160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment (Airborne)

Fort Campbell, Kentucky

JULY 1997

THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REVIEWED FOR OPSEC CONSIDERATIONS

INSTRUCTOR PILOT HANDBOOK

INSTRUCTING FUNDAMENTALS

THIS HANDBOOK SUPERSEDES IP HANDBOOK, SAB, DTD MAR 93THE PROPONENT FOR THIS HANDBOOK IS ATB

iCONTENTS

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CONTENTS ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- i

SECTION ONE -- GENERAL

I. THE LEARNING PROCESS ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 1Definition of Learning ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1Characteristics of Learning ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 1Laws of Learning ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 3How People Learn ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 4Levels of Learning --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 8Learning Skills -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 9Forgetting and Retention -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 11Transfer of Learning ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 12Habit Formation ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 13

II. HUMAN BEHAVIOR ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 15Control of Human Behavior ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 15Human Needs --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 16Defense Mechanisms ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 17The Instructor's Role in Human Relations ------------------------------------------------------------ 18

III. EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION --------------------------------------------------------------------- 21Basic Elements of the Communication Process ------------------------------------------------------ 21Barriers to Effective Communication ------------------------------------------------------------------ 22

IV. The TEACHING PROCESS ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 25Preparation ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 25Presentation ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 26Application ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 26Review and Evaluation ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 26

V. TEACHING METHODS ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 29Organizing Material -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 29Lecture Method ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 31Guided Discussion Method ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 33Demonstration-Performance Method ----------------------------------------------------------------- 36Programmed Instruction --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 37

VI. THE INSTRUCTOR AS A CRITIC -------------------------------------------------------------------- 39Purpose of a Critique ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 39Characteristics of an Effective Critique --------------------------------------------------------------- 40Methods of Critique -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 41Ground Rules for Critiquing ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 42

VII. EVALUATION ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 43Oral Quizzing --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 43Written Tests ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 45Performance Tests ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 52

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VIII. INSTRUCTIONAL AIDS ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 53Theory Behind Use of Instructional Aids -------------------------------------------------------------- 53Reasons for Using Instructional Aids ------------------------------------------------------------------ 54Guidelines for the Use of Instructional Aids ---------------------------------------------------------- 54Types of Instructional Aids ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 55Future Developments ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 56

SECTION TWO-THE FLIGHT INSTRUCTORIX. FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR CHARACTERISTICS AND RESPONSIBILITIES -------------------- 57

Professionalism ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 57Helping Student Pilots Learn --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 61Evaluation of Student Piloting Ability ----------------------------------------------------------------- 64The Flight Instructor as a Practical Psychologist ----------------------------------------------------- 64Student Pilot Supervision and Surveillance ----------------------------------------------------------- 66Flight Instructor Endorsements ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 66Flight Test Recommendations -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 67Airplane Checkouts -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 67Refresher Training --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 68

X. TECHNIQUES OF FLIGHT INSTRUCTION --------------------------------------------------------- 69The "Telling and Doing" Technique in Flight Instruction ------------------------------------------- 69The Integrated Technique of Flight Instruction ------------------------------------------------------- 70Obstacles to Learning During Flight Instruction ----------------------------------------------------- 72

XI. PLANNING INSTRUCTIONAL ACTIVITY --------------------------------------------------------- 77Course of Training ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 77Training Syllabus ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 78Lesson Plan ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 96

XII. AEROMEDICAL INFORMATION IMPORTANT TO FLIGHT INSTRUCTORS ------------ 103Introduction ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 103General Health -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 103Specific Aeromedical Factors -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 103

1 Fatigue ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 1032. Hypoxia ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1043. Alcohol ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1044. Drugs ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1045. Vertigo ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1056. Carbon Monoxide ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1067. Vision ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 1078. Middle Ear Discomfort or Pain ------------------------------------------------------------------- 107

SCUBA Diving ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 107

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XIII. AERODYNAMICS USEFUL FOR FLIGHT INSTRUCTION ----------------------------------- 109Critical Airspeeds ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 109

1. Maximum Performance Speeds ------------------------------------------------------------------- 1092. Airspeed Limitations ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 111

Angle of Attack ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1111. Stalls -The Separation Point ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 1122. Angle of Attack as an Index of Performance --------------------------------------------------- 114

Airplane Loading ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1141. Effects of Weight on Flight Performance ------------------------------------------------------- 1142. Effects of Load on Airplane Structure ----------------------------------------------------------- 1153. Effects of Loading on Stability and Controllability -------------------------------------------- 116

Use of Flaps ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1161 Effects on Flight Performance --------------------------------------------------------------------- 1162. Effects on Stability --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 117

Ground Effect --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 117Torque and "P Factor ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 119Controllable Propellers ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 121

1. How a Propeller Works ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1212. Purpose of Controllable Propellers --------------------------------------------------------------- 122

3. Operation of Controllable Propellers --------------------------------------------------------------- 122

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SECTION ONEGENERAL

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The expert aviation instructor is master ofmany skills and fields of knowledge. What istaught demands technical competence in theseareas; but how the teaching is accomplisheddepends largely on the instructor's understanding ofhow people learn and the ability to apply thatunderstanding. In large measure this handbookcould be viewed as a study of applied educationalpsychology, for the subject underlies virtuallyeverything with which the instructor is concerned.In this chapter, however, only that branch ofpsychology dealing directly with learning isconsidered.

DEFINITION OF LEARNINGThe ability to learn is one of humanity's most

outstanding characteristics. Learning occurscontinuously throughout a person's lifetime. Todefine learning, it is necessary to analyze whathappens to the individual. As a result of a learningexperience, an individual's way of perceiving,thinking, feeling, and doing may change. Thus,learning can be defined as a change in behavior asa result of experience. The behavior can bephysical and overt, or it can be intellectual or

attitudinal, not easily seen. Psychologists generallyagree, however, on some characteristics oflearning. The instructor should understand theseand turn them to good use.

CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNINGLearning is Purposeful

Each student sees a learning situation from adifferent viewpoint. Each student is a uniqueindividual whose past experience affects readinessto learn and understanding of the requirementsinvolved. For example, an instructor may give twostudent aircraft maintenance technicians theassignment of learning certain inspectionprocedures. One student may thoroughly learn andbe able to competently present the assignedmaterial. Because of aviation background andfuture goals, that student realizes the value of, andthe need for, learning the procedures. A secondstudent's goal may be to merely comply with theinstructor's assignment and, therefore, this studentmay make only minimum preparation. Theresponses differ because each person acts inaccordance with the requirements seen in thesituation.

CHAPTER I. THE LEARNING PROCESS

Most people have fairly definite ideas aboutwhat they want to do and achieve. Their goalssometimes are short term, a matter of days orweeks. On the other hand, their goals may becarefully planned for a career or a lifetime. Eachstudent has specific purposes and goals. Some ofthose purposes and goals may be shared by fellowstudents. Students learn from any activity thattends to further their purposes. Their individualneeds and attitudes may determine what they learnas much as what the instructor is trying to get themto learn. In the process of learning, the learner'spurpose is of paramount significance. The effectiveinstructor seeks ways to relate new learning to thestudent's goals.

Learning Comes Through ExperienceLearning is an individual process. The

instructor cannot do it for the student; knowledgecannot be poured into the student's head. Thestudent can learn only from individual experiences.

"Learning" and "knowledge" cannot exist apartfrom a person. A person's knowledge is a result ofexperience, and no two people have had identicalexperiences. Even when observing the same event,two people react differently; they learn differentthings from it, according to the manner in whichthe situation affects their individual needs. Previousexperience conditions a person to respond to somethings and to ignore others.

All learning is by experience, but it takes placein different forms and in varying degrees ofrichness and depth. For instance, some experiencesinvolve the whole person; others, only the ears andmemory. Therefore, the instructor is faced with theproblem of providing experiences that aremeaningful, varied, and appropriate. For example,

by repeated drill students can learn to say a list ofwords, or by rote they can learn to recite certainprinciples of flight. However, they can make themmeaningful only if they understand them wellenough to apply them correctly to real situations. Ifan experience challenges the learner, requiresinvolvement with feelings, thoughts, memory ofpast experiences, and physical activity, it is moreeffective than an experience in which all the learnerhas to do is commit something to memory.

