Manual English b2-c1 school

Y

Section l- Vocabulary Activities

A. Find words in your text that mean these things:

1. of little worth or importance2. the most important or central part of something

3. gained by one's own skill, work, or action

4. arrival of an important invention, event or period

5. authentic, real6. the outside structure or outer surface of something7. cleverly planned or invented

B, Adjectives ending in -/C. Form adjectives from these nouns by adding -/C:

l. atom - atomic2. metal3. atmosphere4. nucleus5. state6. organ7. base

8. alcohol

C. Complete the following sentences

DifferentThe frst

forms of thetables of the

strucfure.3. The

valences of the elements in a

Except for mercury, the

elements date from long before the advent of the modern theory of

reason given by Mendeleev for the groupings was the similarity of the

9. period10 electricityI l. electron12. magnet13. acid14. carbon15. sulphur16. science

by using one of the adjectives ended in JC from above:

table have been devised so far.

given group.elements are all solids at room temperature.

chemistry, devoted to

1.

2.

4.

5. There is a special branch of chemistry, called

carbon-containing compounds.6. Water is neuffal: it is neither7. Some strong acids, like acid, are indeed dangerous if used improperly.

D. Find synonyms and antonyms in your text to the following words:

SYNONYMSl. non-scientific is similar in meaning to trivial2. nucleus is similar in meaning to3. valuable is similar in meaning to4. lifeless/passive is similar in meaning to5. look like is similar in meaning to6. blue-blooded is similar in meaning to7. stiff/inflexible is similar in meaning to

ANTONYMS1. metal is nearly opposite in meaning to non-metal

2. transition is nearly opposite in meaning to3. formal is nearly opposite in meaning to4. stable is nearly opposite in meaning to

l. ii:'it I i'h i i:lvl;,Si'ii;'l' fl}f"t},1

PREPARING T0 READ: Why is the periodic table so useful?

NEW VOCABULARYoalkaline earth metals

coinage metals

c0re

halogenslanthanides

shell

USEFUL LANGUAGE

> ldentify the functionof subordinate clauses

e,g. Certain of the groups

have acquired trivial

names which are verycommonly used.

(See G. Xlll.1. - 3.)

> Rewrite sentencesintroduced by althoughusing in spife of ordespite

e.g. In spite of being a .

base metal, lead has

many important uses.

(See G. Xlll. 3. 6.)

> Make full sentencesusing cause/reasonwords or phrases

e.g. Hydrogen is placed

by itself above the centre

of the periodic table

since it doesn't fit well

into any of the grouPs.

(See G, Xlll. 3.4.)

ffi thefirstforms of aperiodic table of the:ien;nts :;:-::-:. '::'::"=i-':ethe advent of the modern theon of atomi; i::-::-r= -: ''::: :-'=j -;'rncomparison of the chemical properties trf tlt; :,sn::r-; -: ';-' \n1::-d:l'eer

who first devised tables essentiallr simiiar tu- Ihc>e :--ei l;'l'--The elements can be classified as metal:. IloI-IL3ili! r:,: r::t-l:lis \It-re

than 75 percenfof the elements are metals. Erc;rl I.I:li.rJ:il'. i:,: r::etallic

elements are all solids at room temperarure,

The vertical sequences in the table are caiied -fli-,i:-r. a:ll ti:e lllriz.'ntalSequences uta .ill"d periods. Certain t-rf the sroup] hare a;curred tririainames which are very commonlr used. The group I-a element-t ,ercluding

hydrogen) are the alkali metaLs. Group II-a ct-rnsist= of the ;'':;.;re eartlt

metali, group I-b of the coinage rytetals. The VIl-b elements are the

halogeni. The group 0 elements are the nobie ga-,es. aith.rugh the terms

"rare gases" and "inert gases" are also encountered.

The basic reason given b1' Mendeleev tbr the grouprngs u as the similaritl ofthe valences of the elements in a giren group. These similarities can nou'be

explained in terms of the electronic stn-lctures of the atoms. We can now

also understand why the metals Ag. Cu and Au. although formally similar to

the metals Li, Na, K. Rb and Cs in having stable + 1 oxidation states, are

otherwise not very similar to these elements. ln the Li group there is one

valence electron outside of a very stable, rigid noble gas core, whereas in

the Cu group, the outer electron has beneath it a complete d shell which is

not paiieularly resistant to loss of electrons and is rather soft and

deformable.We can also see why the formal similarities of the oxidation states ofelements with partially filled d shells to those of elements which have only s

and p electrons in their outer shells are really only formal'

Certainly N and V have no genuine chemical similarities. ln contemporary

forms of the periodic table, ihese sequences of elements in which d and fshells are being filled, called transition series, are set apart from the non-

transition elements. The sequences Li-Ne and Na-Ar are called the first

short period and the second short period, respectively The sequences Sc-Ni,

Y-Pd and La-Pt are called the flrst, second and the third transition series,

respectivell,. The fourteen elements Ce-Lu are called the rare earths or the

lanihanides because they all resemble lanthanum chemicall1" The elements

into sequence Th to element 104 are called the actinides. although on the

whole their resemblance to actinium is not nearll' so close as that of the

lanthanides to lanthanum. The elements in the three transition series' rvhere

d shells are being filled. are sometimes ca11ed the "d-block elements"' The

lanthanides and ictinides together are correspondingll called the ',fblock

elements''.

(Text adapreci -liont G. T1 ler \lilier Jr.. Chentistr'" \\.a;st.'r'.i: Pu:iis:.1:g cLri:1pan\'.

California- 1991 t

(if14416

Section ll- Language Focus

A. What func,tion do the clauses in italics express?

e.g. The group 0 elements are the noble gases, although the terms ..rar;gases" and "inert gases" are also encountered. - subordinate clause ofconcession

1. It was Mendeleev who first devised tables essentially similar tothose used today.

2. The fourteen elements ce-Lu, are called the rare earths or thelanthanides because they all resemble lanthanum chemically.

3. we can also see why the similarities of the oxidation states ofelements with partially filled d shells to those of elements which

4.

5.

have only s and p electrons in their outer shells are reaily only formal.In the Li group there is one valence eleckon outside of a very stable, rigid nobie ga-\ ;rrr3.whereas in the cu group, the outer electron has beneath it a complete d shelt.certain of the groups have acquired trivial names which are very commonly use,l.

B. Rewrite the folloring senteflces introduced by alhaugh using in spite of or despde.

e.g. The group 0 elements are the noble gases, atthowghthe terms "rare gases" and .,inert gases"are also encountered.The group 0 elements are the noble gases, despite the terms 'orare gases" and ,,inert gases.. are aisoencountered.l. Although the atomic ntmrber is the same for all isotopes of an element, the mass number

differs.2. The particles of a suspension can be seen under a microscope, although those of a colloid

cannot.3. Rays from the sun warm everything they touch althoughthey themselyes are quite cold.4. A single plant produces thousands of seeds during one season, although r.ery feu of them

survive.5. Although lead is a base metal, it has many important uses.

