed of two words: rrasa ("the flat stone", an object used to play the game) and vi ("line", a reference to the lines that comprise the diagram of the course).

Omphalos of Chiang Rai, Thailand. City pillar (Lak Mueang) of Chiang Rai. Since 1988 located in the temple Wat Phra That Doi Chom Thong, where it is known as Sadue Mueang, the Navel or Omphalos, of the City.*

omphalos


Main Entry: om£pha£los

Pronunciation: ‚äm(p)-f„-ƒläs, -l„s

Function: noun

Etymology: Greek, navel— more at navel

Date: 1855 : a central point : hub 2 , focal point.


Lak Mueang are City pillars found in most cities of Thailand. Usually housed in a shrine which is also believed to house Chao Pho Lak Mueang, the city spirit deity; it is held in high esteem by citizens. It was probably King Rama I, who erected the first city pillar on April 21, 1782, when he moved his capital from Thonburi to Bangkok. The shrine was actually the first building of his new capital, the Palace and other buildings were created later.

Shortly after the shrine in Bangkok, similar shrines were built in strategic provinces to symbolize central power, such as in Songkhla. Further shrines were created during the reign of King Buddha Loetla Nabhalai (Rama II) in Nakhon Khuen Khan and Samut Prakan, and by King Nangklao (Rama III) in Chachoengsao, Chanthaburi and Battambang (now Cambodia). However, after King Mongkut raised a new pillar in Bangkok, no further shrines in the provinces were built until 1944 Then Prime Minister of Thailand Phibul Songkhram had a city pillar built in Phetchabun, as he intended to move the capital to this town. Though this plan failed to get approval by the parliament, the idea of city pillars caught on, and in the following years several provincial towns built new shrines. In 1992, the Ministry of Interior ordered that every province now should have such a shrine. However, as of 2010 a few provinces still have no city pillar shrine. In Chonburi the shrine is scheduled to be finished by end of 2011

[http://www.pattayamail.com/769/news.shtml#hd7; http://www.pattayamail.com/895/news.shtml#hd19].

The building style of the shrines varies. Especially in provinces with a significant Thai Chinese influence, the city pillar may be housed in a shrine that resembles a Chinese temple; as, for example in Songkhla, Samut Prakan and Yasothon. Chiang Rai's City Pillar is not housed in a shrine at all; but, since 1988, is in an open place inside Wat Phra That Doi Chom Thong; it is called the Sadu Mueang, Navel or Omphalos of the City.

An omphalos is an ancient religious stone artifact, or baetylus. In Greek, the word omphalos means "navel" (compare the name of Queen Omphale). According to the ancient Greeks, Zeus sent out two eagles to fly across the world to meet at its center, the "navel" of the world. Omphalos stones used to denote this point were erected in several areas surrounding the Mediterranean Sea; the most famous of those was at the oracle in Delphi. The plant genus Omphalodes in the family Boraginaceae is commonly called navelwort. It is also the name of the stone given to Cronus in Zeus' place in Greek mythology.

Delphi. Most accounts locate the Omphalos in the temple adyton near the Pythia. The stone itself (which may have been a copy) has a carving of a knotted net covering its surface, and has a hollow centre, which widens towards its base. The Omphalos at Delphi came to be identified as the stone which Rhea wrapped in swaddling clothes, pretending it was Zeus. This was to deceive Cronus, his father, who swallowed his children so they could not grow up and depose him as he had deposed his own father, Uranus.

Omphalos stones were said to allow direct communication with the gods. Leicester Holland (1933) has suggested that the stone was hollow to channel intoxicating vapours breathed by the Oracle. Erwin Rohde wrote that the Python at Delphi was an earth spirit, who was conquered by Apollo, and buried under the Omphalos, and that it is a case of one god setting up his temple on the grave of another. Christian destruction of the site in the fourth century at the order of Emperors Theodosius I and Arcadius makes all suggestions about its use tentative.

Jerusalem. In the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem there is also an omphalos. The existence of this stone is based upon the medieval cosmology which saw Jerusalem as the spiritual if not geographical center of the world (see T and O map). This tradition is likely based on an ancient Jewish tradition that saw Jerusalem as the navel of the world [see Midrash Tanhuma to Ezekial 38,12, homilizing on the phrase the nations...that dwell in the middle of the earth]. In the Jewish tradition, the Ark in the Temple in Jerusalem, through which God revealed himself to His people, rested on the Foundation stone marking the "navel of world (this Jewish tradition is known to have begun in Hellenistic times, when Jews were already quite familiar with Greek culture - and thus, might be a deliberate emulation of and competition with the above tradition regarding Delphi)."

Literature. In chapter 1 of James Joyce's Ulysses, Buck Mulligan describes his home in a Martello tower as an omphalos:

Billy Pitt had them built, Buck Mulligan said, when the French were on the sea. But ours is the OMPHALOS.

In chapter 14, Mulligan proposes:

...to set up there a national fertilising farm to be named OMPHALOS with an obelisk hewn and erected after the fashion of Egypt and to offer his dutiful yeoman services for the fecundation of any female of what grade of life soever who should there direct to him with the desire of fulfilling the functions of her natural.

The word also appears in chapter 3, amongst complex imagery of religion, creation and death:

One of her sisterhood lugged me squealing into life. Creation from nothing. What has she in the bag? A misbirth with a trailing navelcord, hushed in ruddy wool. The cords of all link back, strandentwining cable of all flesh. That is why mystic monks. Will you be as gods? Gaze in your omphalos.

The penstocks of the Ohakuri Dam, Waikato Region, New Zealand. They have a diameter of around 4 meters (photo by Ingolfson, November 25, 2007).*

penstock


Main Entry: pen£stock

Pronunciation: ‚pen-ƒstäk

Function: noun

Date: circa 1607 1 : a sluice or gate for regulating a flow (as of water) 2 : a conduit or pipe for conducting water.


A penstock is a sluice or gate or intake structure that controls water flow, or an enclosed pipe that delivers water to hydraulic turbines and sewerage systems. It is a term that has been inherited from the technology of wooden watermills.

In hydro-electric systems and damsPenstocks for hydroelectric installations are normally equipped with a gate system and a surge tank. Flow is regulated by turbine operation and is nil when turbines are not in service. Maintenance requirements may include hot water wash, manual cleaning, antifouling coatings, and desiccation.

The term is also used in irrigation dams to refer to the channels leading to and from high-pressure sluice gates.

Penstocks are also used in mine tailings dam construction, the penstock is usually situated fairly close to the center of the tailings dam and built up using penstock rings, these penstock rings control the water level letting the slimes settle out of the water, this water is then piped back under the tailings dam back to the plant via a penstock pipeline.

Landfills. Penstocks are incorporated into the surface water management systems (drainage) of many landfill sites. Attenuation lagoons are constructed in order to store storm water, limiting the discharge from the site to pre-development rate (green field rate). Penstocks are installed at the outfall from the lagoon so that in the rare event that the surface water becomes contaminated the penstock may be closed. This will have the effect of isolating the site from the watercourse, preventing contamination of the environment.

~ page 154 ~

Panjandrum, a World War II-era experimental British weapon. Taken before trials began at Westward Ho!, Devon, November 12, 1943, by Lieutenant Louis Klemantaski, Royal Navy photographer, from scan of an illustrative plate

in Gerald Pawle, The Secret War (White Lion, 1972), p. 126.*

panjandrum


Main Entry: pan£jan£drum

Pronunciation: pan-‚jan-dr„m

Function: noun

Inflected Form: plural -drums also pan£jan£dra \-dr„\

Etymology: Grand Panjandrum, burlesque title of an imaginary personage in some nonsense lines by Samuel Foote

Date: 1755 : a powerful personage or pretentious official.


Foote's first training for the stage came under the tutelage of Charles Macklin. By 1744, when they appeared onstage together, Macklin had made a name for himself as one of the most notable actors on the British stage, after David Garrick. His appearance as Shylock in Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice at the Drury Lane Theatre in 1741, mesmerized London audiences. Dismissing the conventional comedic approach to the character, Macklin played the character as consummately evil. Following his debut, George II reportedly could not sleep while Georg Lichtenberg described Macklin's interpretation of Shylock's first line - "Three thousand ducats" - as being uttered "as lickerously as if he were savouring the ducats and all they would buy [Findlay, Robert, "Charles Macklin," in Pickering, David, Ed., International Dictionary of Theatre, Vol. 3 (New York, St. James Press, 1996), p. 483]." Following less than a year of training, Foote appeared opposite Macklin's Iago as the titular role in Shakespeare's Othello at the Haymarket Theatre, February 6, 1744 [Howard, Douglas, "Samuel Foote," in Backscheider, Paula, Ed., Dictionary of Literary Biography, Vol. 89: "Restoration and Eighteenth Century Dramatists," 3rd Series (Detroit, MI: Gale Research, 1989), p. 131]. While his first appearance was unsuccessful, it is noted that this production was produced illegally under the Licensing Act of 1737 which forbid the production of plays by theatres not holding letters patent or the production of plays not approved by the Lord Chamberlain. In order to skirt this law, the Haymarket Theatre held musical concerts with plays included gratis [Howard (1989), pp. 131-2].

Following his unsuccessful London appearance, Foote spent the summer season in Dublin at the Theatre Royal, Smock Alley where he found his first success. Returning to England, he joined the company at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane which at that time included such noted actors as Peg Woffington, David Garrick and Spranger Barry [Hartnoll, Phyllis, Ed., The Oxford Companion to the Theatre (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1983), p. 290]. There he played comic roles including Harry Wildair in Farquhar's The Constant Couple, Lord Foppington in Vanbrugh's The Relapse and most notably, the playwright, Bayes in Villiers' The Rehearsal. It was in this role that

Foote publicly showed his gift of mimicry. Borrowing from David Garrick's interpretation of the role, Foote used this role to mock many leading contemporaries [Howard (1989), p. 132].

The Haymarket Theatre. Even with his success onstage, Foote remained impoverished [ibid]. Attempting life as a theatre manager, he secured a lease on the Haymarket Theatre in 1746 [Thomson, Peter, "Haymarket, Theatre Royal," in Banham, Martin, Ed., The Cambridge Guide to Theatre (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1995), pp. 477]. Foote began writing in earnest, producing two pamphlets, A Treatise on the Passions and The Roman and English Comedy Considered [Holland, Peter, "Samuel Foote," in Banham (1995), p. 382]. After illegally producing Othello, Foote opened one of his own plays, The Diversions of the Morning or, A Dish of Chocolate, a satire on contemporary actors and public figures performed by himself, on April 22, 1747 [Hartnoll (1983), p. 290; Howard (1989), p. 132]. The Dish of Chocolate of the title referred to a dish or tea offered by Foote to accompany the musical entertainment while the performance was offered gratis, all done to avoid the Licensing Act. On the morning following the performance, the theatre was locked and audiences gathering for the noon performance (another gimmick to evade the law was to stage the show as a matinée) were turned away by authorities. Foote's jabs at other actors brought the ire of many at Drury Lane and the managers took steps to protect their patent.

Fortunately for Foote, some highly placed friends at court helped the theatre reopen and the play continued. In June, Foote offered A Cup of Tea, a revision of his revue, Diversions, again in the guise of a culinary offering. After a brief trip to Paris, Foote opened The Auction of Pictures which satirized satirist Henry Fielding. A war of wit was launched with each lambasting the other in ink and onstage. Among the verbal missiles hurled, Fielding denounced Foote in The Jacobite's Journal saying "you Samuel Fut [sic] be pissed upon, with Scorn and Contempt, as a low Buffoon; and I do, with the utmost Scorn and Contempt, piss on you accordingly [Howard (1989), pp. 132-3]."

The Fielding quarrel was followed by a more serious quarrel with actor Henry Woodward. This resulted in a small riot that was damaging not only to the Haymarket Theatre but to Foote's reputation. He only began to deflect criticism with the opening of his play, The Knights. This play, unlike his earlier satirical revues, was a romantic comedy set in the country, though he did use this play a vehicle to satirize such things as Italian opera and the gentry of Cornwall [Howard (1989), p. 133].