It seems clear enough that the learning of aphysical skill requires actual experience inperforming that skill. Student pilots learn to flyairplanes only if their experiences include flyingthem; student aircraft maintenance technicianslearn to overhaul powerplants only by actuallyperforming that task. Mental habits are also learnedthrough practice. If students are to use soundjudgment and solve problems well, they must havehad learning experiences in which they haveexercised judgment and applied their knowledge ofgeneral principles in the solving of realisticproblems.

Learning is MultifacetedIf instructors see their objective as being only

to train their students' memory and muscles, theyunder-estimate the potential of the teachingsituation. Students may have learned much that theinstructor had not intended, for they did not leavetheir thinking minds or feelings at home, justbecause these were not included in the instructor'splan.

Psychologists sometimes classify learning bytypes: verbal, conceptual, perceptual, motor,problem solving, and emotional. However usefulthese divisions may be, they are artificial. Forexample, a class learning to apply the scientificmethod of problem solving may learn the methodby trying to solve real problems.But in doing so, it also engages in "verbal learning"and "sensory preception" at the same time. Eachstudent approaches the task with preconceivedideas and feelings, and for many students theseideas change as a result of experience. The learningprocess, therefore, may include verbal elements,conceptual elements, perceptual elements,emotional elements, and elements of problemsolving, all taking place at once.

Learning is multifaceted in still another sense.While learning the subject at hand, students may be

learning other things as well. They may bedeveloping attitudes about aviation-good or bad,depending on what they experience. Under askillful instructor, they may learn self-reliance. Thelist is seemingly endless. This learning is sometimescalled "incidental," but it may have a great impacton the total development of the student.

Learning is an Active ProcessStudents do not soak up knowledge like a

sponge absorbs water. The instructor cannotassume that students remember something justbecause they were present in the classroom, shop,or airplane when the instructor "taught" it. Neithercan the instructor assume that the students canapply what they know because they can quote thecorrect answer from the book. For the students tolearn, they must react and respond, perhapsoutwardly, perhaps only inwardly, emotionally, orintellectually. But if learning is a process ofchanging behavior, clearly that process must be anactive one.

LAWS OF LEARNINGOne of the pioneers in educational psychology

was Professor Edward L. Thorndike, TeachersCollege, Columbia University, New York. Early inthis century Professor Thorndike postulated several"laws" of learning. These rules or principles seemedgenerally applicable to the learning process. In theyears since, other psychologists have found thatlearning is a more complex process than some ofthese "laws" suggest. While Professor Thorndike'slaws seem to have significant exceptions, they stillprovide an insight into the learning process and areincluded in this chapter for that reason.

The "laws" that follow are not necessarily asProfessor Thorndike stated them. During the yearsthey have been restated and supplemented, but inessence, they may be attributed to him. The firstthree are the basic laws, as originally identified: thelaw of readiness, the law of exercise, and the stillgenerally accepted law of effect. The followingthree laws were added later as a result ofexperimental studies: the law of primacy, the law ofintensity, and the law of recency.

Law of ReadinessIndividuals learn best when they are ready to

learn, and they do not learn much if they see noreason for learning. Getting students ready to learnis usually the instructor's responsibility. If studentshave a strong purpose, a clear objective, and a

well-fixed reason for learning something, they makemore progress than if they lack motivation.Readiness implies a degree of single-mindednessand eagerness. When students are ready to learn,they meet the instructor at least halfway, and thissimplifies the instructor's job.

Under certain circumstances, the instructor cando little, if anything, to inspire in students areadiness to learn. If outside responsibilities,interests, or worries weigh too heavily on theirminds, if their schedules ire overcrowded, or iftheir personal problems seem insoluble, studentsmay have little interest in learning.

Law of ExerciseThis law states that those things most often

repeated are best remembered. It is the basis ofpractice and drill. The human memory is notinfallible. The mind can rarely retain, evaluate, andapply new concepts or practices after a singleexposure. Students do not learn to weld during oneshop period or to perform crosswind landingsduring one instructional flight. They learn byapplying what they have been told and shown.Every time practice occurs, learning continues. Theinstructor must provide opportunities for studentsto practice or repeat and must see that this processis directed toward a goal.

Law of EffectThis law is based on the emotional reaction of

the learner. It states that learning is strengthenedwhen accompanied by a pleasant or satisfyingfeeling, and that learning is weakened whenassociated with an unpleasant feeling. Anexperience that produces feelings of defeat,frustration, anger, confusion, or futility areunpleasant for the student. If, for example, aninstructor attempts to teach landings during the firstflight, the student is likely to feel inferior and bedissatisfied.

Instructors should be cautious. Impressingstudents with the difficulty of an aircraftmaintenance problem, flight maneuver, or flightcrewmember duty can make the teaching taskdifficult. Usually it is better to tell students that aproblem or maneuver, although difficult, is withintheir capability to understand or perform. Whateverthe learning situation, it should contain elementsthat affect the students positively and give them afeeling of satisfaction.

Law of PrimacyPrimacy, the state of being first, often creates a

strong, almost unshakable. impression. For theinstructor, this means that what is taught must beright the first time. For the student, it means thatlearning must be right. "Unteaching" is moredifficult than teaching. If, for example, a studentaircraft. maintenance technician learns a faultyriveting technique, the instructor will have adifficult task in unteaching the bad habits andreteaching correct ones. Every student should bestarted right. The first experience should be positiveand functional and lay the foundation for all that isto follow.

Low of IntensityA vivid, dramatic, or exciting learning

experience teaches more than a routine or boringexperience. A student is likely to gain greaterunderstanding of stalls by performing them thanfrom merely reading about them. The law ofintensity, then, implies that a student will learnmore from the real thing than from a substitute. Incontrast to flight instruction and shop instruction,the classroom imposes limitations on the amount ofrealism that can be brought into teaching. Theinstructor should use imagination in approachingreality as closely as possible. Mockups, coloredslides, movies, filmstrips, charts, posters,photographs, and other audio-visual aids can addvividness to classroom instruction.

Low of RecencyThe things most recently learned are best

remembered. Conversely, the further a student isremoved time-wise from a new fact orunderstanding, the more difficult it is to rememberit. It is easy, for example, for a student to recall atorque value used a few minutes earlier, but it isusually impossible to remember an unfamiliar oneused a week earlier. Instructors recognize the lawof recency when they carefully plan a summary forground school lesson, a shop period, or a post-flightcritique. The instructor repeats, restates, orreemphasizes important matters at the end of alesson to make sure that the student remembersthem. The law of recency often determines therelative positions of lectures within a course ofinstruction.

HOW PEOPLE LEARNPerceptions

Initially. all learning comes from perceptionswhich are directed to the brain by one or more ofthe five senses (sight, hearing, touch, smell, andtaste). Psychologists have determined throughexperiments that normal individuals acquire about75% of their knowledge through the sense of sight,13% through hearing, 6% through touch, 3%through smell, and 3% through taste. They havealso found that learning occurs most rapidly wheninformation is received through more than onesense.

Perceiving involves more then the reception ofstimuli from the five senses. Perceptions resultwhen a person gives meaning to sensations. Peoplebase their actions on the way they believe things tobe. The experienced aircraft maintenancetechnician, for example, perceives an enginemalfunction quite differently than does aninexperienced student.

Real meaning comes only from within aperson, even though the sensations which evokethese meanings result from external stimuli.Because the meaning which is derived from theinformation furnished by the senses may depend onmany factors within each person concerned, andbecause perceptions are the basis of all learning, aknowledge of the factors which affect theperceptual process is very important to theinstructor.

Factors Which Affect PerceptionAmong the factors which affect an individual's

ability to perceive are that person's: (1) physicalorganism., (2) bask need, (3) goals and values, (4)

self-concept, (5) time and opportunity, and (6)recognition of the element of threat.

The physical organism is the vehicle by whichindividuals become aware of, and operate in, theworld of which they are a part. Pilots, for example,must be able to see, to hear, to feel, and to respondadequately while they are in the air. A personwhose perceptual apparatus distorts reality isdenied the right to fly at the time of the firstmedical examination.