C. Make full sentences out of the two statements, using the cause/reason words and phrases givenin brackets.

e.g. The fourteen elements Ce-Lu, are called the rare earths or the lanthanides. They all resemblelanthanum chemically. (becaus e)Because all the fourteen elements Ce-Lu resemble lanthanum chemically, they arecalled the rare mrths or the lanthani&s. (emphasizing effea)The fourteen elements Ce-Lq me called the rare earths or the lanthanide because theyall resemble lanthanum chemically. (emphasizing cause)

1. Hydrogen is placed by itself above the centre of the periodic table. It doesn,t fit well into anyofthe groups. (since)

2. The isotopes of a particula element difler only in the masses of their nuclei, not their charge.Neutrons have no electric charge. (taktng into account that)

3. Elements in the same group in the periodic table have similar chemical properties. Their atomshave the same number of valence electons. (owing to thefact that)4. Alpha particles cannot travel very far. Alpha particles have a relatively large charge and size.(the reason why...is that)

5. Electrons were attracted toward the more massive, positively charged aucleus. Electrons werenegatively charged. (as aresult ofl

Section lll- Text Structure

O LISTENINGFill in the gaps with the most suitable text organizers. Thisterm covers a wide range of words and phrases which help thereader understand how the information in the text isorganized. A selection is given here.Adding a point: also, as well as, not only_but also, not but,in additionContrast: however, although, in spite of, despite, nevertheless,

but, yetLogical relations: as a result, by this is meant, consequently, accordingly, thus, hence

Elements are classified _ metallic _ nonmetallic, their physical an chemical properties.Metals, are usually good conductors of heat and electricif, _nonmetals are not. Mostmetals are malleable, can be hammered into flat sheets nonmetals that lack this quality.Some metals are _ ductile and can be drawn out into thin wires nonmetals which are notusually ductile. _) metals have luster, are able to reflect light and have a high densitynonmetals which do not exhibit these properties. A few elements, arsenic and antimony, exhibit

metallic nonmetallic properties, and are sometimes metal.

A. ClassifyingAnswer the following questions using the words/phrases given below:

How are the chemical elements classified?How is the periodic table organized?What was the reason for grouping the chemical elements in groups and periods?

Use the words/phrases given below:

The chemical elements csn be classified into three groups according todepending onon the basis of

The periodic table consists of/ is conceived / organized

B. Cause and EffectContinue describing the organization of the chemical elements in the periodic table by using the

following cause and effect words:

As / Because / Since / Owing to the fact _The reasonfor / That is why / We can see whyTherefore / Consequently / Hence / Thus / As a result (of this)

C. Application

l. Use the periodic table to classiS, each of the following elements as metal, nonmetal ormetalloids:(a) francium; (b) tellurium;(c) arsenic; (d) molybdenum; (e) radium

2. Give the group number and period in the periodic tabie for each of the elements listed above.

3. Give the names of two elements that are (a) noble gases, (b) alkali metals, and (c) halogens.4. Explain why hydrogen does not fit as a group l/IA element.

1.

2.

J.

UNit 2: CFiEh4}STRY

PREPARING T0 READ: What is a bunsen burner? What is it meant for?

Th{H DIFFERHNT TYPHS OF BUNSEN BURNER F-1.''*:

NEW VOCABULARYoair intake holes

to flickerto glowpinpoint jet

to roar

to suck in

USEFUL LANGUAGE

> lntroductoryinfinitival phrases

e.g.7o heginwith,l'mooino to talk about

(See G. XX. H.)

> Split infinitive ' ',.

e.g. There is not

sufficient oxygen focompletely oxidize

(See G. X. 1. c)

> Double Comparative

e.g, Ihe more the air

holes are opened, the

largerlhe volume-

(See G. |X.4.)

ffi Today, I'm going to talkabout the different tYPes of flamethat can be, obtained from a

bunsen birrnir by adjusting the

air intake holes. To begin with,I'll gp, thrpugh the correct stePs

for lidliH-iE'Fbunsen. First, you

rotate the iolldr until no Part ofthe holes in the chimney can be

seen. The air intake holes are

now closed completely. Next, you tum on the gas b1 means tf th: ga. tap

on the bench, then light the gas by holding a lighted match at the top of the

chimriey. The flame obtained with the air intake holes ciosed is r:llow,ouiet. and flickerins ; rdther likd a candle flame. And if 1 ou hold a piece ofJ;;i ;lr* or ctrina in the top part of the flame, black carbon is deposited

thickf on it. Now turn the collar slowly until the air intake holes are fully

open. Notice what happens to the flame. (sound of bunsen .flame roaring.)

Llsten, can you hear the roaring sound the flame is making? -A'nd the colour

of the flame; did you notice hory it graduaily changed from 1'ello* to blue?

Not only that, it isn't uhsteady aqy. pgle; it scdr'idly flickers at all. \o$ hold

a piece of cool glass or china in the flame. No lcarbon is deposited on rt: it

remains completely clqan.

Let us consider Uiieny what happened in the little experiments that I have

just described. When the air intake holes are completely closed. pure coal

gas flows through the pinpoint jet and up the chimney. There is not

sufficient oxygen to completely oxidize..all the gas. Consequentll'. small

carbon particles are foimed which 4re ti6h=6a until they glo*. This makes.l

the flame appear to be yellow. Thus, the black particles that rvere deposited'

on the piece-of cool glass in the first experiment were particles of carbon'

When the air intake holes are open, the gas sucks in air as it flou s up the

chimney. The more the air holes are opened, the larger the volume of air that

is sucked in by the gas flowing rapidly through the chimner. This explains

the roaring sound that You heard.

When the air intake holes are open, the gas burning at the top of the

chimney is not pure coal gas, but a mixture of coal gas and air. As a result,

far moie of the coal gas is oxidizedthan when only pure coal gas is burnt'

Consequently, the flame is much hotter, hot enough. in fact. to oridize the

small particlis of carbon to form carbon dioxide. This explains uhf in the

,..ord small experiment, no carbon was deposited on the small piece ofglass when it was held in the flame'

(Text adaptedfromFrafikchaplen, A Course in Intermediate Scienti,iic English-

Evans Brothers Limited. London, 1981)

10

.


A. Give the meaning of the following words into Romanian:

itis . .- :'3.A

leaf did not4. '",'li rr

areas of Europe. (SUPPLY)5. Drinking water is passed through several

1 . air intake holes 6i r .,ii 'i'; .1.1t rr

2. bench nlc,J.,ll , '

3. burner ct,atr',l,i4. chimney lFr). i:1.1r.