At the close of the Haymarket season in 1749, Foote left London for Paris in order to spend money he had recently inherited [Murphy, Mary C., and updated by Gerald S. Argetsinger, "Samuel Foote," in Rollyson, Carl and Frank N. Magill, Eds., Critical Survey of Drama, 2nd Rev. Ed., Vol. 2 (Pasadena, CA, Salem Press, 2003), p. 1103]. Upon his return to London in 1752, Foote's new comedy, Taste, was produced at Drury Lane. Foote took aim at the burgeoning art and antiquities market and particularly aristocratic collectors. In his preface to the play, Foote specifies his targets as the "barbarians who have prostituted the study of antiquity to trifling superficiality, who have blasted the progress of the elegant arts by unpardonable frauds and absurd prejudices, and who have vitiated the minds and morals of youth by persuading them that what serves only to illustrate literature is true knowledge and that active idelness is real business [Murphy (2003), pp. 1106-7]."

Taste opens with Lady Pentweazel who believes that the works of art, the Venus de' Medici and the Mary de Medici, are sisters in the Medici family. Two other collectors, Novice and Lord Dupe, claim to be able to determine the age and value of coins and medals by tasting them while Puff, an auctioneer, convinces them and Sir Positive Bubble that broken china and statuary are worth far more than perfect pieces. Lord Dupe follows this advice by purchasing a canvas with the paint scraped off. The foibles of ignorant art collectors and predatory dealers were presented by Foote in this high burlesque comedy. In order for an audience to appreciate high burlesque, they must understand the standards of true taste before they can recognize the conflict between those standards and the characters. The audience that saw the premier of Taste evidently did not understand this conflict as the play was not successful and only played five performances [ibid].

Following the unsuccessful reception of Taste, Foote staged a new production, An Englishman in Paris, inspired by both his trip there and possibly, as Davison suggests, a French play, Frenchman in London which he may have seen [Davison, Peter, "Samuel Foote," in Pickering (1996), p. 333]. Here, Foote satirized the boorish behaviour of English gentlemen abroad. The play garnered wide acclaim and became a part of the repertoires of the Drury Lane and Covent Garden theatres where it remained for a few decades [Howard (1989), p. 135]. While his success was becoming more solidified as a writer, Foote was also in demand as an actor, working at Drury Lane and Covent Garden during the 1753-4 season.

When he found himself out of work in November 1754, Foote rented the Haymarket theatre and began to stage mock

lectures. Satirizing Charles Macklin's newly opened school of oratory, these lectures created a sort of theatrical war, especially when Macklin began to appear at the lectures himself. At one particular lecture, Foote extemporized a piece of nonsense prose to test Macklin's assertion that he could memorise any text at a single reading.

So she went into the garden to cut a cabbage-leaf to make an apple-pie; and at the same time a great she-bear, coming up the street, pops its head into the shop. "What! No soap?" So he died, and she very imprudently married the barber; and there were present the Picninnies, and the Joblillies, and the Garyulies, and the grand Panjandrum himself, with the little round button at top, and they all fell to playing the game of catch-as-catch-can till the gunpowder ran out at the heels of their boots.

This introduced the nonsense term "Grand Panjandrum" into the English language and the name was adopted for the Panjandrum, an experimental World War II-era explosive device, known also as The Great Panjandrum, a massive, rocket-propelled, explosive-laden cart designed by the British military during World War II. It was one of a number of highly experimental projects, including Hajile and the Hedgehog, that were developed by the Admiralty's Directorate of Miscellaneous Weapons Development (DMWD) in the final years of the war. The Panjandrum was never used in battle.

Development. The DMWD had been asked to come up with a device capable of penetrating the 10-foot-high (3.0 m), 7-foot-thick (2.1 m) concrete defences that made up part of the Atlantic Wall. It was further specified that the device should be capable of being launched from landing craft since it was highly likely that the beaches in front of the defences would act as a killing ground for anyone attempting to deliver the device by hand. Sub-Lieutenant Nevil Shute calculated that over 1 long ton (1,016 kg) of explosives would be needed in order to create a tank-sized breach in such a wall. The delivery method for such a quantity of explosives posed a significant problem, and one of the concepts discussed ultimately resulted in the construction of the prototype "Great Panjandrum." The proposed device was composed of two gigantic wooden wheels, ten feet in diameter with steel treads a foot wide, joined by a central drum fitted with the explosive payload. It was to be propelled by sets of cordite rockets attached to each wheel. It was predicted that when deployed with a full 4,000-pound (1,800 kg) load, Panjandrum would achieve speeds of around 60 mph (97 km/h), simply crashing through any obstacles to reach its target. The name "Great Panjandrum" was chosen by Shute as a reference to Samuel Foote's famous extempore nonsense paragraph (though Foote's term was actually "the grand Panjandrum"), and in particular to its closing line "till the gunpowder ran out at the heels of their boots."

The day of the test was described in detail by Brian Johnson, for the BBC documentary Secret War:

"At first all went well. Panjandrum rolled into the sea and began to head for the shore, the Brass Hats watching through binoculars from the top of a pebble ridge... then a clamp gave: first one, then two more rockets broke free: Panjandrum began to lurch ominously. It hit a line of small craters in the sand and began to turn to starboard, careering towards Klemantaski, who, viewing events through a telescopic lens, misjudged the distance and continued filming. Hearing the approaching roar he looked up from his viewfinder to see Panjandrum, shedding live rockets in all directions, heading straight for him. As he ran for his life, he glimpsed the assembled admirals and generals diving for cover behind the pebble ridge into barbed-wire entanglements. Panjandrum was now heading back to the sea but crashed on to the sand where it disintegrated in violent explosions, rockets tearing across the beach at great speed."

Given the results of the trial, it is perhaps not surprising that the project was scrapped almost immediately over safety concerns. However, it has since been claimed that the entire project was a hoax devised as part of Operation Fortitude, to convince the Germans that plans were being developed to attack the heavily fortified defences surrounding the Pas-de-Calais rather than the less-defended Normandy coastline. In particular, the near-complete lack of security surrounding the tests themselves is cited as proof that the Allies wished German spies to know about the project [Johnson, B., The Secret War (BBC Publications, 1978)].

An armature from a small DC fan motor.*

armature


Main Entry: ar£ma£ture

Pronunciation: ‚är-m„-ƒch˜r, -ch„r, -ƒty˜r, -ƒt˜r

Function: noun

Etymology: Latin armatura armor, equipment, from armatus

Date: 15th century - 1 : an organ or structure (as teeth or thorns) for offense or defense. 2 a : a piece of soft iron or steel that connects the poles of a magnet or of adjacent magnets b : a usually rotating part of an electric machine (as a generator or motor) which consistsessentially of coils of wire around a metal core and in which electric current is induced or in which the input current interacts with a magnetic field to produce torque c :the movable part of an electromagnetic device (as a loudspeaker) d : a framework used by a sculptor to support a figure being modeled in a plastic material e : framework 1b ²the armature of the book derives from fourteenth century England— Stanley Kauffmann³


In electrical engineering, an armature generally refers to one of the two principal electrical components of an electromechanical machine–generally in a motor or generator, but it may also mean the pole piece of a permanent magnet or electromagnet, or the moving iron part of a solenoid or relay. The other component is the field winding or field magnet. The role of the "field" component is simply to create a magnetic field (magnetic flux) for the armature to interact with, so this component can comprise either permanent magnets, or electromagnets formed by a conducting coil. The armature, in contrast, must carry current so it is always a conductor or a conductive coil, oriented normal to both the field and to the direction of motion, torque (rotating machine), or force (linear machine). The armature's role is twofold. The first is to carry current crossing the field, thus creating shaft torque in a rotating machine or force in a linear machine. The second role is to generate an electromotive force (EMF).

In the armature, an electromotive force is created by the relative motion of the armature and the field. When the machine is acting as a motor, this EMF opposes the armature current, and the armature converts electrical power to mechanical torque, and power, unless the machine is stalled, and transfers it to the load via the shaft. When the machine is acting as a generator, the armature EMF drives the armature current, and shaft mechanical power is converted to electrical power and transferred to the load. In an induction generator, these distinctions are blurred, since the generated power is drawn from the stator, which would normally be considered the field.

A growler is used to check the armature for shorts, opens and grounds.

Terminology. The parts of an alternator or related equipment can be expressed in either mechanical terms or electrical terms. Although distinctly separate, these two sets of terminology are frequently used interchangeably or in

combinations that include one mechanical term and one electrical term. This may cause confusion when working with compound machines such as brushless alternators, or in conversation among people who are accustomed to work with differently configured machinery.

In alternating current machines, the armature is usually stationary, and is known as the stator winding. In DC rotating machines other than brushless DC machines, it is usually rotating, and is known as the rotor. The pole piece of a permanent magnet or electromagnet and the moving, iron part of a solenoid, especially if the latter acts as a switch or relay, may also be referred to as armatures.

Mechanical.

• Rotor: The rotating part of an alternator, generator, dynamo or motor.

• Stator: The stationary part of an alternator, generator, dynamo or motor.

Electrical.

• Armature: The power-producing component of an alternator, generator, dynamo or motor. The armature can be on either the rotor or the stator.

• Field: The magnetic field component of an alternator, generator, dynamo or motor. The field can be on either the rotor or the stator and can be either an electromagnet or a permanent magnet.

Relation of "armature" to usage in sculpture. A sculpture with a medium that is not self-supporting, or requires reinforcement, is supported by armature[s], which are rigid frameworks. Armatures in electrical machines support windings of insulated wire. Considering that in wound-rotor machines the armature moves, by extension, moving parts attracted by stationary electromagnets are sometimes called armatures.

Armature reaction in a DC machine. In a DC machine, the main field is produced by field coils. In both the generating and motoring modes, the armature carries current and a magnetic field is established, which is called the armature flux. The effect of armature flux on the main field is called the armature reaction.

The armature reaction:

• demagnetizes the main field, and;

• cross magnetizes the main field.

The demagnetizing effect can be overcome by adding extra ampere-turns on the main field. The cross magnetizing effect can be reduced by having common poles. Armature reaction is essential in Amplidyne rotating amplifiers.

thane


Main Entry: thane

Pronunciation: ‚th†n

Function: noun

Etymology: Middle English theyn, from Old English thegn; akin to Old High German thegan thane and perhaps to Greek tiktein to bear, beget

Date: before 12th century 1 : a free retainer of an Anglo-Saxon lord; especially : one resembling a feudal baron by holding lands of and performing military service for the king 2 : a Scottish feudal lord –thane£ship \-ƒship\ noun.

[Following text courtesy of Wikipedia]:

In medieval eastern Scotland, a thane was a local royal official, equivalent to a count, at the head of an administrative and socio-economic unit known as a shires or thanages [Grant, Alexander, "Thanes and Thanages, from the Eleventh to the Fourteenth Centuries," in Alexander Grant and Keith J. Stringer, Medieval Scotland: Crown, Lordship and Community (Essays Presented to G. W. S. Barrow) (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1993), pp. 39–81].

The crossing of the Channel in balloon by Blanchard, 18th century engraving.*

dirigible


Lighter-than-air aircraft with steering and propulsion systems. Airships could be nonrigid (blimps), semirigid, or rigid. They all included a large cigar-shaped bag or balloon filled with a gas such as hydrogen or helium, a car or gondola suspended below the balloon that held the crew and passengers, engines to drive the propellers, and rudders for steering. Attempts to control the flight of balloons began soon after their invention in the 1780s. The first propeller-driven airship, built by Henri Giffard, flew in 1852 in France; design improvements led to construction of the rigid zeppelin (1900). The non-rigid helium-filled blimp was principally developed by Alberto Santos-Dumont (1873–1932). In 1928 Germany began regular transatlantic airship passenger service. Several explosions, particularly the 1937 Hindenburg disaster, and airplane developments made the airship commercially obsolete. See also balloon.