A person's basic need is to maintain andenhance the organized self. The self is complete. Itis a person's past, present, and future combined; itis both physical and psychological. A person's mostfundamental, pressing need is to preserve andperpetuate this self. All perceptions are affected bythis need.

Just as the food one eats and the air onebreathes become the physical self, so do the sightsone sees and the sounds one hears become thepsychological self. Psychologically, we are what weperceive, A person has physical barriers whichkeep out those things that would be damaging tothe physical being, such as blinking at an are weldor flinching from a hot iron. So likewise, a personhas perceptual barriers that block those sights,sounds, and feelings which pose a psychologicalthreat.

Helping people learn, then, requires findingways to aid them in developing better perceptionsin spite of their defense mechanisms. Since aperson's basic need is to maintain and enhance theself, the instructor must recognize that anythingthat is asked of the student which may beinterpreted by the student as imperiling this self willbe resisted or denied. To teach effectively, it isnecessary to work with this life force.

Perceptions depend on one's goals and values.Every experience and sensation which is funneledinto one's central nervous system is colored by theindividual's own beliefs and value structures.Spectators at a ball game may "see" an infraction orfoul differently depending on which team theysupport. The precise kinds of commitments andphilosophical outlooks which the student holds areimportant for the instructor to know, since thisknowledge will assist in predicting how the studentwill interpret experiences and instructions.

Motivations are also a product of one's valuestructure. Those things which are more highlyvalued and cherished are pursued; those which areaccorded less value and importance are not sought

after. Motivations are one of the most importantfactors in learning. They are affected by manyother factors also, and will be discussed in somedetail later in this handbook.

Self-concept, how one pictures oneself, is amost powerful determinant in learning. A student'sself-image, described in such terms as "confident"and "insecure," has a great influence on the totalperceptual process. If a student's experiences tendto support a favorable self-image, the student tendsto remain receptive to subsequent experiences. If alearner has negative experiences which tend tocontradict self-concept, there is a tendency to rejectadditional training.

Negative self-concepts inhibit the perceptualprocesses by introducing psychological barrierswhich tend to keep the student from perceiving.They may also inhibit the ability to properlyimplement that which is perceived. That is, theyaffect unfavorably the "ability to do." Learners whoview themselves positively, on the other hand, areless defensive and more ready to "digest"experiences by assimilating all of the instructionsand demonstrations offered.

It takes him and opportunity to perceive.Learning some things depends on other perceptionswhich have preceded these learnings, and on theavailability of time to sense and relate these newthings to the earlier perception. Thus, sequence andtune are necessary.

A student could probably stall an airplane onthe first attempt, regardless of previous experience.Stalls cannot be "learned," however, unless someexperience in normal flight has been acquired. Evenwith such experience, time and practice are neededto relate the new sensations and experiencesassociated with stalls in order to develop aperception of the stall. In general, lengthening anexperience and increasing its frequency are themost obvious ways to faster learning, although thisis not always effective. Many factors in addition tothe length and frequency of training periods affectthe rate of learning. The effectiveness of the use ofa properly planned training syllabus is proportionalto the consideration, it gives the time andopportunity factor in preception.

The element of threat. Fear adversely affectsstudents' perception by narrowing their perceptualfield. Confronted with threat, students tend to limittheir attention to the threatening object orcondition. The field of vision is reduced, forexample, when an individual is frightened and all

the perceptual faculties are focused on the thingthat has generated fear.

Flight instruction provides many clear examplesof this. During the initial practice of steep turns, astudent pilot may focus attention on the altimeterand completely disregard outside visual references.Anything an instructor does that is interpreted asthreatening makes the student less able to acceptthe experience the instructor is trying to provide. Itadversely affects all the student's physical,emotional, and mental faculties.

Learning is a psychological problem, not alogical one. Trying to frighten a student throughthreats of unsatisfactory reports or reprisals maysewn logical, but is not effective psychologically.The effective instructor can organize teaching to fitthe psychology of the learner. If a situation seemsoverwhelming, the student feels unable to handle allof the factors involved, and a threat exists. So longas the student feels capable of coping with asituation, each new experience is viewed as achallenge.

Realizing that behavior is a function of the wayin which the individual perceives, and knowing thatperceptions are affected by any and all of -thesefactors, enables a good instructor to facilitate thelearning process by avoiding any actions whichprevent the attainment of teaching goals Teachingis consistently effective only when those factorswhich influence perceptions are recognized andtaken into account.

InsightsInsights involve the grouping of perceptions

into meaningful wholes Evoking these insights isthe instructor's major responsibility. To assure thatthese do occur, it is essential to keep each studentconstantly receptive to new experiences and to helpthe student realize the way each piece relates to allother pieces of the total pattern of the task to belearned.

As a simple example, in straight-and-levelflight, in an airplane with a fixed-pitch propeller, theRPM will increase when the throttle is opened anddecrease when it is closed. On the other hand,RPM changes can also result from changes inairplane pitch attitude without changes in powersetting. Obviously, engine, speed, power setting,airspeed, and airplane attitude are all related.

Understanding the way in which each of thesefactors may affect all of the others and knowing the

way in which a change in any one of them mayaffect changes in all of the others is imperative totrue learning. This mental relating and grouping ofassociated perceptions is called insight.

Insights will almost always occur eventually,whether or not instruction is provided. For thisreason, it is possible for a person to become a pilotby trial and error, just as one may become a lawyerby "reading law." Instruction, however, speeds thislearning process by teaching the relationship ofperceptions as they occur, thus promoting thedevelopment of insights by the student.

As perceptions increase in number and areassembled by the student into larger "blocks" oflearning to become insights, learning becomes moremeaningful and more permanent. Forgetting is lessof a problem when there are more anchor points towhich one can tie insights. It is a majorresponsibility of the instructor to organizedemonstrations and explanations, and to directstudent practice, so that the learner has betteropportunities to understand the interrelationship ofthe many kinds of experiences that have beenperceived. Pointing out the relationships as theyoccur, providing a secure and nonthreateningenvironment in which to learn, and helping thestudent acquire and maintain a favorable self-concept are most important in fostering thedevelopment of insights.Motivation

Motivation is probably the dominant forcewhich governs the student's progress and ability tolearn. Motivations may be negative or positive;they may be tangible or intangible; they may bevery subtle and difficult to identify; or they may beobvious.

Negative motivations are those which mayengender fears, and be accepted by the student asthreats. While they have their uses in certainsituations, they are not characteristically aseffective in promoting efficient learning as arepositive motivations.

Positive motivations are provided by thepromise or achievement of rewards. These rewardsmay be personal or social; they may involvefinancial gain, satisfaction of the self-concept, orpublic recognition. Some motivations which can beused to advantage by the instructor include thedesire for personal gain, the desire for personalcomfort or security, the desire for group approval,

and the achievement of a favorable self-image orsense of achievement.

The desire for personal gain, either theacquisition of things or position, is a basicmotivation for all human endeavor. An individualmay be motivated to dig a ditch or to design. asupersonic airplane solely by the desire for financialgain.

Students are like all other workers in wanting atangible return for their efforts. If such motivationis to be effective, they must believe that theirefforts will be suitably rewarded. These rewardsmust be constantly apparent to the student duringinstruction, whether they are to be financial, self-interest, or public recognition.

Many lessons with objectives which are notobvious will pay off well during later instruction,but the student may not appreciate this fact. It isimportant for the instructor to make the studentaware of those applications which are notimmediately apparent if motivation is to bemaintained. Likewise, the devotion of much timeand effort to drill and practice on operations whichdo not directly contribute to competentperformance should be avoided.

The desire for personal comfort and security isa motivation which is often inadequatelyappreciated by instructors. All students wantsecure, pleasant conditions and states of being. Ifthey recognize that what they are learning maypromote this objective, their interest is easier toattract and hold. Insecure and unpleasant trainingsituations retard learning.

Everyone wants to avoid pain and injury.Students are likely to learn actions and operationswhich they realize may prevent injury or loss oflife. This is especially true when the student knowsthat the ability to make quick decisions or to actcorrectly in an emergency results from adequatelearning.