B. There are verbs that do not change their form when used as nouns. Complete the sentences

using the words given in brackets, either as nouns or as verbs:

1. The gas sucks in air as it flpw; tp the chimney. (ELOW)Z. "Furi is a . j ., - i consisting of the limbstdne which forms as hard water evaporates, and '

i,r.] 'i, rL 5. COllar ' . ) t- . i ..r t i{, .

6. suck in7. roaring sound : .

8. tap '. 'r-,'', , i.

on the bottom and sides of the pan. (DEPOSIT)of colour was observed in the uncovered leaf, but the totally covered

(cHANGE)of natural rubber come from far away to the industrial

has been ' , '' (FILTER)6. Contraction causes a , ' I in the volume of a solid, and

' ;-. in volume. (INCREASE/DECREASE)7 . A cube of lead was ..i- . ' , ,', inf6 4 bowl and it now floated because ln

, r' .'' ., it displaced more water. (SHAPE)

C. Some nouns are formed from verbs by adding the suffix -ion, -ation. Put the word in the

correct form, adding the necessary sutfix:

1. When the droplets are heavy enough to fall, precipitation takes place.

(PRECIPITATE)2. The best , ,' r, of what takes place is the i,',. ", il'r of good examples.

(EXPLAIN/PROVIDE)3. The 100 equal . , , are made after

of the boiling point of water and the melting point of ice.

@rVIDE/DETERMINE/OB SERV E)4. ffus .;, ,' , ,: of rain depends on the and the of tiny droplets of

water vapour in the cloud. (FORM/CONDENSE/COMBINE)5. The _ and .- of water can be observed in everyday life.

(EVAPORATE/CONDENSE)

D. Find near synonyms in your text to the following words:

SYNO}ryMSl. absorption/admission is similar in meaning.to intake

2. densely is similar in meaning to f'1 .,1 i;,1: ; 1 I

3. fluctuating is similar in meaning to 4)\fl

and chlorine is added after it

when it expands it

this

by

4. examine is similar in meaning to5. actually is similar in meaning to6. hardly is similar in meaning to7 . swiftly is similar in meaning to

?..'

I ra'{_l'r rr..: _. I

lro,.l .i'.,

1t

I

Section ll Language Focus

A. Severaladverbialphrases include infinitives which are used introductonrli'1 tc crgan z€ trhat is

being said.

e.g,Tobeginwith,I'llgothroughthecorrectstepsforlightingabunse:rM"atch the following infinitival phrases to the function thel' perform :

to cut a long story short, to make matters worse, to put it attoln€r '", i. : - :

B. For which Phrasessubstituted?

f . in all honestY

2. in other words

you are about to summarise points made earrter

you uaa comingto the end of a narratire and r "' '''':-' :::

go into more detail

!o, ur. introducing a further problem or ditlicu"lyo, ut. showing that something is true most cI :i'= l'r:'=

you u.. about to rephrase something alreadr sai;

you are being less critical than you could be

in the above exercise could the following adverbial phrases 0e

3. concluding that4. briefly speaking5. handling tactfullY

complex large

3. fn. t.qu"*y of u *ur. U.comes higher as the wave gets shorter'

1. To sum up

2.

4.5.

6.

c, lt is quite acceptable to split the infinitive by inserting an adverb of manner after the infinitive

marker to.

e.g. There is not sufficient oxygen to completely oxidize all the gas'

Build up sentences of your own by using the following split infinitives:

to fully appreciate, ,o ion*ty ,proL, to ciearly understind, to Jlatly refuse, to highh' recomrnend to

q.uickly react.

D. When two actions depend on each other, or change to each other, the idea is often expressed

as follows:e.g. If the air holes are more open, the volume of the air is larger'

much

-large

The more th" *, h"lrt ,* opin"d, the larger the volume of the air'

Rewrite these sentences by using the double comparative:

l. The speed of settling depends on the size of the particles'

big

-quick -

2. ff u, uto- is ,ery complex, its nucleus is larger'

short

-high

-

4. The smell b".orn.. ,ttot geiaccording to how long the bottle

lons strongon the heat of the water5. The-speed of dissolving sugar depends r

hot fast

-

is left open.

t2

Section lll Text Structure

A. Describi ng devices/objects

Describe the components of a bunsen burner referring tocomposition, size, shape and function.

Use the following words/phrases: n\

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

,\

It is a device widely used in It consists of three main parts

It is fixed/fustened/connected/attached . It is shaped like a

It is made of metal/chinq/wood - It has the height of./a diameter of-

in the middle of

-inside -

At the top

-on

the bottomThe purpose / function / role of

B. Describe the correct way to light a bunsen burner. Remember, there are three steps.

Use the following words/phrases:

To beginwith / Next / Further on

First(y) / Second(y) / Third(y)

C. Describe the different types of bunsen burner flame by completing the table below,

of flame Air intake holes closed Air intake holes

What colour is the,flame?

Is the flame'ribisy or quiet?

Is the flame relatively hot orrelatively cool?ls all the gas oxidized oronly part of it?Is carbon dioxide produced

or only pure carbon?

D. Comparison and Contrast

Find similarities and differences between the

Similarly, use the following indications:two types of flame, by using the data in the table above'

In the first / second experimentIn contrast / Unlike / On the other handConsequently / AsThis explains why

a result / Thus

1. Using a complete sentence, describeclosed.

2. Using a completecompletely open.

3. Explain what happens if aair intake holes are closed.

4. Explain why this does not

the flame that is obtained when the air intake

the flame that is obtained when the air intakesentence, describe

piece of cool china is held at the top of the bunsen flame

happen when the air intake holes are completely open.

holes are

holes are

when the

l3

n-ir:it 3 : CF{EMtr S'fF"Y

PREPARING T0 READ: What is so special about

nucleic acids that they are commonly referredto as the secret oflife?

NEW VOCABULARYchromosomes(deoxy)ribonucleic

genes

helix

nucleotidespentose

purines

pyrimidines

USEFUL LANGUAGE

> So that(clause of result)

e.g. DNA must firstreplicate so that both

resulting cells will

have_(See G. Xlll. 3. 8.)

> lnfinitive of purposeor for-to

e.g. &rgardissolves in

water to make a solution Ifor making a solution

(See G. X. 1.)

> Correlatives: notonly_but also;both_and

e,g. The modelhelps us

understand not onlyhowDNA looks buf also how

it works.

(See G. Xl.2.)

h}UCLEIC ACIDS

ffi Wtry are your eyes, hair. and skin-rhe ci^::::,::1--=" ,:=- :i-''u :-j )"uget these and all your other genetic naits fron \ L;: ;;i::-:-i

- l"---: :i:r''1 =i iies

in the class of molecules called nucleic acids- ":-: : :-:i--:-:=' -- :. = -:11

nucleus that we know as DNA and L\A.In his test-"#{P?%e Double Helir. James \\'ar-si: :.;.,-.- ', ::-: ..,grii:

{Sffi.v when at lunch Francis fhis co-uorker. Fran;r. i:-;i'' -."::-.:f: -

. tliell everyone within hearing distance that rre haii :;';i:::.; ::;:3: ;: tr:1e."