Terminology. In some countries, airships are also known as dirigibles from the French (diriger to direct plus -ible), meaning "directable" or steerable. The first airships were called dirigible balloons. Over time, the word balloon was dropped from the phrase. In modern usage, balloon refers to any buoyant aircraft that generally relies on wind currents for horizontal movement, and usually has a mechanism to control vertical movement.

The term zeppelin is a genericised trademark that originally referred to airships manufactured by the German Zeppelin Company. The word Luftschiff, German for "airship," usually prefixed their crafts' names.

In modern common usage, the terms Zeppelin, dirigible and airship are used interchangeably for any type of rigid airship, with the term blimp alone used to describe non-rigid airships. Although the blimp also qualifies as a "dirigible", the term is seldom used with blimps. In modern technical usage, airship is the term used for all aircraft of this type, with Zeppelin referring only to aircraft of that manufacture, and blimp referring only to non-rigid airships [clarification needed].

There is some confusion around the term aerostat with regard to airships. This confusion arises because aerostat has

two different meanings. One meaning of aerostat refers to all craft that remain aloft using buoyancy: here, airships are a type of aerostat. The narrower and more technical meaning of aerostat refers only to tethered or moored balloons: here, airships are distinct from aerostats. This airship/aerostat confusion is often exacerbated by the fact that both airships and aerostats have roughly similar shapes and comparable tail-fin configurations, although only airships have engines [clarification needed].

The term gondola is used to describe the passenger/instrument area of an airship. There may be one or more.

Early History. Francesco Lana de Terzi is referred to as the "Father of Aeronautics ['Francesco Lana-Terzi, S.J. (1631-1687): The Father of Aeronautics,' http://www.faculty.fairfield.edu /jmac/sj/scientis ts/lana.htm]" in part for his theoretical design of a Vacuum airship circa 1670. Structural limitations have prevented this concept from taking flight ["Would a balloon filled with vacuum instead of helium float?" http://science.howstuffworks.com/question194.htm] .

The father of the dirigible was Lieutenant Jean Baptiste Marie Meusnier (1754–93). On December 3, 1783, he presented an historic paper to the French Academy: "Mémoire sur l’équilibre des machines aérostatiques" (Memorandum on the equilibrium of aerostatic machines). The 16 water-colour drawings published the following year depicted a 260-foot-long (79 m) envelope with internal ballonnets that could be used for regulating lift, and this was attached to a long carriage that could be used as a boat if the vehicle was forced to land in water. The airship was designed to be propelled in the air by three airscrew propellers and steered with a sail-like aft rudder. In 1784, Jean-Pierre Blanchard fitted a hand-powered propeller to a balloon, the first recorded means of propulsion carried aloft. In 1785, he crossed the English Channel with a balloon equipped with flapping wings for propulsion, and a bird-like tail for steerage [Winter, Lumen; Degner, Glenn, Minute Epics of Flight (New York: Grosset & Dunlap, 1933), pp. 26–27].

The 19th century saw continued attempts at adding propulsion to balloons. The first aviation pioneer of Australia was Dr William Bland, a naval surgeon who was sentenced to seven years transportation in a Calcutta court after a duel in Bombay in 1813. In March 1851, Bland sent designs for his 'Atmotic Airship' to the Great Exhibition at the Crystal Palace in London where a model was displayed, this was the year before Henri Giffard flew the first steam-powered dirigible. His idea was to supply power to an elongated balloon with a steam engine installed in a car, Since the lift of the balloon was estimated at 5 tons and the car with the fuel weighed 3.5 tons, the payload was estimated at 1.5 tons. Bland believed that with two airscrews the machine could be driven at 80 km/h (50 mph) and could fly from Sydney to London in less than a week. The first person to make an engine-powered flight was Henri Giffard who, in 1852, flew 27 km (17 mi) in a steam-powered airship [Winter & Degner (1933), p. 36].

Airships would develop considerably over the next two decades: there were reports that on 1 June 1863 Dr. Solomon Andrews had launched the Aereon comprising two horizontal cylindrical gas bags with no motor that "wheeled gracefully and headed back towards them" and that later, pilotless after Andrews had released all ballast, flew in "ascending spirals" and during this ascent that it "was apparent to everyone that the ship was moving with the wind and then against it" with a Herald reporter estimating the speed at 120 mph [Toland, John, The Great Dirigibles: Their Triumphs and Disasters (Courier Dover Publications, 1972 [unabridged republication of the 1957 Holt edition, Ships in the Sky: The Story of the Great Dirigibles]), p. 15]. In 1872, the French naval architect Dupuy de Lome launched a large limited navigable balloon, which was driven by a large propeller and the power of eight people [Brooks, Peter, W., Zeppelin: Rigid Airships 1893–1940 (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1992), p. 19]. It was developed during the Franco-Prussian war, as an improvement to the balloons used for communications between Paris and the countryside during the Siege of Paris by German forces, but was completed only after the end of the war.

Practical comparison with heavier-than-air aircraft. The advantage of airships over airplanes is that static lift sufficient for flight is generated by the lifting gas and requires no engine power. This was an immense advantage before the middle of World War I and remained an advantage for long distance, or long duration operations until World War II. Modern concepts for high altitude airships include photovoltaic cells to reduce the need to land to refuel, thus they can remain in the air until consumables expire.

The disadvantages are that an airship has a very large reference area and comparatively large drag coefficient, thus a larger drag force compared to that of airplanes and even helicopters. Given the large flat plate area and wetted surface of an airship, a practical limit is reached around 80–100 miles per hour (130–160 km/h). Thus airships are

used where speed is not critical.

The gross lift capability of an airship is equal to the buoyant force minus the weight of the airship. This assumes standard air temperature and pressure conditions. Corrections are usually made for water vapor and impurity of lifting gas, as well as percentage of inflation of the gas cells at liftoff [Ausrotas, R. A., "Basic Relationships for LTA Technical Analysis," MIT Flight Transportation Library (1975)]. Based on specific lift (pounds of lift per thousand cubic feet of lifting gas), the greatest static lift is provided by hydrogen (71 lbs. lift/1000 cubic feet of gas) with helium (66 lbs. lift/1000 cubic feet of gas) a close second [Layton, D. M., Basic Aerostatics: A Tutorial (1985)]. At 39 lbs./1000 cubic feet, steam is a distant third. Other gases, such as methane, carbon monoxide, ammonia and natural gas have even less lifting capacity and are flammable, toxic, corrosive, or all three. Operational considerations such as whether the lift gas can be economically vented and produced in flight for control of buoyancy (as with hydrogen) or even produced as a byproduct of propulsion (as with steam) affect the practical choice of lift gas in airship designs.

Considering the Hindenburg disaster, one may question why such a flammable gas as hydrogen was used in the first place, when it is only marginally better than helium as a lifting gas. The answer to this lies in the availability of the gas. Hydrogen can be produced easily and economically through the electrolysis of water, or by chemical reactions, whereas helium exists only in trace amounts and can only be extracted from a few natural gas wells.

In addition to static lift, an airship can obtain a certain amount of dynamic lift from its engines. Dynamic lift in past airships has been about 10% of the static lift. Dynamic lift allows an airship to "take off heavy" from a runway similar to fixed-wing and rotary-wing aircraft. However, this requires additional weight in engines and fuel, negating some of the static lift capacity.

The altitude at which an airship can fly largely depends on how much lifting gas it can lose due to expansion before stasis is reached. The ultimate altitude record for a rigid airship was set in 1917 by the L-55 under the command of Hans-Kurt Flemming when he forced the airship to 24,000 ft (7,300 m) attempting to cross France after the "Silent Raid" on London. The L-55 lost lift as the descent to lower altitudes over Germany compressed the gas left in the cells, and thus the weight of air displaced. L-55 crashed due to loss of lift [Robinson, Douglas H., The Zeppelin in Combat: A History of the German Naval Airship Division, 1912-1918 (Atglen, PA: Shiffer Publications, 1994), p. 294]. While such waste of gas was necessary for the survival of airships in the later years of WW I, it was impractical for commercial operations, or operations of helium-filled military airships. The highest flight made by a hydrogen filled passenger airship was 5,500 ft (1,700 m) on the Graf Zeppelin's around the world flight ["Honors to Dr. Hugo Eckener: The First Airship Flight Around the World," National Geographic, Vol. LVII, No. 6 (June 1930), p. 679]. The practical limit for rigid airships was about 3,000 feet (900 m), and for pressure airships around 8,000 ft (2,400 m) [citation needed].

Modern airships use dynamic helium volume. At sea level altitude, helium only takes up a small part of the hull, while the rest is filled with air. As the airship ascends, the helium inflates with reduced outer pressure, and air is pushed out and released from the downward valve. This allows an airship to reach any altitude with balanced inner and outer pressure if the buoyancy is enough. Some civil aerostats could reach 100,000 ft (30,000 m) without explosion due to overloaded inner pressure [citation needed].

The greatest disadvantage of the airship is size, which is essential to increasing performance. As size increases, the problems of ground handling increase geometrically [Brooks (1992), pp. 7-8]. As the German Navy transitioned from the "p" class Zeppelins of 1915 with a volume of over 1,100,000 cu ft (31,000 m3) to the larger "q" class of 1916, the "r" class of 1917, and finally the "w" class of 1918, at almost 2,200,000 cu ft (62,000 m3) ground handling problems reduced the number of days the Zeppelins were able to make patrol flights. This availability declined from 34% in 1915, to 24.3% in 1916 and finally 17.5% in 1918 [Robinson (1994), p. 373].

So long as the power-to-weight ratios of aircraft engines remained low and specific fuel consumption high, the airship had an edge for long range or duration operations. As those figures changed, the balance shifted rapidly in the airplane's favor. By mid-1917 the airship could no longer survive in a combat situation where the threat was airplanes. By the late 1930s, the airship barely had an advantage over the airplane on intercontinental over-water flights, and that advantage had vanished by the end of WWII.

This is in face-to-face tactical situation, current High Altitude Airship project is planned to survey hundreds of kilometers as their operation radius, often much farther than normal engage range of a military airplane [clarification

needed]. This provides better early warning, even farther than the Aegis system [clarification needed]. The current Aegis system is often based on a sea vessel like Ticonderoga Class and Burke Class, which have restricted radio horizon and line of sight [clarification needed]. For example, a radar mounted on a vessel platform 30 m (100 ft) high has radio horizon at 20 km (12 mi) range, while a radar at 18,000 m (59,000 ft) altitude has radio horizon at 480 km (300 mi) range. This is significantly important for detecting low-flying cruise missiles or fighter-bombers [clarification needed].

The blimp remained a viable military system only until the conventional submarine was replaced by the nuclear submarine. Today, airships are used primarily for command, control and as a communication platform; to establish and maintain reliable and secure connectivity among all forces, provide transparent data across the echelons; precisely locate friendly and enemy forces; detect targets on an extended battlefield at a minimal exposure to enemy forces; real time targeting; navigation assistance; battle management; monitor radio conversations, etc.

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egalitarianism


Main Entry: egal£i£tar£i£an£ism

Pronunciation: -‡-„-ƒni-z„m

Function: noun

Date: 1905 1 : a belief in human equality especially with respect to social, political, and economic rights and privileges 2 : a social philosophy advocating the removal of inequalities among people.


Egalitarianism (from French égal, meaning "equal") is a belief of thought that favors equality of some sort. Its general premise is that people should be treated as equals on certain dimensions such as race, religion, ethnicity, political affiliation, economic status, social status, and cultural heritage. Egalitarian doctrines maintain that all humans are equal in fundamental worth or social status [Arneson Richard, "Egalitarianism," in The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2002), http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/egalitarianism] . In large part, it is a response to the abuses of statist development and has two distinct definitions in modern English [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/egalit arianism]. It is defined either as a political doctrine that all people should be treated as equals and have the same political, economic, social, and civil rights ["Egalitarianism," in The American Heritage Dictionary (2003), http://www.thefreedictionary.com/egalitarianism] or as a social philosophy advocating the removal of economic inequalities among people or the decentralization of power. An egalitarian believes that equality reflects the natural state of humanity [John Gowdy, Limited Wants, Unlimited Means: A Reader on Hunter-Gatherer Economics and the Environment (St Louis, MO: Island Press, 1998), pp. 342; Dahlberg, Frances, Woman the Gatherer (London: Yale University Press, 1975), pp. 989-96; Erdal, D. & Whiten, A., "Egalitarianism and Machiavellian Intelligence in Human Evolution," in Mellars, P. & Gibson, K., Eds., Modeling the Early Human Mind (Cambridge MacDonald Monograph Series, 1996)].