The attractive features of the activity to belearned can provide a powerful motivation.Students are anxious to learn skills which may beused to advantage. If they can be made tounderstand that each learning task to which theyare directed will be useful in preparing for theactivities for which they undertook training, theywill be eager to pursue it.

Group approval is a strong motivating force.Every person wants the approval of friends andsuperiors. Interest can be stimulated andmaintained by building on this natural force.

Most students enjoy the feeling of belonging toa group and are interested in attaining anaccomplishment which will give them prestigeamong their fellow students.

Every person seeks to establish a favorableself-image. In certain instances, this self-image maybe submerged in a feeling of insecurity or

despondency. Fortunately, there is within eachperson engaged in a task, the belief that success ispossible under the proper combination ofcircumstances and good fortune. This belief can bea most powerful motivating force for moststudents. This motivation can best be fostered bythe instructor through the introduction ofperceptions which are solidly based on factspreviously learned and which are easily recognizedby the student as achievements in learning. Eachadditional block of learning toward the insight to bedeveloped and toward the ultimate goal, contributesto the confirmation within the student of afavorable self-image. As this confirmationprogresses and confidence is achieved, advanceswill be more rapid and motivation will bestrengthened as a result.

Positive motivation is essential to true learning.Negative motivations in the form of reproof andthreats should be avoided with all but the mostoverconfident and impulsive students. Slumps inlearning are often due to slumps in motivation.Motivation does not remain at a uniformly highlevel and may be affected by outside influences,such as physical or mental disturbances orinadequate instruction. The instructor must tailorinstruction to the maintenance of the highestpossible level of motivation and should be alert todetect and counter relapses in motivation.

LEVELS OF LEARNINGLearning may be accomplished at any of

several levels. The lowest level, rote learning, isthe ability to repeat back something which one hasbeen taught, without understanding or being able toapply what has been learned. Progressively higherlevels of learning are understanding what has beentaught, achieving the skill to apply what has beenlearned and to perform correctly, and associatingand correlating what has been learned with otherthings previously learned or subsequentlyencountered.

For example, a flight instructor may tell abeginning student pilot to enter a turn by bankingthe airplane with aileron control and applyingsufficient rudder in the same direction to preventslipping and skidding. A student who can repeatthis instruction has learned by rote. This will neverbe very useful to the student if there is never anopportunity to make a turn in flight or if the studenthas no knowledge of the function of airplanecontrols.

With proper instruction on the effect and useof the flight controls, and experience in their use instraight flight, the student develop these old andnew perceptions into an insight on how to make aturn. At this point, the student has developed anunderstanding of the procedure for turning theairplane in flight. This understanding is basic toeffective learning, but may not necessarily enablethe student to make a correct turn on the firstattempt.

When the student understands the procedurefor entering a turn, has had turns demonstrated,and has practiced turn entries until consistency hasbeen achieved in an acceptable performance ofthose entries, the student has developed the skill toapply what has been taught. This is a major levelof learning, and one at which the instructor is toooften willing to stop. Discontinuing instruction onturn entries at this point and directing subsequentinstruction exclusively to other elements of pilotingperformance is characteristic of piecemealinstruction, which is usually inefficient It violatesthe "building block" concept of instruction byfailing to apply what has been learned to futurelearning tasks. The "building block" concept will becovered later in more detail.

The highest level of learning, which should bethe objective of all instruction, is that level at whichthe student becomes able to associate an element

which has been learned with other segments or"blocks" of learning or accomplishment. The othersegments may be items or skills previously learned.or new learning tasks to be undertaken in thefuture. The who has achieved this level of learningin turn entries. for example. has developed theability to correlate the elements of turn entries withthe performance of such combined and complexpiloting operations as those required for theperformance of chandelles and lazy eights.

Although the foregoing example deals with thestudent pilot. learning situation, the principles citedapply equally to the student aircraft maintenancetechnician.

LEARNING SKILLSEven though the process of learning has many

aspects. the main objective or purpose of most.instruction is usually the learning of a concept, ageneralization, or a skill. The process of learning askill appears to be much the same. whether it is amotor (physical) or a mental skill. To provide a realillustration of motor learning, please follow thedirections below:

Write the word "learning" 1.5 times with your left. hand (or with your right hand, if you are left handed). Try to improve the speed and quality of your writing.

In the learning task just completed, severalprinciples of motor learning are involved and amdiscussed in subsequent paragraphs.

Physical Skills Involve More Than MusclesThe above exercise contains a practical

example of the multifaceted character of learning. Itshould be obvious that, while a muscular sequencewas being learned, other things were happening aswell. The perception changed as the sequencebecame easier. Concepts of how to perform theskill were developed and attitudes were changed.

Desire to LearnThinking back over their past experiences in

learning to perform certain skills, students might besurprised at how much more readily they learnedthose skills that appealed to their own needs (law ofreadiness). Shorter initial learning time and morerapid progress in improving the skill normally occurred. Conversely, where the desire to learn orimprove was missing, little progress was made. Aperson may read dozens of books a year, but thereading rate will not increase unless there is a

deliberate intent to increase it. In the precedinglearning exercise, it is unlikely that anyimprovement occurred unless there was a clearintention to improve. To improve, one must notonly recognize mistakes, but also make an effort tocorrect them. The person who lacks the desire toimprove is not likely to make the effort andconsequently will continue to practice errors Theskillful instructor relates the lesson objective to thestudent's intentions and needs and, in so doing,builds on the student's natural enthusiasm.

Patterns to FollowLogically, the point has been emphasized that

the best way to prepare the student to perform atask is to provide a clear, step-by-step example.Having a model to follow permits students to get aclear picture of each step in the sequence what it is,how to do it. In flight or shop training, theinstructor provides the demonstration, emphasizingthe steps and techniques. During classroominstruction, an outside expert may be used, either inperson or in a film. In any case, however, studentsneed to get a clear impression of what they are todo.

Perform the Skill

Since you have now experienced writing aword with the wrong hand, consider how difficult itwould be to tell someone else how to do it. Indeed,even demonstrating how to do it would not result inthat person's learning the skill. Obviously, practiceis necessary. The student needs coordinationbetween muscles and visual and tactile senses.

Learning to perform various aircraft maintenanceskills or flight maneuvers requires this sort ofpractice. There is another benefit of practice. Asthe student gains proficiency in a skill, verbalinstructions mean more. Whereas a long, detailedexplanation is confusing before the student beginsperforming, specific comments are moremeaningful and useful after the skill has beenpartially mastered.

Knowledge of ResultsIn learning some simple skills, students can

discover their own errors quite easily. In learningothers, such as complex aircraft maintenance skills,flight maneuvers, or flight crewmember duties,mistakes are not always apparent, or the learnermay know that something is wrong but not knowhow to correct it. In any case, the instructorprovides a helpful and often critical function inmaking certain that the students are aware of theirprogress. It is perhaps as important for students toknow when they are right as when they are wrong.They should be told as soon after the performanceas possible, for they should not be allowed topractice mistakes. It is more difficult to unlearn amistake and then learn it correctly, than to learncorrectly in the first place. One way to makestudents aware of their progress is to repeat ademonstration or example and to show them thestandard against which they can compare theirperformance.

Progress Follows a FattenThe experience of learning to write a word with

the wrong hand probably confirmed what has beenconsistently demonstrated in laboratoryexperiments on skill learning. The first trials areslow, and coordination is lacking. Mistakes arefrequent, but each trial provides clues forimprovement in subsequent trials. The learnermodifies different aspects of the skill: how to holdthe pencil, how to execute finger and handmovement, etc.

Graphs of the progress of skill learning, such asthe one shown below, usually follow the samepattern. There is rapid improvement in the earlytrials, then the curve levels off and may stay levelfor significant periods of effort. Furtherimprovement may seem unlikely. Such adevelopment is a learning plateau and may signifyany of a number of conditions.

For example, the. learner may have reachedcapability limits; may be consolidating level of skill;interest. may have waned; or the learner may needa more efficient method for increasing progress.Keep in mind that the apparent lack of increasingproficiency does not necessarily mean that learninghas ceased. The point is that, in learning motorskills, a leveling off process, or a plateau, is normaland should be expected after an initial period ofrapid improvement. The instructor should preparethe student for this situation to avertdiscouragement. If the student is aware of thislearning plateau, frustration may be lessened.