The "slcret" Watson and Crick discor ereC '!i:-i ::.= ::l-*;:-:e ofdeoxyribonucleic acid. or DNA. the hereditary sn.f -: ::: :::: ---- -:--T--S c-rf

your cells that specifies vour senetic characteristi;s

DNA has two important functions First. uhen cle ii -' :;: ;.-:s i'i:i:s. its

DNA must first replicate so that both resultine;.,-. ui-, i::''e:hc same

genetic information (DNA) as the orisinal cell. Se;cnd- D\.{.r;r3s a-i the

master bhieprint for making proteins. \\-ithin each chrc,niostrtrrl€ 3ri genes -

shorter sections of DNA that canl' the intbrmation tcr making specit-tc

proteins in the cell. This process of protei-n srnthesis a1s.-r dependS u-rfl th€

other type of nucleic acid cailed ribonucleic acid. or k\A. The proteins

your cells make, in turn, cause your genetic features to appear.

DNA and RNA are polymers. Their monomer units. called nucleotides.

consist of three parts - phosphate, a pentose (five-carbon sugar). and a

nitrogen-containing base. Two kinds of pentose sugars are found in

nucleotides: ribose (in RNA) and deoxyribose (in DNA). The nro tlpes ofnitrogen-containing bases are the single-ring pyrimidines and the double-

ring purines. Nucleotide units link to form long-chain molecules of DNA-anA RNa. Alternating phosphate and sugar units form a "backbone". u ith

the various nitrogen bases extending outward from the chain. R\-1, usuaill'

is a single polynucleotide chain. But in 1953 Watson and Crick proposed

that DNA n-ormally ocour in cells in the form of a double helir consisting oftwo long strands of DNA wound around each other in a helix. The ''glue"

holdingihe two s#inds together is the extensive hydrogen bonding benreen

polar groups in each pair of bases. Although these h1'drogen bonds are

weaker than the covalent bonds holding together nucleotides in each strand.

there are so many of them that they provide enough eners\ to hold the

double helix intact at body temperature. This model of D\A as a double

helix with hydrogen-bonded base pairs brought a Nobel Prize to Siatson,

Crick and Wilkins in 1962. The model helps us understand not onlv how

DNA looks but also how it works.

(Text adaptedfrom G.Tyler Miller Jr., Chemistry, wadsu,orth Publishing Companl.

Califomia. 1991)

14


A. Match the following words with the definitions:

backbone, blueprint, helix, gene, master, polymer,pyrimidines, qnbdsy, strand, to wind, to wing

to wing ..to travel or fly by means of wingsone of two families of nitrogenousbases found in nucleotidesa spiral, especially a three dimensional one

each of the factors controlling heredity, carried by a chromosome

Il t, ,' a blue photographic printthe column of small bones down the centre of the back

,r ,1 I .'i a single thread or strip of fiber'-r ,r. to turn or trvist something repeatedly, especially round an object

I ,, , / compounds {ormed by the joining of smaller units linked by covalent bonds

feeling slighii! sick

in their

groups in each pair of bases. (EXTEND)7. Francis Crick winged in to tell everyone within

the secret of life. GDAR)

distance that we had found

C. Find 8 near synonyms and 3 near antonyms in your text to the following words'

SYNO}ryMS1. quality/characteristic is similar in2. nauseous is similar in meaning to

meaning to trail

3. spine iS similar in meaning to:i)rr{L i;

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.'7.

8.

9.10.

11. .r '$ ,i.1.,. something from which copies are made

B. Use the word in brackets to complete the sentence.

Add the necessary prefix and/or suffix and put the word in the correct form.

l. A protein enzyme that helps synthesize a skin pigment can determine the

color of your skin. (SYNTHESIS).2. So the | '',, t,: ' ;"' differences between the nucleotide units in DNA and RNA

pentose units and their base units. (STRUCTURE)11^ I i acids. (NUCLEUS)The answer lies in the class of molecules called

The proteins your cells make cause your featiirei to appear. (GENE)J.4.

5.

6.

RNA usually is a single : rt:",r n .' I :rr' ' ':ir chain. (NUCLEOTIDE)The "glue" irolding ttre t*o stn.anas iogether is thel;-------hydrogen bonding between polar

4. exteri-gr is similar in meaning to

-5. twi6t8b/enfotleh is similar in meaning to6. unidfith6A is similar in meaning to7 . fiber/rope is iimilar in meaning to8. copy itself is similar in meaning to

ANTONYMSf . inside is nearly opposite in meaning to2. untie is nearly opposite in meaning to

outside

15

Section lll - Text Structure

A. Break this sentence down into short sentences, making

any necessary changes. Write one short sentence beside

each letter.

1. Although these hydrogen bonds are weaker than the covalent

bonds holding together nucleotides in each strand, there are so

many of them that they provide enough energy to hold the

double helix intact at body temperature.

b.

c.

d.

B. Text organisers. This term covers a wide range of words and phrases which make text easier

to understand. A selection is given below:

Adding a point'also, both-and, not only-but also, also, etc'

Contrast - however, but, although, whereas, etc.

Result - so, as a result, consequently, so that' so-thatFind examples in your text of language expressing addition, contrast and result.

C. Analyzing paragraph organization.Complete the partial outline given for each paragraph,

1. Paragraph I : why are nucleic acids considered the secret of life?

- definition of nucleic acids

- discovery of

2. Paragraph2: DNA has two important functions- first(ly), to begin with-- second(ly)- for example

Paragraph 3: DNA and RNA are polymers

- nucleotides consist ofnitrogen - containing bases ore of two types

4. Paragraph 4: The structure of DNA- backbone- double helix- glue, hydrogen bonds

5. Paragraph 5: Model of DNA- Nobel Prize

D. Writing a listing paragraPh.

Write pa[graph iusing your own words. Begin the paragraph with sentences such as:

DNA is unique in its two functions-The first important function of DNA is

The seconifunction of DNA_ The process depends on-For example-

3.

t7

UNit 4 : CHEMISTRY

PREPARING TO READ: A common statement is..You are

what you eat". In what way(s) is this true or not?

I.IUMAN NUTRITION

NEW OCABULARYobenzocaine

bypass

methylcelluloseprocessed foods

saturated fats

staplings

suppressants,

thyroid hormones

USEFUL LANGUAGE

> While / as clauses

e.g. Eating and drinking

provide the nutrients you

need, wlr'le breathing

supplies

-(See G. Xlll. 3, 1.)