Forms. Some specifically focused egalitarian concerns include economic egalitarianism, legal egalitarianism, luck egalitarianism, political egalitarianism, gender egalitarianism, racial equality, asset-based egalitarianism, and Christian egalitarianism. Common forms of egalitarianism include political, philosophical, and religious.

Political. The framers of various modern governments made references to the Enlightenment principles of egalitarianism, "inalienable rights endowed by their Creator," in the moral principles by which they lived, and which formed the basis for their legacy. This is political egalitarianism.

Philosophical. At a cultural level, egalitarian theories have developed in sophistication and acceptance during the past two hundred years. Among the notable broadly egalitarian philosophies are socialism, communism, anarchism,

left-libertarianism, and progressivism, all of which propound economic, political, and legal egalitarianism. Several egalitarian ideas enjoy wide support among intellectuals and in the general populations of many countries. Whether any of these ideas have been significantly implemented in practice, however, remains a controversial question.

One argument is that liberalism provides democracy with the experience of civic reformism. Without it, democracy loses any tie - argumentative or practical - to a coherent design of public policy endeavoring to provide the resources for the realization of democratic citizenship. For instance, some argue that modern representative democracy is a realization of political egalitarianism, while others believe that, in reality, most political power still resides in the hands of a ruling class, rather than in the hands of the people [Rosales, José María, "Liberalism, Civic Reformism and Democracy," Political Philosophy (March 2010), 20th World Contress on Philosophy, http://www.bu.edu/wcp/Papers/Poli/PoliRosa.htm].

In Christianity. The Christian egalitarian view holds that the Bible teaches the fundamental equality of women and men of all racial and ethnic mixes, all economic classes, and all age groups, based on the teachings and example of Jesus Christ and the overarching principles of scripture [Stagg, Evelyn and Frank, Woman in the World of Jesus (Philadelphia, PA: Westminster Press, 1978)]. However, within the wide range of Christianity, there are dissenting views from opposing groups, some of which are Complementarians and Patriarchalists. At its foundational level, Christian thought holds that "...in Christ, there is neither Jew nor Greek, slave nor free, man nor woman," defining all as equal in the sight of God. Various Christian groups throughout the Common Era have attempted to hold to this view and develop Christian oriented communities. The most notable of these are the Amish and Hutterite groups of Europe and North America, living in agricultural and collective communities.

The tidal current at Saltstraumen, near Bodø, Norway. Two piers of the highway 17 bridge are visible on the far side (photo by Clemensfranz, June 2005).*

maelstrom


Main Entry: mael£strom

Pronunciation: ‚m†(„)l-str„m, -ƒsträm

Function: noun

Etymology: obsolete Dutch (now maalstroom), from malen to grind + strom stream

Date: 1682 1 : a powerful often violent whirlpool sucking in objects within a given radius 2 : something resembling a maelstrom in turbulence.


A maelstrom /'me?lstr?m/ is a very powerful whirlpool; a large, swirling body of water. A free vortex, it has considerable downdraft. Their power tends to be exaggerated by laymen ["Episode 56: Killer Whirlpool," http://mythbustersresults.com/episode56]. There are virtually no stories of large ships ever being sucked into a maelstrom. Tales like those by Paul the Deacon, Jules Verne and Edgar Allan Poe are entirely fictional.

One of the earliest uses of the Scandinavian word (malström or malstrøm) was by Edgar Allan Poe in his story "A Descent into the Maelström" (1841). In turn, the Nordic word is derived from the Dutch maelstrom, modern spelling maalstroom, from malen (to grind) and stroom (stream), to form the meaning grinding current or literally "mill-stream", in the sense of milling (grinding) grain [Merriam-Webster New Book of Word Histories (Merriam-Webster, Inc. 1991), p. 300].

Notable maelstroms. Moskstraumen. The original Maelstrom (described by Poe and others) is the Moskstraumen, a powerful tidal current in the Lofoten Islands off the Norwegian coast [Encyclopedia Britannica (1958)]. The Maelstrom is formed by the conjunction of the strong currents that cross the Straits (Moskenstraumen) between the islands and the great amplitude of the tides. In Norwegian the most frequently used name is Moskstraumen or Moskenstraumen (current of [island] Mosken).

The fictional depictions of the Maelstrom by Edgar Allan Poe and Jules Verne describe it as a gigantic circular vortex that reaches the bottom of the ocean, when in fact it is a set of currents and crosscurrents with a rate of 18 km/hr [B. Gjevik, H. Moe, and A. Ommundsen, "Strong Topographic Enhancement of Tidal Currents: Tales of the Maelstrom," University of Oslo, September 5, 1997; condensed version published as Gjevik, B., Moe, H., Ommundsen, A., "Sources of the Maelstrom," Nature 388: 837–838 (1997), doi:10.1038/42159, http://www.math.uio.no/~bjorng/moskstraumen/bilde r/article.pdf].

Saltstraumen. The maelstrom of Saltstraumen is the world's strongest maelstrom and is located 30 km east of the city of Bodø, Norway. Its impressive strength is due to the fact that it is caused by the world's strongest tide occurring in the same location. A narrow channel connects the outer Saltfjord with its extension, the large Skjerstadfjord, causing a colossal tide which in turn produces the Saltstraumen maelstrom.

Corryvreckan. The Corryvreckan is the third largest whirlpool in the world, and is on the northern side of the Gulf of Corryvreckan, between the islands of Jura and Scarba off the coast of Scotland. Flood tides and inflow from the Firth of Lorne to the west can drive the waters of Corryvreckan to waves of over 30 feet (9 m), and the roar of the resulting maelstrom can be heard ten miles (16 km) away.

A documentary team from Scottish independent producers Northlight Productions once threw a mannequin into the Corryvreckan ("the Hag") with a life jacket and depth gauge. The mannequin was swallowed and spat up far down current with a depth gauge reading of 262 metres with evidence of being dragged along the bottom for a great distance ["Equinox: Lethal Seas," UK/US co-production by Northlight, Discovery Channel, http://ftvdb.bfi.org.uk/sift/title/680755, covers several notable maelstroms].

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Papyrus plant (Cyperus papyrus) at Kew Gardens, London, England (photographed by Adrian Pingstone, June 2005).*

papyrus


Writing material of ancient times and the plant from which it comes, Cyperuspapyrus (sedge family), also called paper plant. This grasslike aquatic plant has woody, bluntly triangular stems and grows to about 15 ft (4.6 m) high in quietly flowing water up to 3 ft (90 cm) deep. The ancient Egyptians used the stem of the plant to make sails, cloth, mats, cords, and principally paper. Paper made from papyrus was the chief writing material in ancient Egypt, Greece, and Rome. In the 8th–9th century AD, other plant fibres replaced papyrus in the manufacture of paper. The plant is now often used as a pool ornamental in warm areas or in conservatories.


Papyrus ( /p?'pa?r?s/) is a thick paper-like material produced from the pith of the papyrus plant, Cyperus papyrus ["Papyrus," in Dictionary.com, http://dictionary.reference.com/browse /Papyrus], a wetland sedge that was once abundant in the Nile Delta of Egypt.

Papyrus usually grow 2–3 meters (5–9 ft) tall. Papyrus is first known to have been used in ancient Egypt (at least as far back as the First Dynasty), but it was also used throughout the Mediterranean region. Ancient Egypt used this plant as a writing material and for boats, mattresses, mats, rope, sandals, and baskets.

Papyrus was first manufactured in Egypt as far back as the third millennium BCE [H. Idris Bell and T. C. Skeat, Papyrus and its Uses (British Museum pamphlet, 1935), http://www-user.uni-bremen.de/~wie/Egerton/BellSk eat2.html]. In the first centuries BCE and CE, papyrus scrolls gained a rival as a writing surface in the form of parchment, which was prepared from animal skins [Cerný, Jaroslav, Paper and Books in Ancient Egypt: An Inaugural Lecture Delivered at University College London (29 May 1947) (London: H. K. Lewis, 1952 [reprint Chicago: Ares Publishers Inc., 1977])]. Sheets of parchment were folded to form quires from which book-form codices were fashioned. Early Christian writers soon adopted the codex form, and in the Græco-Roman world it became common to cut sheets from papyrus rolls to form codices.

Codices were an improvement on the papyrus scroll as the papyrus was not pliable enough to fold without cracking and a long roll, or scroll, was required to create large volume texts. Papyrus had the advantage of being relatively cheap and easy to produce, but it was fragile and susceptible to both moisture and excessive dryness. Unless the

papyrus was of good quality, the writing surface was irregular, and the range of media that could be used was also limited.

Papyrus was replaced in Europe by the cheaper locally-produced products parchment and vellum, of significantly higher durability in moist climates, though Henri Pirenne's connection of its disappearance with the Muslim overrunning of Egypt is contended [Pirenne, Mohammed and Charlemagne, reviewed by R.S. Lopez, "Mohammed and Charlemagne: A Revision," Speculum (1943) pp. 14-38]. Its last appearance in the Merovingian chancery is with a document of 692, though it was known in Gaul until the middle of the following century. The latest certain dates for the use of papyrus are 1057 for a papal decree (typically conservative, all papal "bulls" were on papyrus until 1022), under Pope Victor II [David Diringer, The Book Before Printing: Ancient, Medieval and Oriental (New York: Dover Publications, 1982), p. 166], and 1087 for an Arabic document. Its use in Egypt continued until it was replaced by more inexpensive paper introduced by Arabs. Papyrus was documented as in use as late as the 12th century in the Byzantine Empire, but there are no surviving examples. Although its uses had transferred to parchment, papyrus therefore just overlapped with the use of paper in Europe, which began in the 11th century [citation needed].

Papyrus came in several qualities and prices; these are listed, with minor differences, both by Pliny and Isidore of Seville.

Papyrus is made from the stem of the plant. The outer rind is first stripped off, and the sticky fibrous inner pith is cut lengthwise into thin strips of about 40 cm (16 in) long. The strips are then placed side by side on a hard surface with their edges slightly overlapping, and then another layer of strips is laid on top at a right angle. The strips may have been soaked in water long enough for decomposition to begin, perhaps increasing adhesion, but this is not certain. It is also possible that the two layers were glued together [Maunde Thompson, Introduction to Greek and Latin Palaeography, http://www.archive.org/details/greeklatin00thomuo ft]. While still moist, the two layers are hammered together, mashing the layers into a single sheet. The sheet is then dried under pressure. After drying, the sheet of papyrus is polished with some rounded object, possibly a stone or seashell or round hard wood [Bierbrier, Morris Leonard, Ed., "Papyrus: Structure and Usage," British Museum Occasional Papers 60; ser. ed., Anne Marriott (London: British Museum Press, 1986)].

To form the long strip that a scroll required, a number of such sheets were united, placed so that all the horizontal fibres parallel with the roll's length were on one side and all the vertical fibres on the other. Normally, texts were first written on the recto, the lines following the fibres, parallel to the long edges of the scroll. Secondarily, papyrus was often reused, writing across the fibres on the verso [Bell & Sweat (1935)]. Pliny the Elder describes the methods of preparing papyrus in his Naturalis Historia.

In a dry climate like that of Egypt, papyrus is stable, formed as it is of highly rot-resistant cellulose; but storage in humid conditions can result in molds attacking and destroying the material. In European conditions, papyrus seems only to have lasted a matter of decades; a 200–year-old papyrus was considered extraordinary. Imported papyrus that was once commonplace in Greece and Italy has since deteriorated beyond repair, but papyrus is still being found in Egypt; extraordinary examples include the Elephantine papyri and the famous finds at Oxyrhynchus and Nag Hammadi. The Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum, containing the library of Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus, Julius Caesar's father-in-law, was preserved by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius, but has only been partially excavated.