Duration and Organization of LessonIn planning for student performance, a primary

consideration is the length of time devoted topractice. A beginning student reaches a point whereadditional practice is not only unproductive butmay even be harmful. When this point is reached,errors increase, and motivation declines. As astudent gains experience, longer periods of practiceare profitable.

Another consideration is the problem ofwhether to divide the practice period (and perhapseven the instruction) into segments, or whether toplan on one continuous, integrated sequence. Theanswer depends on the nature of the skill. Someskills are composed of closely related steps, eachdependent on the preceding one; for example,learning to pack a parachute Other skills arecomposed of related sub-groups of skills; forexample, learning to overhaul an aircraft engine.

Evaluation Versus CritiqueIf an instructor were to evaluate the fifteenth

writing of the word "learning," only limited helpcould be given toward further improvement. Theinstructor could judge whether the written wordwas legible and evaluate it against some criterion orstandard, or perhaps even assign it a grade of somesort.None of these actions would be particularly usefulto a beginning student; however, the student couldprofit by having someone watch the performanceand critique it constructively to help eliminateerrors.

In the initial stages, practical suggestions aremore valuable to the student than a grade. Earlyevaluation is usually teacher-oriented. Itprovides a check on teaching effectiveness, it can

be used to predict eventual student learningproficiency, and it can help the teacher locatespecial problem areas. The observations on whichthe evaluations are based can also identify thestudent's strengths and weaknesses, a prerequisitefor making constructive criticism.

Application of SkillThe final and critical problem is use. Can the

student use what has been learned I It is notuncommon to find that students devote weeks andmonths in school learning new abilities, and thenfail to apply these abilities on the job. To solve theproblem, two conditions must be present: (1) thestudent must learn the skill so well that it becomeseasy, even habitual to perform it; and (2) thestudent must recognize the types of situationswhere it is appropriate to use the skill. This secondcondition involves the question of transfer oflearning, which is discussed later in this chapter.

FORGETTING AND RETENTIONTheories of Forgetting

A consideration of why people forget maypoint the way to helping them remember. Severaltheories account for forgetting.

1 . Disuse. It has long been argued that aperson forgets those things which are not used. Thehigh school or college graduate is saddened by thesmall amount of factual data retained several yearsafter graduation. Since the things which areremembered are those used on the job, a personconcludes that forgetting is the result of disuse. Butthe explanation is not quite so simple. Experimentalstudies show, for example, that a hypnotizedperson can describe specific details of an eventwhich would normally be beyond recall. Apparentlythe memory is there, locked in the recesses of themind. The difficulty is summoning it up toconsciousness.

2. interference. One theory holds that peopleforget a thing because a certain experience hasovershadowed it, or that the learning of similarthings has intervened. This theory might explainhow the range of experiences after graduation fromschool causes a person to "lose" knowledge. Inother words, new events displace many things thathad been learned. From experiments, twoconclusions about interference may be drawn: (1)closely similar material seems to interfere withmemory more than dissimilar material, and (2)

material not well learned suffers most frominterference.

3. Repression. Freudian psychology advancesthe view that some forgetting is due to thesubmersion of ideas into the unconscious mind.Material that is unpleasant or produces anxiety maybe treated this way by the individual, but notintentionally. It is subconscious and protective. Therepression theory does not appear to account formuch forgetfulness of the kind discussed in thischapter, but it does tend to explain some cases.

Retention of LearningEach of the above theories implies that when a

person "forgets" something, it is not actually lost;rather it is unavailable for recall. The instructor'sproblem, then, is how to make certain that thestudent's learning is always available for recall. Thefollowing suggestions can help.

Teach thoroughly and with meaning. Materialthoroughly learned is highly resistant to forgetting.This is suggested by experimental studies, it is alsopointed out in the sections on skill learning.Meaningful learning builds patterns of relationshipin the student's consciousness. whereas rotelearning is superficial and is not easily retained,meaningful learning goes deep. because it involvesprinciples and concepts anchored in the student'sown experience.

The following are five significant principleswhich are generally accepted as having a directapplication to remembering:

1. Praise stimulates remembering. Responseswhich give a pleasurable return tend to be repeated.Absence of praise or recognition tends todiscourage one, and any form of negativism in theacceptance of a response tends to make its recallless likely.

2. Recall is promoted by association. Each bitof information or action which is associated withsomething to be learned tends to facilitate its laterrecall by the student. Unique or disassociated factstend to be forgotten unless they are of specialinterest or application.

3. Favorable attitudes aid retention. Peoplelearn and remember only what they wish to know.Without motivation there is little chance for recall.The most effective motivations are those based onpositive or rewarding objectives.

4. Learning with all our senses is mosteffective. Although we generally receive what we

learn through the eyes and ears, other senses alsocontribute to most perceptions. When severalsenses respond together, fuller understanding andgreater chance of recall is achieved.

5. Meaningful repetition aids recall. Eachrepetition gives the student an opportunity to gain aclearer and more accurate perception of the subjectto be learned, but mere repetition does notguarantee retention. Practice gives an opportunityfor learning, but does not cause it. Further, it isbelieved that three or four repetitions provide themaximum effect, after which the rate of learningand probability of retention fall off rapidly.

TRANSFER OF LEARNINGDuring a learning experience, the student may

be aided by things learned previously. On the otherhand, it is sometimes apparent that previouslearning interferes with the current learning task.Consider the learning of two skills, A and B. If thelearning of A helps to learn B, positive transferoccurs. If learning A hinders the learning of B,negative transfer occurs. For example, the practiceof slow flight A helps the student learn short fieldlandings B; whereas practice in making a landingapproach in an airplane A may hinder learning tomake an approach in a helicopter B. It should alsobe noted that the learning of B may affect theretention or proficiency of A, either positively ornegatively. While these processes may helpsubstantiate the interference theory of forgetting,they an still concerned with the transfer of learning.

It seems clear that some degree of transfer isinvolved in all learning. That is so because, exceptfor certain inherent responses, all new learning isbased upon previously learned experience. Peopleinterpret new things in terms of what they alreadyknow.

Many aspects of teaching profit by this type oftransfer. It may explain why students of apparentlyequal ability have differing success in certain areas.Negative transfer may be hindering the learning ofsome; positive transfer may be helping others.This points to a need to know a student's pastexperience and what has already been learned. Inlesson and curriculum planning, instructors shouldplan for transfer by organizing course materials andindividual lesson materials in meaningful sequence.Each phase should help the students to learn whatis to follow.

The cause of transfer and how it operates hasnot yet been identified and explained. But no onedisputes the fact that transfer does occur. Thesignificance of this ability for the instructor is thatthe students can be helped to achieve it. Thefollowing suggestions are representative of whateducational psychologists believe should be done:

1. Plan for transfer as a primary objective. Asin all areas of teaching, the chance forsuccess is increased if the teacherdeliberately plans to achieve it.

2. Make certain that the students understandthat what is learned can be applied to othersituations. Prepare them to seek otherapplications.

3. Assure thorough, high-order learning.Overlearning may even be appropriate. Themore thoroughly the students understand thematerial, the more likely they are to see itsrelationship to new situations. Avoid rotelearning, for it does not foster transfer.

4. Provide meaningful learning experiences thatbuild the students' confidence in their abilityto transfer learning. This suggests activitiesthat challenge them to exercise theirimagination and ingenuity in applying theirknowledge and skills.

5. Use instructional material that helps formvalid concepts and generalizations. Usematerials that make relationships clear.

HABIT FORMATIONThe formation of correct habit patterns from

the beginning of any learning process is essential tofurther learning and for correct performance afterthe completion of training. It is, therefore, theinstructor's responsibility to in" on correcttechniques and procedures from the outset oftraining to provide proper habit patterns. It is mucheasier to foster proper habits from the beginning oftraining than to correct faulty ones later.