> Contraction ofwhilelas clauses to an

-ing construction

e.g. ..while maintaining

healthful quantities of

water_

(See G. Xlll. 3.9.)

> Unless versus if ...not

e.g. ...your body would

use up all the reactants

for its reactions unlessyou replenish them.

(See G. Xll. 1.)

ffi to stay alive, your body is fu1i of chem:;a. :=E::.-i*i - -:i;:-::1s loproduce energy for activities, to replac€ u1rs1-t -: :--':=:'i= -'i l- rlltr\€

waste prodr.it. Althorgh it recl'cles manr lll:x=l-'rj- ', - -- :':''' :"t:19 :

eventually use up al! the reactants for its ria;:r:l--' -:";i; ; - - :::-::ishthem. That is why you eat. drinli. and breathe Ea:-:. :;:: :::r*:r:::"idethe nutrients you need, u'hile breathing =:::l:- :---: :'* ": x: :r:lpmetabolize those nutrients.

While about 10 percent of the people in less j;-'c":;e: :::-::' hare

nutritional deficiencl' diseases. about ii prer;::-: :: ::-= :t--: = : :'redeveloped -countries are o\ernourished EatinE :-=:; ' -i- :t' :=-iies'r*#;- f^tr{'igi},.rt1'e,t:una pr..cessed i;'--'J. -: -:?-;il resh

vegetables, fruits, and fiber. these people hare an ir;r:a=d :rsr -:- JJ4b{=ni[tr Utood pressure, stroke. heart disea-.e- intestinan ca:x;.r. :",i:], c:;ar and

other health problems.

The causes of obesity are complex and not tell underst"t'i- Ifi#itei-seneticfactors, metabolic disorders, and psychological conditions ma) aJl plai srgnificart

roles. ExperSt$8.5o*.ver. that a major cause of obes$ is .r" erear,r ! ? r'{':i': { 4a

The most effective way to lose weight is to consume fe*er cai.-ri:s than

what the body needs. while maintaining heEJififfii quantities .'1 uat€r.

carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, and minerals. A dailr detrCit of 1.039ai,

Cal through reduced calorie intake, increased enerS] .tSdfafrir.- or 65(f,t(produces about a 2-lb (0.9 kg) weight loss per week. the ma-rimum

iecommended rate. To expect results from anything but this!ail1. dirficult'

undramatic Drocess is wishfu I thinking.

Nevertheless, in their .Hitf forp^ {nqgtc wpyi,lg fose ueight' people hare

used various d.ugs,ti8fr$fi.^Ttld.ffi hn8ffiptEff an incredible r arien of

fad diets, checked into resorts or "fat farms". and legun jogging- aerobics'

or other exercise programs. Drugs used in the QtS$l lor quick and ea:1'

Wffitlb$g,l$iilO.i ( I tapper ite rupir6r*Y(; ( 2 ) thl'ro i d ho rm on e s. to speed

metlbolism; (3) diuretics, to lose water (4) local analgesics. such as

benzocaine, to numb taste buds; and (5) methyl cellulose. s hich su ells up in

the stomach to make it seem full. Surgical methods for rreight lt-rss include

wirineil4he iaws shut, surgically removing fat, and stomach staplings and

bTF*&k Diets include low-calorie, low- or high-carbohldrate. 1ou- or

tieh-fut, one food (such as the grapefruit, rice. potato. or \\ater diets). no

foia ffa?fifs). and cbunttess variations on these.

Sociai fr.rr"rr., to u. tilifthuve also driven many peoP-le 19 ea1l1qg-rlglqttt:

Bulimia is a cycle of eating binges followed bv pFftpEto eipelihe food

before it is metabolized. People with anorexia ngnosa hare an extreme fear

;;;"rrhiryd.ft.'il; il;tufr;,ffrooo ano 6ftsdfripurgine rihen thel do eat;

for some people, this condition is fatal'

(lext adapted from G. Tyler Miller Jr., Chemistry, \\'adsri onh Publishing companl .

Califomia, 1991)

18

Section l- Vocabulary Activities " '-{-L'

tr) "

definitions:A.

intake, to numb, stapling, stroke, suppressants,

to cause to feel nothing or no paina procedure in which the stomach is made smaller

the process of falling to a lower or worse state

a person's particular like or dislike, a qaze

anorexigenics or substances-that reduce the appetite

spending or using upto gradually increase in fullness and roundnessthe amount allowed to enter or taken inconnecting or fastening something with wireswhen a blood tube in the brain suddenly bursts or is

worn-out

blocked


Add the necessary prefix and/or suffix and put the word in the correct form.

About 10 percent of the people in less developed nations have nutritional deficiency diseases.

GTUTRITION)To expect results from this daily, difficult, undramatic process is

(wrsH)thinking.

Experts agree, however, that a major cause of obesity is (EAr).Surgical methods for weight loss include wiring the jaws shut, removing fat,

and stomach staplings and bypasses/ (SURGERY)supplies the oxygen to help metabolize those nutrients. (BREATFIE)

Ldrty d.f"it oi 1OOO Cal through reduced calorie intake produces about a 2-lb (0.9 kg)

weight er week. (LOSE).8. Social p.ess*. to U. thin have also driven many people to eating- (ORDER)

C. Find 6 near synonyms and 3 near antonyms in your text to the following words,

SYNONYMS

L2.aJ.

4.

5.

6.

7.

used / deteriorated is similar in meaning toultimately/finally is similar in meaning toabstaining from food is similar in meaning tobehaviour indulged in excess is similar in meaning toa place where people regularly go for holidays is similar in meaning to

expelling food before it is metabolized is similar in meaning to

ANTO].ryMSsensitize is nearly opposite in meaning to numb

undernourished is nearly opposite in meaning todisinherited is nearly opposite in meaning to

D. Find adjectives ended with -/C and -AL in your text. Not allwords ended in -AL are

adjectives. Which two of the words below cannot function as adjectives?

aerial denial immaterial memorial official palatial sundial

E. Of the five remaining words in the list above, which three can act both as adjectives

and nouns?

t9


A.White/asisoftenusedtodescribetwoparallelactionsinprogressatthesametne't salso

used as a connecting adverb to introduce a contrast, Connect the sentences beiow by ls ng

while/as and specify whether it expresses simultaneity or confrasi.

e.g. Eating and drinking provide the nutrients you need. Breathing supplies tl= : r-'. i=:to help metabolize those nuhients.Eating and drinking provide the nutrients you need while breathing supplr=s :--"=

oxygen to help metabolize those nutrients. (s imult ane ityl

Comnine tlre two sentences by using whrle and specify whether it expresses s :--:a'6 i- 0r '^. ':?sl,

1. Aboutl0percentofthepeopleinlessdevelopednationshavenurntionai ;;:-::.=-'"".:1s3trses.

About 15 percent of the people in more de.veloped countries 2r€ o\errrrurishe;

2. The choleiterol depositr-ur. buildirg up. The cholesterol deposits make th: i-;:r ''r ::\ l3rder

to pump blood through the nanower vessels.