There have been sporadic attempts to revive the manufacture of papyrus during the past 250 years. The Scottish explorer James Bruce experimented in the late 18th century with papyrus plants from the Sudan, for papyrus had become extinct in Egypt. Also in the 18th century, a Sicilian named Saverio Landolina manufactured papyrus at Syracuse, where papyrus plants had continued to grow in the wild. The modern technique of papyrus production used in Egypt for the tourist trade was developed in 1962 by the Egyptian engineer Hassan Ragab using plants that had been reintroduced into Egypt in 1872 from France. Both Sicily and Egypt have centres of limited papyrus production.

Papyrus is still used by communities living in the vicinity of swamps, to the extent that rural householders derive up to 75% of their income from swamp goods (Maclean et al. 2003b; c). Particularly in East and Central Africa, people harvest papyrus, which is used to manufacture items that are sold or used locally. Examples include baskets, hats, fish traps, trays or winnowing mats and floor mats. Papyrus is also used to make roofs, ceilings, rope and fences.

Although alternatives such as eucalyptus are increasingly available, papyrus is still used as fuel (Maclean 2003c).

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eponym


Main Entry: ep£onym

Pronunciation: ‚e-p„-ƒnim

Function: noun

Etymology: Greek ep‹nymos, from ep‹nymos eponymous, from epi- + onyma name— more at name

Date: 1846 1 : one for whom or which something is or is believed to be named 2 : a name (as of a drug or a disease) based on or derived from an eponym –ep£onym£ic \ƒe-p„-‚ni-mik\ adjective.

periwinkle


In zoology, any of some 80 species (family Littorinidae) of widely distributed, chiefly herbivorous shore snails. Periwinkles are usually found on rocks, stones, or pilings between high- and low-tide marks. The common periwinkle (Littorina littorea), the largest northern species, may grow to 1.5 in. (4 cm) long. It is usually dark gray and hasa solid spiral shell. Introduced into North America c. 1857, it is now common on Atlantic coasts. All periwinkle species are a favourite food of many shorebirds.


Littorina saxatilis [Olivi G., Zoologia Adriatica, ossia catalogo ragionato degli animali del golfo e della lagune di Venezia (Bassano, Venecia, 1792), pp. ix, xxxii, 334, 9 plates], common name of the rough periwinkle, is a species of small sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusc in the family Littorinidae, the winkles or periwinkles.

Distribution. This species is native to the shores of the North Atlantic Ocean, including Hudson Bay, Baffin Island, Greenland, and the Barents Sea, south along the American East Coast to Chesapeake Bay, and along the European coast to the Straits of Gibraltar. This species has also been introduced to San Francisco Bay, on the West Coast of the United States, where it was first observed in 1992.

Shell description. The shell in life often appears green with algae, but the shell itself can be white, red, or brown, sometimes with checkered lines. The shell has 4-5 whorls. Maximum recorded shell length is 19 mm [Olivi, "Littorina saxatilis," in Malacolog 4.1.1: A Database of Western Atlantic Marine Mollusca, http://www.malacolog.org/search.php?nameid=1495; Welch J. J., "The 'Island Rule' and Deep-Sea Gastropods: Re-Examining the Evidence," PLoS ONE 5(1): e8776 (2010), doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0008776].

Habitat. This species frequently lives in salt marshes. it can also be found in crevices of intertidal bedrock, in empty barnacle shells, and under rocks. Like many other periwinkles, this species can survive long exposures out of the water [citation needed]. The species has been recorded alive from depth range 0 - 46 m [Olivi] or up to 183 m (for shells only) [Welch].

In the exposed Galician coast in the Northern Spain, two well differentiated ecotypes are adapted to different shore levels and habitats. The RB ecotype (Ridged and Banded) lives on barnacles in the upper shore. This ecotype displays a larger and more robust shell to resist the attack from predators such as crabs, and a smaller shell aperture in order to reduce the desiccation due to high sunshine exposure. The SU ecotype (Smooth and Unbanded) is found at the lower shore living on mussels. This ecotype shows a smaller and thinner shell with a wider shell aperture to allocate a relatively larger muscular foot providing a higher ability to avoid the dislodgment caused by the heavy wave action. Both ecotypes coexist in an intermediate habitat at the middle shore [Martínez-Fernández M., Bernatchez L., Rolán-Alvarez E., & Quesada H., "Insights into the role of differential gene expression on the ecological adaptation of the snail Littorina saxatilis," BMC Evolutionary Biology 10: 356 (2010), doi:10.1186/1471-2148-10-356].

Life cycle. The marine snail Littorina saxatilis has separate sexes, internal fertilization, and a brood pouch with non-planktonic shelled embryos [ibid].

~ page 158 ~

ultramontane


Main Entry: ul£tra£mon£tane

Pronunciation: -‚män-ƒt†n, -ƒmän-‚

Function: adjective

Etymology: Medieval Latin ultramontanus, from Latin ultra- + mont-, mons mountain— more at mount

Date: circa 1618 1 : of or relating to countries or peoples beyond the mountains (as the Alps) 2 : favoring greater or absolute supremacy of papal over national or diocesan authority in the Roman Catholic Church –ultramontane noun , often capitalized –ul£tra£mon£tan£ism \-‚män-t«n-ƒi-z„m\ noun.


Ultramontanism is a religious philosophy within the Roman Catholic community that places strong emphasis on the prerogatives and powers of the Pope. In particular, ultramontanism may consist in asserting the superiority of Papal authority over the authority of local temporal or spiritual hierarchies (including the local bishop).

History. The term originates in ecclesiastical language from the Middle Ages: when a non-Italian man was elected to the papacy, he was said to be papa ultramontano, that is, a Pope from beyond the mountains (referring to the Alps). Foreign students at medieval Italian universities were also referred to as ultramontanes.

The word was revived but the meaning reversed after the Protestant Reformation in France, to indicate the 'man beyond the mountains' located in Italy. In France, the name ultramontain was applied to people who supported papal authority in French political affairs, as opposed to the Gallican and Jansenist factions of the indigenous French

Catholic Church. The term was intended to be insulting, or at least to imply a lack of true patriotism.

From the 17th century, ultramontanism became closely associated with the Jesuits, who defended the superiority of Popes over councils and kings, even in temporal questions.

In the 18th century the word passed to Germany (Josephinism and Febronianism), where it acquired a much wider significance, being applicable to all the conflicts between Church and State, the supporters of the Church being called Ultramontanes. In Great Britain and Ireland, it was a reaction to Cisalpinism, the stance of moderate lay Catholics who sought to make patriotic concessions to the Protestant state to achieve Catholic emancipation.

The word ultramontanism was revived in the context of the French Third Republic as a general insulting term for policies advocating the involvement of the Roman Catholic Church in the policies of the French government, in opposition to laïcité.

In the above cases, the ultramontanist movement acted as a counterbalance to growing power of the state in Europe. Roman Catholic apologists argued that if the Pope has ultimate authority in the Church, then national churches would be more immune to interference from their governments.

Within the Roman Catholic Church, Ultramontanism achieved victory over conciliarism at the First Vatican Council with the pronouncement of papal infallibility (the ability of the pope to define dogmas free from error ex cathedra) and of papal supremacy, i.e., supreme, full, immediate, and universal ordinary jurisdiction of the Pope. Other Christians not in full communion with Rome declared this as the triumph of what they termed "the heresy of Ultramontanism." It was specifically decried in the Declaration of the Catholic Congress at Munich, in the Theses of Bonn, and in the Declaration of Utrecht, which became the foundational documents of Old Catholics (Altkatholische) who split with Rome over the declaration on infallibility and supremacy, joining the Old Episcopal Order Catholic See of Utrecht, which had been independent from Rome since 1723.

Italian unification under the leadership of Giuseppe Mazzini and Giuseppe Garibaldi dissolved the political entity of the Papal States in 1870. Thus the secular power of the Bishop of Rome, i.e., the Pope, was reduced to one square mile, the smallest sovereign nation on earth (as a result of the 1929 Lateran Treaty which established a Concordat between Vatican City and the nation of Italy). Prior to the demise of the Papal States, the First Vatican Council had been convened by Pope Pius IX.

The Ultramontanist movement after Italian Unification and the abrupt (and unofficial) end of the First Vatican Council in 1870 (due to the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War), and the opposing Conciliarism, became obsolete to a large extent. Some very extreme tendencies of a minority of adherents to Ultramontanism however, especially those attributing to the Roman Pontiff, even in his private opinions, of absolute infallibility even in matters beyond faith and morals, and impeccability, survived and were eagerly used by opponents of the Roman Catholic Church and papacy before the Second Vatican Council (1962–1965) for use in their propaganda. These tendencies however were never supported by the First Vatican Council's dogma of papal infallibility and primacy of 1870, but are rather inspired by erroneous private opinions of some Roman Catholic laymen, who tend to identify themselves completely with the Holy See.

At the Second Vatican Council (1962–1965) the debate on papal primacy and authority re-emerged [citation needed], and in the Dogmatic Constitution on the Church Lumen Gentium, the Roman Catholic Church's teaching on the authority of the Pope, bishops and councils was further elaborated. The post-conciliar position of the Apostolic See did not deny any of the previous dogmas of papal infallibility or papal primacy, rather, it shifted emphasis from structural and organizational authority to doctrinal teaching authority (also known as the Magisterium). Papal Magisterium, i.e., Papal teaching authority, was defined in Lumen Gentium #25 and later codified in the 1983 revision of Canon Law.

See "Ultramontanism," Catholic Encyclopedia (New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1913); "Ultramontanism," in Chisholm, Hugh, Ed., Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th Ed. (Cambridge University Press, 1911); Eternal Word Television Network, "The Gift of Authority."

teleological


Causality in which the effect is explained by an end (Greek, telos) to be realized. Teleology thus differs essentially from efficient causality, in which an effect isdependent on prior events. Aristotle's account of teleology declared that a full explanation of anything must consider its final cause—the purpose for which the thing exists or was produced. Following Aristotle, many philosophers have conceived of biological processes as involving the operation of a guiding end. Modern science has tended to appeal only to efficient causes in its investigations. See also mechanism.

See also Act I, Signature xvi - (16).

~ page 159 ~

". . . nothing of the left . . ."


Matthew 6:3.

But when thou doest alms, let not thy left hand know what thy right hand doeth [KJV].

"But you, when making gifts of mercy, do not let your left hand know what your right is doing . . . [NWT]."

"But when you give alms, do not let your left hand know what your right hand is doing [NAS]."

revanche


Main Entry: re£vanche

Pronunciation: r„-‚väŸsh

Function: noun

Etymology: French, from Middle French, alteration of revenche— more at revenge

Date: 1882 : revenge; especially : a usually political policy designed to recover lost territory or status –re£vanch£ism \-‚väŸ-ƒshi-z„m\ noun.

~ page 160 ~

golden rule


Main Entry: golden rule

Function: noun

Date: 1861 1 : a guiding principle 2 capitalized G&R : a rule of ethical conduct referring to Matthew 7:12 and Luke

6:31: do to others as you would have them do to you.


The Golden Rule or ethic of reciprocity is a maxim ["'Do unto others as you would have them do unto you.' Various expressions of this fundamental moral rule are to be found in tenets of most religions and creeds through the ages, testifying to its universal applicability," "Golden rule," in Antony Flew, Ed., A Dictionary of Philosophy (London: Pan Books (MacMillan Press imprint), 1979), p. 134], ethical code, or morality [Walter Terence Stace argued that the Golden Rule is much more than simply an ethical code. Instead, he posits, it "express[es] the essence of a universal morality." The rationale for this crucial distinction occupies much of his book The Concept of Morals ([1937], reprint 1975, MacMillan Publishing Co. Inc., reprint 1990, Peter Smith Publisher Inc.)] that essentially states either of the following:

• One should treat others as one would like others to treat oneself (positive form) [Flew (1979)];

• One should not treat others in ways that one would not like to be treated (negative/prohibitive form, also called the Silver Rule).