This is the basic reason for the building blocktechnique of instruction, in which each simple taskis performed acceptably and correctly before thenext learning task is introduced. The introductionof instruction in more advanced and complexoperations before the initial instruction has beenmastered leads to the development of poor habitpatterns in the elements of performance. Faulty

performance of the elements are inevitably carriedthrough to all future learning.

By definition, learning is a change ofbehavior resulting from experience. Tosuccessfully accomplish the task of helping to bringabout this change, the instructor must know whyhuman beings act the way they do. A knowledge ofbasic human needs and defense mechanisms willaid the instructor in organizing student activities andin promoting a climate conducive to learning.

CONTROL OF HUMAN BEHAVIORThe relationship between the instructor and the

students has a profound impact on how much thestudents learn. To students, the instructor is asymbol of authority. Students expect the instructorto exercise certain controls, and they recognize andsubmit to authority as a valid means of control.The instructor's challenge is to know what controlsare best for what circumstances. The instructorshould create an environment that enables studentsto help themselves.

Every student works toward a goal of somekind. It may be success itself; it may be agrade or an honor. The instructor directs andcontrols the behavior of the students and guides

them toward a goal. This is a process of directingthe students actions and modifying their behavior.Without the instructor's active intervention, thestudents would be passive and perhaps resistant tolearning. The controls the instructor exercises howmuch, how far, to what degree should be based onmore than random selection or trial and error.

Some interesting generalizations have beenmade about motivated human nature by the lateDouglas McGregor, Massachusetts Institute ofTechnology. While Professor McGregor'sassumptions are directed specifically towardindustrial management, they have implications forthe instructor as well.

1. The expenditure of physical and mentaleffort in work is as natural as play and rest.The average human being does notinherently dislike work. Depending onconditions, work may be a source ofsatisfaction and, if so, will be performedvoluntarily. On the other hand, when work isa form of punishment, it may well beavoided, if possible.

CHAPTER II. HUMAN BEHAVIOR

2. A human being will exercise self-directionand self-control in the pursuit of goals towhich committed.

3. Commitment to goals relates directly to thereward associated with their achievement,the most significant of which is probably thesatisfaction of ego.

4. The average human being learns, underproper conditions, not only to accept, but toseek responsibility. Shirking responsibilityand lack of ambition are not inherent inhuman nature. They are usually theconsequences of experience.

5. The capacity to exercise a relatively highdegree of imagination, ingenuity, andcreativity in the solution of commonproblems is widely, not narrowly,distributed, in the population.

6. Under the conditions of modem life, theintellectual, potentialities of the averagehuman being are only partially used.

An instructor who accepts McGregor'sassumptions begins to see the student as a vast,untapped potentiality. The instructor's ingenuitymust be used in discovering how to realize thepotentialities of the student. The responsibility restssquarely on the instructor's shoulders. If thestudent is perceived as lazy, indifferent,unresponsive, uncreative, uncooperative, andantagonistic, McGregor's assumptions imply thatthe cause lies in the instructor's methods of control.The raw material is there, McGregor maintains andthe shaping and directing of it lie in the hands ofthose who have the responsibility of controlling it.

How to mold a solid, healthy, productiverelationship with students depends, of course, onthe instructor's knowledge of students as humanbeings and of the needs, drives, and desires theycontinually try to satisfy in one way or another.Some of their needs and drives are discussed insubsequent paragraphs.

HUMAN NEEDSThe instructor should always be aware of the

fact that the students are human beings. The needsof students, and of all mankind, are given labels bypsychologists and are generally organized in a seriesof levels. The "pyramid of human needs" has beensuggested by Abraham Maslow of BrandeisUniversity.

Physical Needs

At the broadest level are the physical needs.Individuals are first concerned with their need forfood, rest, exercise, and protection from theelements. Until these needs are satisfied to areasonable degree, they cannot concentrate onlearning or self-expression. Of course, once a needis satisfied, it no longer provides motivation.,because a want that is satisfied is no longer a want.Each individual, therefore, strives to satisfy theneeds of the next higher level.

Safety NeedsThe safety needs are protection against danger,

threat, deprivation, and are labeled by someauthors as the security needs. Regardless of thelabel, however, they are real, and student behavioris influenced by them.

Social NeedsIf individuals are physically comfortable and

have no fear for their safety, their social needs thenbecome the prime influence on their behavior.These needs are to belong, to associate, to give andreceive friendship and love. Many studies havedemonstrated that a tightly knit, cohesive group,under proper conditions, will be more effectivethan an equal number of separate individuals.Inasmuch as students are usually separated fromnormal surroundings, their need for association andfor belonging will be more pronounced.Egoistic Needs

The egoistic needs will usually have a directinfluence on the student-instructor relationship.Those needs are two kinds: (1) those that relate toone's self-esteem-needs for self-confidence, forindependence, for achievement, for competence,for knowledge; and (2) those needs that relate toone's reputation-needs for status, for recognition,

for appreciation, for the deserved respect of one'sfellows.

Self-Fulfillment Needs

At the apex of the hierarchy of human needsare those for self-fulfillment, or for realizing one'sown potentialities, for continued development, forbeing creative in the broadest sense of that term.This need of a student should offer the greatestchallenge to the instructor. Aiding another inrealizing self-fulfillment is perhaps the most worthwhile accomplishment an instructor can achieve.

An instructor should strive to help the studentsatisfy these needs in a manner that will ensure ahealthy environment for learning. When theinstructor works for good human relations, thestudents experience fewer frustrations and cantherefore devote more attention to their studies.

DEFENSE MECHANISMS

Certain behavior patterns are called defensemechanisms because they are subconsciousdefenses against the realities of unpleasantsituations. People use these defenses to softenfeelings of failure, to alleviate feelings of guilt, andto protect feelings of personal worth and adequacy.

Although defense mechanisms can serve auseful purpose, they can also be hindrances.Because they involve some self-deception anddistortion of reality, defense mechanisms do notsolve problems. They alleviate symptoms, notcauses. Moreover, since they operate on arelatively unconscious level, they are not subject tonormal conscious checks and controls. Once anindividual realizes there is a conscious reliance onone of these devices, behavior ceases to be asubconscious adjustment mechanism and becomes,instead, an ineffective way of satisfying a need.Common defense mechanisms are rationalization,flight, aggression and resignation.

Rationalization

If students cannot accept the real reasons fortheir behavior, they may rationalize. This devicepermits them to substitute excuses for reasons;moreover, they can make those excuses plausibleand acceptable to themselves. Rationalization is asubconscious technique for justifying actions thatotherwise would be unacceptable. When true

rationalization takes place, individuals sincerelybelieve in their excuses. The excuses seem real andjustifiable.

Flight

Students often escape from frustratingsituations by taking flight, physical or mental. Totake flight physically, students may developsymptoms or ailments that give them satisfactoryexcuses for removing themselves from frustration.More frequent than physical flights am mentalflights, or daydreaming. Mental flight provides asimple and satisfying escape from problems. Ifstudents get sufficient satisfaction fromdaydreaming, they may stop trying to achieve theirgoals altogether. When carried to extremes, theworld of fantasy and the world of reality canbecome so confused that the dreamer cannotdistinguish one from the other.

Aggression

Everyone gets angry occasionally. Anger is anormal, universal human emotion. Angry personsmay shout, swear, slam a door, or give in to theheat of emotions in a number of ways. Theybecome aggressive against something or somebody.After a cooling-off period, they may see theiractions as childish. In a classroom, shop, orairplane, such extreme behavior is relativelyinfrequent. Because of social strictures, studentaggressiveness is usually subtle. Students may askirrelevant questions, refuse to participate in theactivities of the class, or disrupt activities withintheir own group. If students cannot deal directlywith the cause of their frustration, they may venttheir aggressiveness on a neutral object or personnot related to the problem.

Resignation

Students may become so frustrated that theylose interest and give up. They may no longerbelieve it profitable or even possible to workfurther. They accept defeat. The most obvious andapparent cause for this form of resignation takesplace when, after completing the early phase of acourse without grasping the fundamentals, astudent becomes bewildered and lost in theadvanced phase. Prom that point on, learning isnegligible although the student may go through themotions of participating.