3. Thymine occurs in DNA. Uracil appears in RNA'4. Adenine forms two hydrogen bonds with only th1'mine

with only cytosine.The shoot slowly grows longer and turns green. The root gro\l's dorrnu ar,js

Codeine can be taken orally. Morphine must be injected.

These drugs are blocking the action of the enzyme monoamine orida-ie

the brain's level of serotonin.

B. Sometimes the clause introduced by while/as can be reduced to an -lng form to express a

simultaneous or a consecutive/contrastive action.

e.g. The most effective way to lose weight is to consume fewer calories v'hile maintainiris

(while you maintain) healthful quantities of water.

Which sentLnces in exercise A can be reduced by means ol while + 'ing form? What condition

should be accomplished to reduce the while clause to an - ing construction?

C. You can use unless in place ol if ...not in one of these sentences. Which one?

e.g. a. If foodSnffs are not correctly stored, they decompose quickly'

b. Synthetic chemicals are harmful if they are not used as intended.

Specify the sentences in which you can use unless in place ol if ....not'

1. If you, are not allergic to aspirin, the most effective way to release a headache is to take the

5.

6.

7.

cheapest brand of aspirin available.

2. Chemicals that appear to cause significant harm should not

their safety is ziol established.

3. People who live in very hot climates would die if the human body did not have a method of

be removed from the market y'

losing heat.

4. fthe soil is not lightenough, water will quickly soak through the sub-root levels.

5. ihe desert plants iannot survive the dry season frain does not fall in sufficient amounts'

D. What are the syntactic functions of the to-infinitive in the following sentences?

1. To stay alive,yotr body is full of chemical reactions. - reduced clause o.f purpose

Z. your Lody is full of reactions /o produce energy for activitie s, to replace \\ orn-out materials,

or to move waste products.3. The most effective way to lose weight is to consume fewer calories.

4. Social pressures to be thinhave driven many people to eating disorders'

20


A. Three of these sentences contain a word that is wrong. Provide the right words where

necessary and give reasons for your choice, Then check against the text.

l. The most effective way to lose weight is to reduce calorie intake and increase energy

expenditure.2. your body would use up all the reactants for it's reactions unless you replenish them.

3. Social p..rru.", to be tliin have also drove many people to eating disorders'

4. People with anorexia nervosa have an extreme fear to gain weight.

B. SummarizingThe sentences that follow provide a detailed summary of the text in jumbled order.

Number them in the correct order:

,1. ln order to lose weight, people have tried different kinds of diets.

2. Many people have b..n d.ir.n to eating disorders under the social pressure to have a perfect

body.3. In order to lose weight, people have appealed to surgical methods.

4. The most effective *uy to lose weight is to reduce calorie intake and increase energy

expenditure.5i In order to lose weight, people have used various drugs'

6. Getting the necessary energy is the top priority for your

alive.7. Many people are obese, consequently being exposed to the

8. The causes of obesity are complex.

C. personalizing the topic / Thinking about your personal connections to the topic.

Answer the following questions:

1. Are you completely huppy with your weight? what about your body shape?

2. What are the major types of nutrients you must eat to stay healthy?

3. What are some key vitamins and minerals you need to be healthy?

4. What happens if you get too few or too many calories.or too little proteins?

5. Do you prefer natural foods or synthetic (processed) foods?

6. How do you manage to avoid the risk of food additives?

7 . What do you do in order to keep fit and reduce the risk of obesity?

D, Writing assignment.Express your own point of view on the following topic:

Do you have control over your lifestyle? You can decide what you eat, how much exercise you get' how

much alcohol you consume, whether you smoke or not, how often you expose yourself to the sun's

ultraviolet rays, and whether you p.u"ii"" safe sex. Concentrate on evaluating these important choices,

and you will irave a much gr.ut", chance of living a longer, healthier, happier and less fearful life'

Use the following words/Phrases:1. Personally / From my point of view/ There is no doubt that

2. I would like / believe / consider / think

3. It is important / imperative / necessary / essential / true

4. Anothir point infavour of / One of the main arguments supporting

5. One obiection to this argument / Afurther orgument against

6. Furthermore / Moreover / Besides / In addition

metabolism, for Your bodY to staY

risks of many diseases.

if

rf

'7. In conclusion I can state that

2l

LJNit 5 : C}IE,MISTRY

PREPARING TO READ: What do you consider to be the most

serious drug problem in our country today? What are the effects

of using drugs?

r--t-- tr--r.r

fr1.. r

f?t"ri

DRIIG ABUSE: GETTf;NG I"iOOKED AND UNi-{C0KEl

NEWVOCABULARYoacetaldehyde

addiction

amphetamines

barbiturates

ethanol

ethylalcohol

habituation

hallucinogens

narcotics

withdrawal

USEFUL LANGUAGE

> Relative clauses

e.g, Drug abuse is the

taking of a drug in a waythat is not medicallyapproved _(See G, Xlll. 3. 10.)

> Although introducinga contrasting clause.

e.g. Although both drugs

are socially acceptable,

they cause more

illness_

(See G. Xlll.3.6.)

> /f clause type 1

e.g. if they drinkethanol, they will

experience a pounding

headache-

(See G. Xll. 2.)

ffi Ouring this century, drugs have saved millions of lirs =.J r=triered the

suffering of many millions of people. But many drugs are ml<use,i Drr,lg abu:e is

the taking of a drug in a way that is not medicalli' or 1e-ea111 apprn e"3 .n a culture.

The causes are a complex mix of physiological. pqchological and r.xial lactors

that vary from drug to drug and from user to user.

The two most widely abused drugs throughout much of the ricrlJ are ethl'l

alcohol and nicotine. Although both dru-es are socialll acceprable in most

countries, they cause more illness. death. loss c-'f time &trrn s..rL tamily

disruption and economic loss than an1'of the more publiczed illegal drugs'

When cerlain drugs are taken over long periods of tLme ther mar produce a

type ofdependence known as addiction. The user has a strong need for the drug

and undergoes pronounced physical or emotional reactions uhen deprired ofasupply, Psychological dependence (habituation) occurs if the user feels

uneasy, anxious, nervous or distressed when not using a particular drug such

as marijuana, cocaine or LSD.Some drugs, like ethanol, barbiturates and narcotics produce ph1'sical

dependence. After long and heavy usage the user suffers not onl.v an

emotional disturbance but also a disruption in body functions uhen the drug

is withdrawn. Withdrawal symptoms vary from drug to drug and can include

severe muscle pain, cramps, vomiting, diarrhea, convulsions. tremor and

even death.