The Golden Rule is arguably the most essential basis for the modern concept of human rights, in which each individual has a right to just treatment, and a reciprocal responsibility to ensure justice for others [defined another way, it "refers to the balance in an interactive system such that each party has both rights and duties, and the subordinate norm of complementarity states that one's rights are the other's obligation." - Bornstein, Marc H., Handbook of Parenting (Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2002), p. 5; see also Paden, William E., Interpreting the Sacred: Ways of Viewing Religion (Beacon Press, 2003), pp. 131–132]. A key element of the Golden Rule is that a person attempting to live by this rule treats all people with consideration, not just members of his or her in-group. The Golden Rule has its roots in a wide range of world cultures, and is a standard which different cultures use to resolve conflicts [Flew (1979); Stace (1937), pp. 1–68, 92–107].

The Golden Rule has a long history, and a great number of prominent religious figures and philosophers have restated its reciprocal, bilateral nature in various ways (not limited to the above forms) [Flew (1979)]. As a concept, the Golden Rule has a history that long predates the term "Golden Rule" (or "Golden law," as it was called from the 1670s) [Flew (1979); Douglas Harper, "Golden," Online Etymology Dictionary, http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=golden+rule&searchmode=none]. The ethic of reciprocity was present in certain forms in the philosophies of ancient Babylon, Egypt, Persia, India, Greece, Judea, and China [citation needed].

Examples of statements that mirror the Golden Rule appear in Ancient Egypt, for example in the story of "The Eloquent Peasant," which is dated to the Middle Kingdom of Egypt (c. 2040–1650 BCE): "Now this is the command: Do to the doer to cause that he do [John Albert Wilson, The Culture of Ancient Egypt (University of Chicago Press, 1956), p. 121]." Rushworth Kidder states that "the label 'golden' was applied by Confucius (551–479 B.C.), who wrote a version of the Silver Rule: 'Here certainly is the golden maxim: Do not do to others that which we do not want them to do to us.'" Kidder notes that this framework appears prominently in many religions, including "Hinduism, Buddhism, Taoism, Zoroastrianism, and the rest of the world's major religions [W. A. Spooner, "The Golden Rule," in James Hastings, Ed., Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, Vol. 6 (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1914), pp. 310]."

Many people have criticized the golden rule; George Bernard Shaw once said that "the golden rule is that there are no golden rules." In Maxims for Revolutionists (1903), Shaw suggested an alternative rule: "Do not do unto others as you would that they should do unto you. Their tastes may not be the same." In The Open Society and Its Enemies, Vol. 2, Karl Popper wrote: "The golden rule is a good standard which is further improved by doing unto others, wherever reasonable, as they want to be done by." This concept has recently been called "The Platinum Rule [http://lorenrosson.blogspot.com/2006/02/platinum-rule.html]." Philosophers, such as Immanuel Kant, Friedrich Nietzsche, and Bertrand Russell [citation needed], have objected to the rule on a variety of grounds [http://onlyagame.typepad.com/only_a_game/2007/05/the_golden_rule.html]. The most serious among these is its application. How does one know how others want to be treated? The obvious way is to ask them, but this cannot be done if one assumes they have not reached a particular and relevant understanding.

Responses to criticisms/ Walter Terence Stace, in The Concept of Morals (1937), wrote [Stace (1937), p. 136]:

Mr. Bernard Shaw's remark "Do not do unto others as you would that they should do unto you. Their tastes may be different" is no doubt a smart saying. But it seems to overlook the fact that "doing as you would be done by" includes taking into account your neighbor's tastes as you would that he should take yours into account. Thus the "golden rule" might still express the essence of a universal morality even if no two men in the world had any needs or tastes in common.

M. G. Singer observed that there are two importantly different ways of looking at the golden rule: as requiring (1) that you perform specific actions that you want others to do to you; or (2) that you guide your behavior in the same general ways that you want others to [M. G. Singer, The Ideal of a Rational Morality, p. 270]. Counter-examples to the golden rule typically are more forceful against the first than the second.

In his book on the golden rule, Jeffrey Wattles makes the similar observation that such objections typically arise while applying the golden rule in certain general ways (namely, ignoring differences in taste, in situation, and so forth). But if we apply the golden rule to our own method of using it, asking in effect if we would want other people to apply the golden rule in such ways, the answer would typically be no, since it is quite predictable that others' ignoring of such factors will lead to behavior which we object to. It follows that we should not do so ourselves—according to the golden rule. In this way, the golden rule may be self-correcting [Jeffrey Wattles, The Golden Rule (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), pp. 4, 191–192, excerpted in Questia, July 24, 2007, p. 6]. An article by Jouni Reinikainen develops this suggestion in greater detail [Jouni Reinikainen, "The Golden Rule and the Requirement of Universalizability," Journal of Value Inquiry 39 (2): 155–168 (2005)].

It is possible, then, that the golden rule can itself guide us in identifying which differences of situation are morally relevant. We would often want other people to ignore our race or nationality when deciding how to act towards us, but would also want them to not ignore our differing preferences in food, desire for aggressiveness, and so on. The platinum rule, and perhaps other variants, might also be self-correcting in this same manner.

~ page 161 ~

Mayan calendar


Books in Mayan hieroglyphic writing that survived the Spanish conquest.

They are made of fig-bark paper folded like an accordion, with covers of jaguar skin. Though most Mayan books were destroyed as pagan by Spanish priests, four are knownto have survived: the Dresden Codex, probably dating from the 11th or 12th century, a copy of earlier texts of the 5th–9th century; the Madrid Codex, dating fromthe 15th century; the Paris Codex, slightly older than the Madrid Codex; and the Grolier Codex, discovered in1971 and dated to the 13th century. They deal with astronomical calculations, divination, and ritual.

See also Act II, Signature vii - (9).

...whitewashed tombs.


Ezekiel 22: 28.

And her prophets have plastered for them with whitewash, visioning an unreality and divining for them a lie, saying: "This is what the Sovereign Lord Jehovah has said," when Jehovah himself has not spoken [NWT].

"And her prophets have smeared whitewash for them, seeing false visions and divining lies for them, saying, 'Thus

says the Lord God,' when the Lord has not spoken [NAS]."

Matthew 23:27.

"Woe to you, scribes and Pharisees, hypocrites! because you resemble whitewashed graves, which outwardly indeed appear beautiful but inside are full of dead men's bones and of every sort of uncleanness [NWT]."

"Woe to you, scribes and Pharisees, hypocrites! For you are like whitewashed tombs which on the outside appear beautiful, but inside they are full of dead men's bones and all uncleanness [NAS]."

Luke 11:44.

"Woe to you, because you are as those memorial tombs which are not in evidence, so that men walk upon them and do not know [it] [NWT]!"

"Woe to you! For you are like concealed tombs, and the people who walk over them are unaware of it [NAS]."

Ezekiel 18:32


For I have no pleasure in the death of him that dieth, saith the Lord God: wherefore turn yourselves, and live ye [KJV].

" ' For I do not take any delight in the death of someone dying,' is the utterance of the Sovereign Lord Jehovah. 'So cause a turning back and keep living, O you people [NWT].' "

"For I have no pleasure in the death of anyone who dies," declares the Lord God. "Therefore, repent and live [NAS]."

~ page 162 ~

Cultural events during the celebration of the 300th anniversary of Petersburg: a water and musical show, Peterhof Magical Fountains, May 31, 2003 (Author: Sergey Guneyev, http://www.kremlin.ru/events/photos/2003/05/46482.shtml).*

Saint Petersburg


Russian Sankt-Peterburg

formerly (1914–24) Petrograd or (1924–91) Leningrad

City (pop., 2001 est.: metro. area, 4,627,800) and port, northwestern Russia. Located on the delta of the Neva River where it enters the Gulf of Finland, it is Russia's second largest city after Moscow. Founded by Peter I (the Great) in 1703, it was the capital of the Russian Empire from 1712 to 1917. It was the scene of the Decembrist revolt in 1825 and the Bloody Sunday attack on workers in the Russian Revolution of 1905. The original centre of the Bolshevik revolution (see Russian Revolution of 1917), it lost its capital status to Moscow in 1918. In World War II it underwent a seige by German forces (September 1941–January 1944), during which as many as one million people died (see Siege of Leningrad). From 1990 a reformist city council and mayor helped swing the country from the control of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. St. Petersburg is a cultural, educational, and industrial centre and Russia's largest seaport. Industries include engineering, printing, manufacturing, and shipbuilding. One of Europe's most beautiful cities, it is intersected by many canals and crossed by more than 600 bridges; it is the site of many palaces, cathedrals, museums (see Hermitage), and historical monuments.


On 12 [O.S. 1 May] 1703, during the Great Northern War, Peter the Great captured the Swedish fortress of Nyenskans on the Neva river in Ingria. On 27 [O.S. 16] 1703 May [Hughes, Lindsey, Peter the Great: a Biography (Yale University Press, 2004), p. 66] closer to the estuary (5 km/3 miles inland from the gulf), on Zayachy (Hare) Island, he laid down the Peter and Paul Fortress, which became the first brick and stone building of the new city.

The city was built by conscripted peasants from all over Russia; a certain part of Swedish prisoners of war were also involved in some years ["Consulate General of Sweden - Sweden and Saint Petersburg," Swedenabroad.com, October 17, 2005, http://www.swedenabroad.com/Page____41937.aspx] under the supervision of Alexander Menshikov. Tens of thousands of serfs died building the city ["St Petersburg: Paris of the North or City of Bones?" The Independent, July 8, 2006]. Later the city became the centre of Saint Petersburg Governorate. Peter moved the capital from Moscow to Saint Petersburg in 1712, 9 years before the Treaty of Nystad of 1721 ended the war.

During the first few years of its existence the city grew spontaneously around Trinity Square on the right bank of the Neva, near the Peter and Paul Fortress. However, Saint Petersburg soon started to develop according to a plan. By 1716 Domenico Trezzini had elaborated a project whereby the city centre would be located on Vasilyevsky Island and shaped by a rectangular grid of canals. The project was not completed, but is still evident in the layout of the streets. In 1716 Jean-Baptiste Alexandre Le Blond was appointed chief architect of Saint Petersburg by Peter the Great.

The style of Petrine Baroque, developed by Trezzini and other architects and exemplified by such buildings as the Menshikov Palace, Kunstkamera, Peter and Paul Cathedral, Twelve Collegia, became prominent in the city architecture of the early 18th century. In 1724 the Academy of Sciences, University and Academic Gymnasium were established in Saint Petersburg by Peter the Great.

In 1725 Peter died at age 52. His push for modernisation of Russia had met opposition from the old-fashioned Russian nobility — resulting in several attempts on his life and a treason case involving his own son [Matthew S. Anderson, Peter the Great (London: Thames and Hudson, 1978]. Thus, in 1728, Peter II of Russia moved his seat back to Moscow. But four years later, in 1732, under Empress Anna of Russia, Saint Petersburg again became the capital of the Russian Empire and remained the seat of the Romanov Dynasty and the Imperial Court of the Russian Tzars, as well as the seat of the Russian government for another 186 years until the communist revolution of 1917.

Toponymy. The first and fairly rich chapter of the history of the local toponymy is the story of the own name of the city itself. The name day of Peter I falls on June 29, when the Russian Orthodox Church observes the memory of Saint Apostles Peter and Paul. The consecration of the small wooden church in their names (its construction began simultaneously with the citadel) made them the heavenly patrons of the Peter and Paul Fortress, while St. Peter at the same time became the eponym of the whole city.

Explanation of "Sankt-" by the appreciation of Dutch culture by Peter the Great is one of common misconceptions: "Saint-" in Dutch is "Sint [Cf. Sant Georg am See (written in Dutch)]." The sample which czar Peter followed sounds in the names of another European cities: Sankt Goar in Germany, Sankt Michael in Austria and some others,

of which the closest to Sankt Petersburg was Sankt Michel in rival Swedish Empire (now Mikkeli in Finland). "Sankt-" in these toponyms is merely a Germanized form of Latin: Sanctus.