THE INSTRUCTOR'S ROLE INHUMAN RELATIONS

To minimize student frustrations and to helpachieve good human relations in the classroom,shop, or during flight training, are basic instructorresponsibilities. Instructors can follow several ruleswhich, if adapted to the problem at hand, can be ofvalue.

Keep Students Motivated

Students gain more from wanting to learn thanfrom being forced to learn. All too often studentsdo not realize how a particular lesson or course canhelp them reach an important goal. When they cansee the benefits or purpose of a lesson or course,their enjoyment and their efforts will increase.

Keep Students Informed

Students feel insecure when they do not knowwhat is expected of them or what is going tohappen to them. Instructors can minimize suchfeelings of insecurity by telling students what isexpected of them and what they can expect.Instructors can keep students informed in variousways: giving them an overview of the course;keeping them posted on their progress; and givingthem adequate notice of examinations, assignments,or other requirements.

Approach Students as IndividualsWhen instructors limit their thinking to the

whole group without considering the individualswho make up that -group, their effort is directed atan average personality which really fits no one.Each group has its own personality which stemsfrom the characteristics and interactions of itsmembers. However, each individual within thegroup has a personality which is unique and whichshould be constantly considered.

Give Credit When DueWhen students do something extremely well,

they wish their abilities and efforts to be noticed.Otherwise, they become frustrated. Praise or creditfrom the instructor is usually ample reward andprovides an incentive to do even better. Praisegiven too freely, however, becomes valueless; but

when deserved, it pays dividends in student effortand achievement.

Criticize ConstructivelyAlthough it is important to give praise and

credit when deserved, it is equally important toidentify mistakes and failures. To tell students thatthey have made errors and not provide explanationsdoes not help them. If a student has made anearnest effort but is told that the work is notsatisfactory, with no other explanation, frustrationoccurs. Errors cannot be corrected if they are notidentified, and if they are not identified, they willprobably be perpetuated through faulty practice.If, on the other hand, the student is briefed on theerrors made and is told how to correct them,progress and accomplishment can be made.

Be ConsistentStudents want to please their instructor. This is

the same desire that influences much of thebehavior of subordinates toward their superiors inindustry and business. Naturally, students have akeen interest in knowing what is required to pleasethe instructor. If the same thing is acceptable oneday and not acceptable the. next, the studentbecomes confused. The instructor's philosophyand actions must therefore be consistent.

Admit Errors

No one, including the students, expects aninstructor to be perfect. The instructor can win therespect of students by honestly acknowledgingmistakes. If the instructor tries to cover up orbluff, the students will be quick to

sense it. Such behavior tends to destroy studentconfidence. If in doubt about some point, theinstructor should admit it to the. students.

These are but a few of the many attitudes andreactions that can help establish good humanrelations, Good human relations promote, moreeffective learning.

Communicating as an instructor is an essentialbut difficult skill. It is difficult because of thevariations and complexities in the teaching-learningprocess. Nevertheless, an examination of theprocess of communication, by an analysis of itscardinal elements and the .significant relationshipsbetween them, is useful in gaining a more preciseand deeper understanding of the process.Improvement in communication depends, in largemeasure, on an understanding of the process.

BASIC ELEMENTS OF THECOMMUNICATION PROCESS

Communication takes place when one persontransmits ideas or feelings to another person or to agroup of people. Its effectiveness is measured bythe similarity between the idea transmitted and theidea received.

The process of communication is composed ofthree elements: (1) the source (a sender, speaker,writer, instructor, transmitter, or encoder); (2) thesymbols used in composing and transmitting themessage (words, signs,

music); and (3) the receiver (a listener, reader,student, or decoder). These elements aredynamically interrelated, and that which affects oneinfluences the others. If a listener has difficulty inunderstanding the symbols a speaker is using andindicates confusion, the speaker may becomepuzzled and uncertain, losing selective control ofideas. Thus, communication effectiveness isdiminished. On the other hand, when a listenerreacts favorably, a speaker is encouraged, andforce is added to communication. The relationshipbetween the communicative elements is not onlydynamic but also reciprocal. Communication is acomplicated, two-way process.

SourceThe effectiveness of persons acting in the role ofcommunicators is related to at least three basicfactors. First, their facility in selecting and usinglanguage influences their ability to select symbolsthat are meaningful to the listeners or readers.Second, communicators, consciously orunconsciously, reveal attitudes toward themselves,toward the ideas they are trying to transmit, andtoward their receivers. These attitudes must be

CHAPTER III. EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

positive if they are to communicate effectively.Communicators must be confident. They mustindicate that they believe their message isimportant. Communicators must make it clear totheir listeners or readers that they believe there is aneed to know the ideas presented. Third,successful communicators speak or write from abroad background of accurate, up-to-date,stimulating material. Communicators must exercisegreat care to make certain that they communicatewith ideas and feelings that are meaningful to theirreceivers. Far too often, a speaker or a writer maydepend on a highly technical or professionalbackground, with its associated vocabulary, whichis meaningful only to others of like background.Reliance on technical language to express ideas toany receiver often impedes effectivecommunication.

SymbolsAt its basic level, communication is achieved

through the use of simple oral and visual codes.The letters of our alphabet, when translated intowords, constitute a basic code. Common gesturesand facial expressions form another. But words andgestures are seldom projected in isolation. Ideas arecommunicated only when symbols are combined inmeaningful wholes, in ideas, sentences, paragraphs,speeches, or chapters. Each part of the whole thenbecomes important for effective communication.

Total ideas must be selected carefully if theyare to convey messages which receivers can reactto and understand. They must be analyzed todetermine which are most suited to starting andconcluding the communication, and which ideascan clarify, emphasize, define, limit, and explain-allof which form the basis for effective transmissionof ideas from source to receiver. Finally, thedevelopment of ideas from simple symbolsculminates in the determination of the medium bestsuited for their transmission. Many channels areavailable for transmission. Most frequently,communicators select the channels of hearing andseeing. Occasionally, the channel of feeling-ofactually touching or manipulating objects-can beused effectively. The mostsuccessful communicator, however, uses a varietyof channels through which to communicate selectedideas.

Receiver

Effective communicators always remember abasic rule of thumb-communication succeeds onlyin relation to the reaction of the receiver. Whenthe receivers react with understanding, and changetheir behavior accordingly, then, and only then, hascommunication taken place.

To understand the process of communication,at least three characteristics of receivers must beunderstood: their abilities, attitudes, andexperiences. Fire, they exercise their ability toquestion and comprehend the ideas that have beentransmitted. Communicators can capitalize on thisability by providing an atmosphere whichencourages questioning. Questions may be direct orsilent. Readers do read; listeners do listen.Understanding the receiver's abilities is necessary ifone is to understand the process of communication.Second, the receiver's attitude may be one ofresistance, of willingness, or of passive neutrality.Whatever the attitude, communicators must gainthe receiver's attention and then retain it. Probablythe more they vary their communicative approach,the more successful they will be in this respect.Third, the receiver's background, experience, andeducation frame the target at which communicatorsmust aim. Communicators assume an obligation toassess their receiver's knowledge and to use it as afundamental guide for the selection and transmittalof ideas. To get the receiver's reaction, thecommunicator must first reach them. The majorbarriers to effective communication are usuallyfound in this particular area.

BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE

COMMUNICATION

The nature of language and the ways it is usedoften lead to misunderstandings. Thesemisunderstandings stem primarily from threebarriers to effective communication: the lack of acommon core of experience, a confusion betweenthe symbol and the thing symbolized, and theoveruse of abstraction.

Lack of Common Core of Experience

Probably the greatest single barrier to effectivecommunication is the lack of a common core ofexperience between communicator and receiver.Communication can be, effective only to the extentthat the experiences-physical, mental, or emotional-of the people concerned are similar.

Many people believe that words transportmeanings from speaker to listener in the same waythat a truck carries bricks from one location toanother. But words never carry precisely the samemeaning from the, mind of the communicator tothat of the receiver. In fact, words do not transfermeanings at all. Words, both spoken and written,are merely stimuli that the communicator sets forthto arouse a response of some kind in the receiver.The nature of this response is determined by thereceiver's past experiences with the words and thethings to which they refer. These experiences givethe words their meaning; meaning that is in themind of the receiver, not in the words themselves.Since a common core of experience is basic toeffective communication, a communicator's wordscannot communicate meaning to listeners orreaders unless they have had some experience withthe objects or concepts to which these words refer.