Drugs can help treat addiction in some cases. A strategy, called aversion

therapy, has been used to treat ethanol addiction. The most widely used drug

is disulfiram (Antabuse), which blocks the metabolism of ethanol and

causes acetaldehyde to accumulate; this produces very unpleasant effects.

Antabuse is a deterrent to drinkin5 L,uu,.ruS€ people taking this drug know

that if they then drink ethanol, they will experience a pounding headache,

nausea, vomiting, palpitations and other unpleasant effects.

Another characteristic of many drugs is tolerance, which means that a user

must take progressively larger doses to achieve the same effects. Tolerance

usually accompanies physical addiction, but it also can occur withhabituating drugs such as amphetamines. Tolerance is better uncierstood

chemically than addiction.

Although drugs are very valuable in medicine, their abuse is itself a major

medical problem. Depressants, antidepressants hallucinogens and the like

are all grossly overused. The answer to our personal, nonmedical problems

are not found inside bottles.

(Text adaptedfrom G.Tylet Miller Jr., Chemistry, Wadsworth Publishing Company,

Californi4 1991)

22

B. Adjectives ending with -/CAL and -(l)AL. Form nouns from these adjectives.

Section I - VocabularyActivities

A. Match the following words/phrases with the definitions:

2.

J.4.5.

6.

7.

8.

1. medical - medicinie2. psychological3. physiological4. social5. emotional6. chemical

1.

2.

-1.

The answer to our

C. Complete the following sentences by using one of the adjectives ended with -/CAL and'(l)AL

from above.

Tolerance usually accompaniesdrugs such as amphetamines.

nonmedical problems are not found inside bottles'

' addiction, but it also can occur with habituating

Ethanol and nicotine cause more illness, death, loss of time from worh and

economic loss than any of the more publicized, drugs.

4. The user undergoes pronounced physical or

supply.5. The causes are a complex mix of

vary from drug to drug and from user to user.

6. Drug abuse is itself a major -- problem.

7. To stay alive, your body is full of reactions to produce energy.

D. Find 4 near synonyms and 5 near antonyms in your text to the following words.

SYNONYMS1. alleviated is similar in meaning to relieved

2. prevention/defence is similar in meaning to

3. to be retreated is similar in meaning to4. hate is similar in meaning to

ANTONYMS1. abstinence is nearly opposite in meaning to2. to be safe/comfortable is nearly opposite in meaning to3. willingness is nearly opposite in meaning to4. independence is nearly opposite in meaning to

5. getting hooked is nearly opposite in meaning to

deprived of a

factors that

disruption, ddteruent, metabolism, diyfressed, relieved, abuse, gletting hooked, tyhhdrawal

1. getting hooked being addicted to or captivated by

termination or retraction of drug takingsomething that interferes with or delays action or progress

afflicted or marked by anxious uneasiness or trouble or griefoveruse of treatment that causes some kind of harm

the complete set of chemical reactions that occur in living cells

the act ofcausing disturbance or disorderreleased ofpain or sorrow

7. illegal8. nutritional9. personal10. substantial11. physical12" surgical

reactions when

and

23


A. ldentify the relative clauses in the followingsentences. Which words/parts of the sentence arethey modifying?

e.g. Drug abuse is the taking of a drug in a way that is

not medically or legally approved in a culture.

1. The causes are a complex mix ofphysiological, psychological and social factorsthat vary from drug to drug and from user touser.

2. People who frequently use barbiturates produce a greater amount of the liver enzymes thatmetabolise those drugs.

3. The most widely used drug is disulfiram (Antabuse), which blocks the metabolism of ethanoland causes acetaldehyde to accumulate.

4. Another characteristic of many drugs is tolerance, which means that a user must takeprogressively larger doses to achieve the same effects.

5. Drugs that are used in the quest for quick and easy loss include appetite suppressants.6. A strategy, which is called aversion therapy, has been used to treat ethanol addiction.

B, Shorten (contract) the above relative clauses by using -ing or -ed clauses,e.g. Some tranquilizers are widely prescribed for people who have dfficulq," in falling asleep.

Some tranquilizers are widely prescribed for people having dfficulo in falling asleep.

C, Make one sentence from two using although, which introduces a contrasting clause.e.g. Drugs are very valuable in medicine. Their abuse is itself a major medical problem.

Although drugs are very valuable in medicine, their abuse is itself a major medical problem.l. Nicotine and ethyl alcohol cause a lot of harm. They are socially acceptable in most countries.2. Ethanol may be too toxic for humans to take. It may be a useful tool to study.3. Sulfadrugs are still used to treat certain infections. They are now largely replaced by antibiotics.4. This drug may cause heart problems. It is rather promising.5. Antibiotics also have unwanted effects. They have saved millions of lives.6. The search for an understanding of life processes has merely begun. It is easy to see why the

cracking ofthe genetic code is considered one ofthe great achievements ofrecentyears.

D. ln the following type of if clause, the condition relates to an event that is entirely possible butuncertain.e.g. Antabuse is a deterrent to drinking because people taking this drug know that f they then drink

ethanol, they will experience a pounding headache, nausea, vomiting, palpitations and otherunpleasant effects.

Complete the half - sentences as naturally as possible.1. If we don't reduce pollution2. People will soon be living to a much greater age if3. If a user develops tolerance to drugs4. A generation of non-smokers will appear one day5. If certain drugs are taken over long period of time

if

24


A, Defining requires a precise explanation of themeaning of a concept. Give definitions of the main

concepts encountered in your text by using thefollowing words/phrases :

Iite term/concept X is generally understood to meanlhe term/coricept X refers to,r broad chemical terms, Xcan be defined as

lhe term/concept X cal be characterized by. lte term/concept X is applied in a situation when/where

1. Addiction2. Psychological dependence3. Physical dependence4, Drug tolerance5. Aversion therapy

B, Summarizing

L Ten potential content points are listed below. Decide which four points best summarise thearguments in the text.

i. Many drugs are overused or misused, causing severe medical problems like dependence/addiction, mind-affecting diseases and even death.

2. Some drugs produce psychological dependence, which occurs when the user, duringwithdrawal, suffers emotional disturbances.

3. Drug abuse can also cause severe medical problems like addiction, tolerance, even death.

4. Drug abuse produces psychological and physical dependence.

5. Drugs have saved millions of lives and relieved the suffering of many millions of people.

6. Some drugs produce physical dependence which occurs when the user, during withdrawal,suffers a disruption in body functions.

7. Drugs are very valuable in medicine saving lives and relieving suffering (painkillers,

antidepressants, analgesics, etc.).8. ln some cases, drugs can help treat addiction.9. A characteristic of many drugs is tolerance, which occurs when a subject's reaction to a drug

(such asamphetamins) decreases so that larger doses are required to achieve the same effect.