A 14-15-letter long name, composed of the three roots proved too cumbersome, and a lot of shortened versions appeared in habitual use. The first General Governor of the city Menshikov is maybe also the author of the first nickname of Petersburg which he called Петри (Petri). It took some years until the known Russian spelling of this name finally settled. In 1740s Mikhail Lomonosov uses a derivative of Greek: Πετροπόλης (Petropolis, Петрополис) in a russified form Petropol’ (Петрополь). A combo Piterpol (Питерпол) also appears at this time [Нестеров В., Знаешь ли ты свой город (Do You Know Your City?) (Leningrad, 1958), p. 58]. Anyway, eventually the usage of prefix "Sankt-" ceased except for the formal official documents, where a 3-letter abbreviation "СПб" (SPb) was very widely used as well.

In the 1830s Alexander Pushkin translated the 'foreign' city name of 'Saint Petersburg' to the more Russian Petrograd in one of his poems. However, it was only on 31 [O.S. 18 August] 1914, after the war with Germany had began, did Tsar Nicholas II rename the capital to Petrograd. Since the prefix 'Saint' was omitted ["August 31, 1914: St. Petersburg renamed to Petrograd (written in Russian)," http://radiokarnaval.ru/news/show/3042?radio=bd09712698pcpirbfrg1bjne86], this act also changed the eponym and the 'patron' of the city, from ApostlePeter to Peter the Great, its founder.

After the October Revolution, and until the city was renamed Leningrad in January 1924, the name Красный Петроград (Red Petrograd) was often used in newspapers and other prints.

In the referendum on reversing the renaming of Leningrad on June 12, 1991, renaming it to Petrograd was not an option. Because of this only 54.86% of the voters (with a turnout of 65%) supported "St. Petersburg." This changeofficially took effect on September 6, 1991 [Orttung, Robert W., Chronology of Major Events: From Leningrad to Saint Petersburg (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 1995), p. 332]. Meanwhile the oblast which administrative center is also in Petersburg is still named Leningradskaya.

Having passed the role of capital to Petersburg, Moscow has never succumbed the title of 'capital', being called "pervoprestolnaya" ("first-throned") for 200 years. A mirroring name for Petersburg in this connotation, the "Northern Capital," is reintroduced today in the sense that several federal institutions were moved from Moscow to Petersburg recently. Solemn descriptive names like "the city of three revolutions" and "the cradle of the October revolution" used in Soviet era reminded the pivot events of national history which occurred here. For their part, poetic names of the city, like the "Venice of the North" and the "Northern Palmyra" emphasize town-planning and architectural features contrasting these parallels to the northern location of this megalopolis ["St Petersburg, the 'Venice of the North,' gets its own fleet of gondolas," Independent.co.uk., June 29, 2004,http://www.independent.co.uk /news/world/europe/st-petersburg-the-venice-of-th e-north-gets-its-own-fleet-of-gondolas-733899.html].

Petropolis is a translation of a city name to Greek, and is also a kind of descriptive name: Πέτρ~ is a Greek root for "stone," so the "city from stone" emphasizes the material which had been forcibly made obligatory for construction from the very first years of the city [Нестеров (1958)].

After 1991 a wave of re-namings started within the city. It affected not only toponyms of the Soviet era, but in some cases their pre-revolutionary ones (in 1993 Gogol Street which bore the name of Nikolai Gogol since 1902[FitzLyon, Kyril; Zinovieff, Kyril; Hughes, Jenny, The Companion Guide to St. Petersburg (Companion Guides, 2003), p. 103], was renamed to Malaya Morskaya).

Hutton Unconformity at Jedburgh, Scotland (illustrated by John Clerk (1787), with a recent photograph by Keith Montgomery (2003)). The Jedburgh - Newcastle road (A68) is above the section. The section is located about 5 minutes walk from the

Jedburgh Abbey, on the outskirts of the town. This is a good example of an "angular unconformity" in which tilted sedimentary beds are overlain by horizontal beds. This unconformity represents a long gap in the record of geological time, during which

deposition had ceased and folding or faulting occured, the lower strata tilted, and then deposition resumed.*

uniformitarianism


Doctrine in geology that physical, chemical, and biologic processes now at work on and within the Earth have operated with general uniformity (in the same manner and with essentially the same intensity) through immensely long periods of time and are sufficient to account for all geologic change. In other words, the present is the key to the past. Although the term is no longer much used, the principle, originated by James Hutton, is fundamental to geologic thinking and underlies the whole development of the science of geology. See also Charles Lyell.


In the philosophy of naturalism, the uniformitarianism assumption is that the same natural laws and processes that operate in the universe now, have always operated in the universe in the past and apply everywhere in the universe. It has included the gradualistic concept that "the present is the key to the past" and functioning at the same rates. Uniformitarianism has been a key principle of geology, but naturalism's modern geologists, while accepting that geology has occurred across deep time, no longer hold to a strict gradualism.

Uniformitarianism was formulated by Scottish naturalists in the late 18th century, starting with the work of the geologist James Hutton, which was refined by John Playfair and popularised by Charles Lyell's Principles of Geology in 1830 [http://www.enotes.com/earth-science/uniformitarianism]. The term uniformitarianism was coined by William Whewell, who also coined the term catastrophism for the idea that the Earth was shaped by a series of sudden, short-lived, violent events [http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/10c.html].

The earlier conceptions likely had little influence on 18th century European geological explanations for the formation of the Earth. Abraham Gottlob Werner proposed Neptunism where strata were deposits from shrinking seas precipitated onto primordial rocks such as granite. In 1785 James Hutton proposed an opposing, self-maintaining infinite cycle based on natural history and not on the irrational and unreliable Biblical record [Bowler, Peter J., Evolution: The History of an Idea, 3rd Ed. (University of California Press, 2003), pp. 57-63; Hutton, J., The

System of the Earth: Its Duration and Stability (1785), (abstract)], quote: "As it is not in human record, but in natural history, that we are to look for the means of ascertaining what has already been, it is here proposed to examine the appearances of the earth, in order to be informed of operations which have been transacted in time past. It is thus that, from principles of natural philosophy, we may arrive at some knowledge of order and system in the economy of this globe, and may form a rational opinion with regard to the course of nature, or to events which are in time to happen"].

From 1830 to 1833 Charles Lyell's multi-volume Principles of Geology was published. The work's subtitle was "An attempt to explain the former changes of the Earth's surface by reference to causes now in operation". He drew his explanations from field studies conducted directly before he went to work on the founding geology text [Wilson, Leonard G., "Charles Lyell," in Dictionary of Scientific Biography, Vol. VIII, Charles Coulston Gillispie, Ed. (Pennsylvania, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1973)], and developed Hutton's idea that the earth was shaped entirely by slow-moving forces still in operation today, acting over a very long period of time. The terms uniformitarianism for this idea, and catastrophism for the opposing viewpoint, were coined by William Whewell in a review of Lyell's book. Principles of Geology was the most influential geological work in the middle of the 19th century.

In 1965, Stephen Jay Gould's first scientific paper reduced four interpretations to two, methodological and substantive uniformitarianism [Gould, S. J., "Is uniformitarianism necessary?" American Journal of Science 263: 223–228 (1965)]. He dismissed the first principle, which asserted spatial and temporal invariance of natural laws, as no longer an issue of debate. He rejected the second as an unjustified limitation on scientific inquiry, as it constrains past geologic rates and conditions to those of the present. So, uniformitarianism was unnecessary.

Unlike Lyell, modern geologists do not apply uniformitarianism in the same way. They question if rates of processes were uniform through time and only those values measured during the history of geology are to be accepted [Smith, Gary A, Aurora Pun, How Does Earth Work: Physical Geology and the Process of Science (New Jersey: Pearson-Prentice Hall, 2006), pp. 12]. The present may not be a long enough key to penetrate the deep lock of the past [Ager, Derek V., The Nature of the Stratigraphical Record, 3rd Ed. (Chichester, New York, Brisbane, Toronto, Singapore: John Wiley & Sons, 1993), p. 81]. Geologic processes may have been active at different rates in the past that humans have not observed. "By force of popularity, uniformity of rate has persisted to our present day. For more than a century, Lyell’s rhetoric conflating axiom with hypotheses has descended in unmodified form. Many geologists have been stifled by the belief that proper methodology includes an a priori commitment to gradual change, and by a preference for explaining large-scale phenomena as the concatenation of innumerable tiny changes [Gould, Stephen J., Time's Arrow, Time's Cycle: Myth and Metaphor in the Discovery of Geological Time (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987), pp. 120–121]."

The current consensus is that Earth's history is a slow, gradual process punctuated by occasional natural catastrophic events that have affected Earth and its inhabitants ["Uniformitarianism," in The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th Ed. (Columbia University Press, 2007)]. In practice it is reduced from Lyell's conflation to simply the two philosophical assumptions. This is also known as the principle of geological actualism, which states that all past geological action was like all present geological action. The principle of actualism is the cornerstone of paleoecology.

Brazilian actress Carmen Miranda helped popularize samba internationally. This image is a screenshot made from a film's public domain trailer: The Gang's All Here (20th Century Fox, 1943), with Betty Grable, John Payne, Cesar Romero and Carmen

Miranda (http://www.sabucat.com/?pg=copyright).*

samba


Ballroom dance of Brazilian origin, popularized in the U.S. and Europe in the 1940s. Danced to music in 4/4 time with a syncopated rhythm, the dance is characterized by simple forward and backward steps and tilting, rocking body movements. In Brazil an older African type of samba is also danced in circles or double lines as a group dance. For decades the samba has dominated Brazilian popular music.


Samba (Portuguese pronunciation: [ˈsˈ�bˈ]) is a Brazilian dance and musical genre originating in Bahia and with its roots in Brazil (Rio De Janeiro) and Africa via the West African slave trade and African religious traditions. It is recognized around the world as a symbol of Brazil and the Brazilian Carnival. Considered one of the most popular Brazilian cultural expressions, samba has become an icon of Brazilian national identity [http://www.dicionariompb.com.br/verbete.asp?tabela=T_FORM_C&nome=Samba; http://cliquemusic.uol.com.br/br/Generos /Generos.asp?Nu_Materia=26; http://www.allbrazilianmusic.com/en/styles/styles.asp?Status=MATERIA&Nu_Mater ia=929]. The Bahian Samba de Roda (dance circle), which became a UNESCO Heritage of Humanity in 2005, is the main root of the samba carioca, the samba that is played and danced in Rio de Janeiro.

The modern samba that emerged at the beginning of the 20th century is basically 2/4 tempo varied with the conscious use of chorus sung to the sound of palms and batucada rhythm, adding one or more parts or stanzas of declaratory verses. Traditionally, the samba is played by strings (cavaquinho and various types of guitar) and various percussion instruments such as tamborim. Influenced by American orchestras in vogue since the Second World War and the cultural impact of US music post-war, samba began to use trombones, trumpets, choros, flutes, and clarinets.

In addition to rhythm and bar, samba brings a whole historical culture of food, varied dances (miudinho, coco, samba de roda, and pernada), parties, clothes such as linen shirts, and the NAIF painting of established names such as Nelson Sargento, Guilherme de Brito, and Heitor dos Prazeres. Anonymous community artists, including painters, sculptors, designers, and stylists, make the clothes, costumes, carnival floats, and cars, opening the doors of schools of samba.

The Samba National Day is celebrated on December 2. The date was established at the initiative of Luis Monteiro da Costa, an Alderman of Salvador, in honor of Ary Barroso. He composed "Na Baixa do Sapateiro" even though he had never been in Bahia. Thus December 2 marked the first visit of the Ary Barroso to Salvador. Initially, this day was celebrated only in Salvador, but eventually it turned into a national holiday.