Confusion Between the Symbol and the ThingSymbolized

Words are simply representations. Theyrepresent or correspond to anything that exists, thatis experienced, or that people talk about. At best,language serves as a map. Just as a useful mapaccurately represents some specified territory,language should correspond to the objects orconcepts that it represents. Like a map thatcontains, errors, a statement that containsinaccuracies implies a relationship that does notexist. Communicators must realize the danger inconfusing symbols with the thing, they symbolize.Effective speakers and writers carefullydifferentiate between symbols and the things theyrepresent, keeping both in true perspective.

Overuse of Abstractions

Concrete words refer to objects that humanbeings can experience directly. Abstract words, onthe other hand, stand for ideas that cannot bedirectly experienced, for things that do not callforth mental images in the minds of the receivers.For example, if a communicator is discussing aparticular experimental supersonic airplane andrefers to it as the X-15, the listeners immediatelyget a mental image of this airplane. The name X-15represents a concrete reality. It can be seen,touched, and heard. If, however, the communicator

says, "I saw an experimental supersonic airplane,"the listeners do not form a specific mental image ofthe X-15 because there are a number of airplaneswhich fit that description. If the communicatorsays, "I saw a fast aircraft," a term is being usedwhich is so abstract that the listeners cannot form amental image of the X-15 at all.

Abstract words are necessary and useful. Theirpurpose is not to bring forth specific items ofexperience in the minds of receivers, but to serveas shorthand symbols that sum up vast areas ofexperience. Although abstractions are convenientand useful, they can lead to misunderstanding. Thedanger in using them is that they will not evoke in alistener's mind the specific items of experience thatcommunicators intend. The receiver has no way ofknowing what experiences the speaker or writerintends an abstraction to include. It is commonpractice to use such abstract terms as "propermeasures" and "corrective action." These termsalone fail to convey the communicator's intent.When abstractions are used in communication, theyshould be linked with specific experiences throughexamples and illustrations. Even better, the level ofabstraction should be reduced by using concreteand specific words as much as possible. By usingconcrete words, the communicator narrows andgains better control of the image produced in theminds of listeners and readers.

Any effective teaching process must be basedon the principles of learning which have beendiscussed in some detail in Chapter I. The learningprocess does not seem to be naturally divisible intoa definite number of steps. Sometimes, it occursalmost instantaneously, as when a child learnsabout heat from touching a hot stove. In othercases, learning is acquired only through long,patient study and diligent practice.

Although the teaching process can be dividedinto steps, much conflicting material has beenwritten with reference to those steps. Somerecognized authorities have specified as few asthree steps, while others have broken the teachingprocess down into seven or eight steps. A closeexamination of the various lists of steps in theteaching process reveals that different authors aresaying essentially the same thing. The chiefdifference between them is the fact that someauthors include only the steps in the actual teachingprocess, while others include the steps involved inthe preparation of the instructor for the job.

Another difference is that some authors makeseparate steps of items like summaries andassignments, while others do not.

The teaching of new material, as reflected inany of the lists, can be broken down into the stepsof: (1) preparation, (2) presentation, (3) application,and (4) review and evaluation. Discussions inthis handbook will center on these four basic steps.

PREPARATIONFor each lesson or Instructional period. the

instructor must determine what is to be covered,the objectives of the lesson. and the goals to beattained. This step should also include home studyor other special preparation by the student. As partof the preparation, the instructor should makecertain that all necessary supplies, materials, andequipment are readily available and that theequipment, is operating properly. The instructor'spreparation should include actual reference to thesyllabus for the course involved and a study ofobjectives. It must include the

CHAPTER IV. THE TEACHING PROCESS

development, of a lesson plan if the instructionalperiod is to be effective.

The instructor's lesson plan should be workedout in a detailed written form. A lesson plan is theinstructor's statement of lesson objectives, theprocedures and facilities to be used in presenting it,the specific goals to be attained, and the means tobe used for evaluating the results achieved.

PRESENTATIONThis is the instructor's presentation of the

knowledge and skills which make up the lesson.The choice of the method of presentation isdetermined by the nature of the subject matter andthe objective in teaching it. The lecture method issuitable for presenting new material, forsummarizing ideas, and for showing relationshipsbetween theory and practice. For example, it issuitable for the presentation of a ground schoollesson on aircraft weight and balance. This methodis most effective if accompanied by instructionalaids and training devices. In the case of a lecture onweight and balance, a chalkboard could be usedeffectively. The demonstration- method isdesirable for presenting a skill, such as a groundschool lesson on the flight computer. In using thismethod, be sum to tell the facts or demonstrate thesteps in the proper order so the students get a clear-cut picture of each separate part of the process oroperation.

APPLICATIONThis is the student's application of what the

instructor presented. In a classroom situation, thestudent may be asked to explain the new material,

or to perform a maneuver or operation. Forexample, at the end of a classroom period on theflight computer, the student may be asked to worka flight planning problem involving the computationof groundspeed, drift correction, and estimatedtime en route. This step involves the student'sperformance of a procedure that has beenexplained and demonstrated by the instructor. Inclassroom, shop, and flight instructing situations,portions of the instructor's explanation anddemonstration activity are usually alternated withportions of the student's performance activity. It israre that the instructor completes an explanationand a demonstration, and then allows the student toaccomplish performance activities withoutinterruptions for corrections and furtherdemonstrations. It is very important that thestudent perform the maneuver or operation theright way the first few times, for this is when habitsare established. Faulty habits are difficult tocorrect. After reasonable competence has beenattained, the maneuver or operation should bepracticed again and again until correct performancebecomes almost automatic.

REVIEW AND EVALUATIONThis is an integral part of each classroom,

shop, or flight lesson. Before the end of theinstructional period, the instructor shouldrecapitulate what has been covered during thelesson, and require the students to demonstrate theextent to which the lesson objectives have beenmet. The instructor's evaluation may be informaland noted only for use in planning the next, lessonfor the students, or it may be recorded to certifythe students' progress in the course.

In either case, the students should be aware oftheir progress and the advances and deficienciesnoted at the conclusion of the lesson. The failure ofthe instructor to assure that students are cognizantof their progress, or lack of it, may impose a barrierbetween them. Though it may be slight, it maymake further instruction more difficult.In flight training, aircraft maintenance training, andair crewmember training situations, the instructormust remember that it is rather difficult for studentsto obtain a clear picture of their progress, sincethey have little opportunity for a direct comparisonwith others, especially in the early phases oftraining. The students recognize that they are in acompetitive situation unlike any previously

experienced. The unseen competitor is thatintangible "competency" which must be achieved.The students' own evaluations can only besubjective. Direct comparisons for them are onlypossible with the performance of the instructor.Only the instructor can provide a realisticevaluation of performance and progress.

In addition to knowledge and skills learnedduring the instruction period just completed, eachlesson should include a review and evaluation ofthings previously learned. If the evaluation

reveals a deficiency or fault in the knowledge orperformances on which the present lesson ispredicated, it must be corrected before a newlesson can begin.

If deficiencies or faults not associated with thepresent lesson are revealed, they should becarefully noted and pointed out. Such correctivemeasures as are practicable within the limitations ofthe situation should be taken immediately, but morethorough remedial actions must be included infuture lesson plans.

The evaluation of student performance andaccomplishment during a lesson should be based onthe objectives and goals that were established in theinstructor's lesson plan.

Teaching methods may be considered the tools ofthe instructor's trade. The instructor's skill isdetermined to a large degree by the ability toorganize material and to select and utilize a teachingmethod appropriate to a particular lesson. Of thevarious teaching methods in common use, only thelecture method, the guided discussion method, andthe demonstration- performance method will becovered in this handbook There are no definitelines of division between these methods. In aparticular situation, an instructor should use morethan one method. For example, a gooddemonstration is usually accompanied by athorough explanation, which is essentially a lecture.

Because of the constantly increasing emphasison programmed instruction and since, a number ofprogrammed aviation training courses are presentlyava