Samba is a root style in Southeastern Brazil and Northeast Brazil, especially in Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo, Salvador. Its importance as Brazil's national music transcends region, however; samba schools, samba musicians and carnival organizations centered around the performance of samba exist in every region of the country and, while regional musics prevail in other regions (for instance, in Southern Brazil, Center-West Brazil, and all of the Brazilian countryside, Sertanejo, or Brazilian country music, is extremely important) [Dicionário Cravo Albin da Música Popular Brasileira, http://www.dicionariompb.com.br/musica-sertaneja/dados-artisticos], there is no single musical genre that Brazilians use with more regularity than samba to identify themselves as part of the same national culture.

Summer Samba (also known as "So Nice," or its original Portuguese title, "Samba de Verão") is a 1966 bossa nova song by Brazilian composer Marcos Valle, with English-language lyrics by Norman Gimbel; the original Portuguese lyrics came from Paulo Sérgio Valle, brother to the composer [http://www.allbrazilianmusic.com/en/Artists/Artists.asp?Status=ARTISTA &Nu_Ar tista=374].

The song was first popularized by the Walter Wanderley Trio in 1966 — the album Rain Forest on which it was issued reached platinum status in 1970 [http://bjbear71.com/Wanderley /WW-LPVerve.html; http://bjbear71.com/Wanderley/Liner-Notes.html] — also reaching the U.S."Easy Listening" chart in versions by Johnny Mathis, Vikki Carr, and Connie Francis during that same year. In fact, at least one source claims that three different versions were on the Billboard charts at the same time in 1966 [http://www.wdr5.de/service/service_musik /interpreten/marcos_valle.phtml]. Allmusic has said of Wanderley's version, "His recording... is regarded as perhaps a more definitive bossa tune than "Girl From Ipanema [Thom Jurek, Review: Boss of the Bossa Nova, Allmusic, retrieved March 28, 2007]." Wanderley's version was the biggest seller in the U.S., reaching #26 on the Billboard Hot 100 in 1966 (#3 on the Easy Listening chart), and is still a favourite on Adult Standards radio stations.

Ordovician ophiolite in Gros Morne National Park, Newfoundland. This rock which formed the Mohorovičić discontinuity during the Ordovician period (the second of six of the Paleozoic Era, covering the time between 488.3±1.7 to 443.7±1.5 million

years ago) is exposed on the surface.*

Moho


or Mohorovičić discontinuity Boundary between the Earth's crust and its mantle. The Moho lies at a depth of about

22 mi (35 km) below continents and about 4.5 mi (7 km) beneath the oceanic crust. Modern instruments have determined that the velocity of seismic waves increases rapidly at this boundary. The Moho was named for Andrija Mohorovičić.


The Mohorovičić discontinuity (Croatian pronunciation: [mˈhˈˈrˈvitˈitˈ]) (MOE-HOE-ROE-vee-cheech), usually referred to as the Moho, is the boundary between the Earth's crust and the mantle. Named after the pioneering Croatian seisomologist Andrija Mohorovičić, the Moho separates both oceanic crust and continental crust from underlying mantle. The Moho mostly lies entirely within the lithosphere; only beneath mid-ocean ridges does it define the lithosphere – asthenosphere boundary. The Mohorovičić discontinuity was first identified in 1909 by Mohorovičić, when he observed that seismograms from shallow-focus earthquakes had two sets of P-waves and S-waves, one that followed a direct path near the Earth's surface and the other refracted by a high velocity medium [Andrew McLeish, Geological Science, 2nd Ed. (Thomas Nelson & Sons, 1992), p. 122].

The Mohorovičić discontinuity is 5 to 10 kilometres (3–6 mi) below the ocean floor and 20 to 90 kilometres (10–60 mi) beneath typical continents, with an average of 35 kilometres (22 mi) beneath them [James Stewart Monroe, ReedWicander, The Changing Earth: Exploring Geology and Evolution, 5th Ed. (Cengage Learning, 2008), p. 216].

Nature of the Moho. Immediately above the Moho the velocities of primary seismic waves (P-waves) are approximately those of basalt (6.7 – 7.2 km/s), and below they are that of peridotitic or dunitic Earth-materials (7.6 –8.6 km/s) [R. B. Cathcart & M. M. Ćirković, Macro-engineering: A Challenge for the Future, Viorel Badescu, Richard Brook Cathcart, Roelof D. Schuiling, Eds. (Springer, 2006), p. 169]. That suggests the Moho marks a change of composition, but the interface appears to be too even for any believable sorting mechanism within the Earth. Near-surface observations suggest such sorting produces an irregular surface. Some history of suggestions that the boundary marks instead a phase change controlled by a temperature gradient in the Earth can be found in Howell [Benjamin Franklin Howell, An Introduction to Seismological Research: History and Development (Cambridge University Press, 1990), p. 77fn].

Exploration. During the late 1950s and early 1960s, a proposal was taken up in the executive committee of the National Science Foundation to drill a hole through the ocean floor to reach this boundary. However the operation, named Project Mohole, never received sufficient support and was mismanaged; it was canceled by the United States Congress in 1967. Simultaneous efforts were made by the Soviet Union at the Kola Institute, which reached a depth of 12,260 metres (40,220 ft) over 15 years, the world's deepest hole until 2011, before that attempt was also abandoned in 1989 ["How the Soviets Drilled the Deepest Hole in the World," Wired, August 25, 2008,http://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/multimedia /2008/08/gallery_kola_bore hole].

Reaching the discontinuity remains an important scientific objective. A more recent proposal considers a self-descending tungsten capsule heated by radiogenic heat to explore Earth's interior near the Moho discontinuity and in the upper mantle [Ozhovan, M.; F. Gibb, P. Poluektov, and E. Emets, "Probing of the Interior Layers of the Earth with Self-Sinking Capsules," Atomic Energy 99(2): 556–562 (August 2005), doi:10.1007/s10512-005-0246-y]. The Japanese project Chikyu Hakken ("Earth Discovery") also aims to explore this general area.

~ page 163 ~

"...how the gospel is proclaimed..."


Phillipians 1:18

What then? Only that in every way, whether in pretense or in truth, Christ is proclaimed; and in this I rejoice, yes, and I will rejoice [NAS].

What then? [Nothing,] except that in every way, whether in pretense or in truth, Christ is being publicized, and in

this I rejoice. In fact, I will also keep on rejoicing [NWT].

What then? notwithstanding, every way, whether in pretence, or in truth, Christ is preached, and I therein do rejoice, yea, and will rejoice [KJV].

intermezzo


Main Entry: in£ter£mez£zo

Pronunciation: ƒin-t„r-‚met-(ƒ)s‹, -‚med-(ƒ)z‹

Function: noun

Inflected Form: plural in£ter£mez£zi \-(ƒ)s‡, -(ƒ)z‡\ ; or -zos

Etymology: Italian, ultimately from Latin intermedius intermediate

Date: 1771: 1 : a short light entr'acte 2 a : a movement coming between the major sections of an extended musical work (as an opera) b : a short independent instrumental composition 3 : a usually brief interlude or diversion.

Русский: Самовар «Дулей гравированный», Паровая самоварная фабрика наследников П.Н.Фомина в Туле (24 октября 2010 г.).*

samovar


Main Entry: sam£o£var

Pronunciation: ‚sa-m„-ƒvär

Function: noun

Etymology: Russian, from samo- self + varit' to boil

Date: 1830: 1 : an urn with a spigot at its base used especially in Russia to boil water for tea 2 : an urn similar to a Russian samovar with a device for heating the contents.


A samovar (Russian: самовар, IPA: [səmˈˈvar]; literally "self-boiler," Persian: ور¨©ª ) is a heated metal container traditionally used to heat and boil water in and around Russia, as well as in other Central, South-Eastern, Eastern European countries, and in the Middle-East. Since the heated water is usually used for making tea, many samovars have an attachment on the tops of their lids to hold and heat a teapot filled with tea concentrate. Though traditionally heated with coal or charcoal, many newer samovars use electricity and heat water in a similar manner as an electric water boiler. Antique samovars are often displayed for their beautiful workmanship.

The first historically recorded samovar-makers in Russia were the Lisitsyn brothers, Ivan Fyodorovich and Nazar Fyodorovich. From their childhood they were engaged in metalworking at the brass factory of their father Fyodor Ivanovich Lisitsyn. In 1778 they made a samovar, and the same year Nazar Lisitsyn registered the first samovar-making factory in Russia. They may not have been the inventors of samovar, but they were the first documented samovar-makers, and their various and beautiful samovar designs became very influential throughout the later history of samovar-making [رàىîâàًû ثèٌèِûيûُ/"Samovars of the Lisitsyns," Sloboda (Tula-based newspaper), http://www.tula.rodgor.ru/gazeta/659/history/2837/]. These and other early producers lived in Tula, a city known for its metalworkers and arms-makers. Since the 18th century Tula has been also the main center of Russian samovar production, with tul'sky samovar being the brand mark of the city. By the 19th century samovars were already a common feature of the Russian tea culture. They were produced in large numbers and exported into Central Asia and other regions.

Samovars come in different body shapes: urn- or krater-shaped, barrel, cylindric, spherical. A typical samovar consists of a body, base and chimney, cover and steam vent, handles, faucet and key, crown and ring, chimney extension and cap, drip-bowl, and teapots.

A traditional samovar consists of a large metal container with a faucet near the bottom and a metal pipe running vertically through the middle. Samovars are typically crafted out of copper, brass, bronze, silver, gold, tin or nickel. The pipe is filled with solid fuel to heat the water in the surrounding container. A small (6 to 8 inches) smoke-stack is put on the top to ensure draft. After the fire is off a teapot could be placed on top to be kept heated with the passing hot air. The teapot is used to brew the çàâàًêà (zavarka), a strong concentrate of tea. The tea is served by diluting this concentrate with (êèïٍےîê) kipyatok (boiled water) from the main container, usually at a ratio of about 10 parts water to one part tea concentrate, although tastes vary.

It is particularly well-suited to tea-drinking in a communal setting over a protracted period. The Russian expression "to have a sit by samovar" means to have a leisurely talk while drinking tea from samovar. This compares with the German Kaffeeklatsch, Turkish nargile culture or (superficially) with the Japanese tea ceremony.

In everyday use it was an economical permanent source of hot water in older times. Various slow-burning items could be used for fuel, such as charcoal or dry pinecones. When not in use, the fire in the samovar pipe was faintly smouldering. When necessary, it was quickly rekindled with the help of bellows. Although a Russian jackboot àٌïîم(sapog) could be used for this purpose, there were bellows manufactured specifically for use on samovars.

The samovar was an important attribute of a Russian household. Sizes and designs varied, from "40-pail" ones of 400 litres (110 US gal) to 1 litre (0.26 US gal) size, from cylindrical to spherical, from plain iron to polished brass to gilt. In modern times, the samovar is mostly associated with Russian exotica and nostalgia [citation needed], though they are also quite popular with Iranian immigrants and their descendants.

In 1989, an archeological dig near Dashust village, Shaki district, Azerbaijan unearthed a pottery samovar-like utensil identified by a characteristic central tube covered with soot, suggesting it was heated from the inside. It didn't look like modern samovars, though. In particular, the tube was open from the bottom, suggesting that it was placed over a fire like an ordinary pot. The age of the utensil was indirectly estimated at about 3,600 years [Tufan Akhundov, "Birth of the Samovar?" Azerbaijan International 8.3 (Autumn 2000) pp. 42-44, http://azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/83_folder/83_articles/83_samovar.ht ml]. Similar devices were found in

China [ذîٌٌèéٌêèé ½¿َàيèٍàًيûé ِيèêëîïÁهè÷Äٌêèé ëٌîâàًü: Æ3 ٍ .— َأى.: ج àيèٍ. èç ش: ِ هÎÆ ًٍÏہÊËÌ.ن èëîë. ôàê. ر.-ÒÓًم. دٍه îٌ. ,àٍَ-ي2002].

~ page numbers refer to topic's appearance within main text ~

End Notes

Ready Reference Library from Encyclopوdia Britannica Ready Reference 2005 CD-ROM (unless otherwise indicated). Copyright 1994-2003 Encyclopوdia Britannica, Inc.

*[Image & caption credit and text (if indicated): courtesy of Wikipedia].

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