10. Drugs are very valuable in medicine.

ll. Now arrange your resulting four content points in a logicalorder.

C. Summarize, in your own words as far as possible, the arguments FOR and AGAINST takingdrugs, using the following expressions and linking words / phrases:

The main / greatest (dis)advantage of isOne point / argument in favour of / againstlr could be argued that / A further common criticism of-\evertheless, however, still, yet, on the other hand

&

25

Ij;*it 1 2 : ijl\ \iilRCl'{}''4l;l}.rl-Al- Sa I E]\rC:S

pREpARING TO READ: How can we help prevent premature extinction of the world's existing

species from human activities?

q f I i{.i n{,'S I) i"i t. t rt Lt ilr{* l-V [ $ Tu Y ff l- i CI'Vd $rT * f'l H'

NEW VOCABULARYbiodiversity

to cull

ecosystem

endangered species

herd

keystone species

logging companies

nichepredator

scavenger

USEFUL LANGUAGE

> lnversion

e.g. tVot only did thesewolves cull herds of

bison-

(See G. XV1.2,,3.)

> Types of subordinateclauses

(See G. Xlll. 1.: 2., 3.\

> Reduction ofsubordinate clauses to

-ing, -ed and fo-

infinitive clauses

e.g,The gray wolf, also

known as -(See G, Xl, 1., 2., 3.)

> Gerund as subject

e.g. Reintroducing a

keystone species

-(See G. X.2. )

At one time, the gray wolf, also known as

the eastern timber wolf, roamed over

most of North America. Then between

1850 and 1900, an estimated 2 millionwolves were shot, trapped, and poisoned

by ranchers, hunters and government

employees. The idea was to make the

West and the Great Plains safe forlivestock and for big-game animals prized by hunters'

It worked. when congress passed the U"S. Endangered Species Act in 1973,

only about 400-500 gruy *olr"t remained in the lower 48 states, primarily

in Minnesota and Michigan. h 1974, the U.S. Fish and wildlife Service

(USFWS) listed the gray wolf as endangered in all 48 lower states except

Minnesota.Ecologists recognize the important role this keystone predator species once

playeiin parts if the West and the Great Plains. Not only did these wolves

tui freras of bison, elk, caribou, and mule deer, but they also provided

uneaten meat for scavengers such as ravens, bald eagles, ermines, and foxes.

In recent years, herds of elk, moose, and antelope have expanded' Their

large numbers have devastated some vegetation, increased erosion, and

thrlatened the niches of other wildlife species' Reintroducing a keystone

species such as the gray wolf into a terrestrial ecosystem is one way to help

sustain the biodiveriity of tne ecosystem and prevent further environmental

degradation.

In 1987, the usFws proposed reintroducing gray wolves into the

Yellowstone ecosystem. what the suggestion did was bringing angry

protests. Some ranchers feared the wolves would attack their cattle and

,t ..p; one enraged rancher said that the idea was "like reintroducing

smalipox,,. Other objections came from hunters who feared the wolves

would kill too *uny uig-game animals, and from mining and logging

companies that worrild thi government would halt their operations on wolf-

populated federal lands.

Since t9gS, federal wildlife officials have caught gray wolves in Canada

and relocated them in Yellowstone National Park and northern Idaho' By

2005, about 850 gray wolves lived in or around Yellowstone. With wolves

around, elk are latrrering less near streams and rivers. Their diminished

presence has spurred the growth of aspen and willow trees that atffact

L"ur..r. And leftovers of elk killed by wolves are an important food source'

The wolves have also cut coyote populations in half. This has increased

populations of smaller animals such as gtound squirrels and foxes hunted by

coyotes, providing more food for eagles and hawks'

(Text adaptedfrom G. Tyler Miller, Jr., Environmental science, Thomson Higher Education,

usA, 2006)

50


A. Match the following words / phrases with the definitions:

aspen, beaver, big-game, cull, eagle, endanger, hawk, herd, livestock' logging, keystone, predator'

scavengeri . a large bird of PraY

4. animal PreYing uPon others

5. to cause danger to

T.

8.

9.

10.

to select and killgroup of cattle or other animals feeding or staying together

ihe work of cutting down forest trees for timber

a kind of poplar with leaves that move in the slightest wind

1 i.

-

the central wedge-shaped stone at the summit of an arch

, 1 2. a bird of PreY with rounded wingsI

t

13. an animai with soft fur and strong teeth living both on land and in water

B. Use the word in brackets to complete the sentences. Add the necessary prefix and/or suffix

and put the word in the correct form.

1. b 1973, only about 400-500 gray wolves remained in the lower 48 states,

Minnesota and Michigan.(PRIMARY)Between 1g50 and 1900, an estimated 2 million wolves were shot, trapped, and poisoned by

ranchers, hunters and government . (EMPLOY)

3. The timber wolves Providedermines, and foxes' (EAT)

meat for scavengers such as ravens, bald eagles,

ln3

S

I

tr

d

pil

IE

vrd

rg

"tS

lgtf-

da

3y'es

eo

rcte.

edby

1. Other objections came from mining and

would halt their operations on wolf-logging companies that wonied the government

federal lands' (POPULATION)

5. Since 1995, federal wildlife fru.r" *ught gray wolves in Canada and relocated

them in Yellowstone National Park. (OFFICE)gray wolves into . the YellowstoneIn 1987, the USFWS ProPosed

ecosystem. (INTRODUCE)7. The diminished presence of elks has spurred the

attract beavers.(GROW)

of aspen and willow trees that

c, Find 7 near synonyms and 4 near antonyms in your text to the following words'

S\\ONYMS1. stop is similar in meaning to halt

l. stimulated is similar in meaning to

,1. farmer is similar in meaning to

5. principally is similar in meaning to

6. decreased is similar in meaning to

7, angry is similar in meaning to

I.\TO].IYMS1. dangerous is nearly opposite in meaning b safe

higher is nearly opposite in meaning to

terrestrial is nearly opposite in meaning tol.1

4. eaten is nearly opposite in meaning to


A. What do you notice about the order of the subject and verb in the following sentence?

e.g. Not only did these wolve s cull herds of bison, elk, caribou, and mule deer, but they also provideduneaten meat for scavengers such as ravens, bald eagles, ermines, and foxes.

Rewrite the sentences below using inversion and the adverb given in brackets.1. But only in the last century scientists were able to carry out experiments that converted this

hypothesis into a scientific theory. (not until)Not until the last century were scientists able to carry out experiments

2. Carbon is not released to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide for recycling as long as these fuelsare extracted or banned. (no sooner)

3. If the earth were much closer to the sun, it would be too hot for water vapour to condense andform water. (omission of ifl

4. The floods were so devastating that some areas may never recover. (so)5. Governments could hardly agree on slowing global warming and reducing their greenhouse

gas emissions. (hardly)6. Climate is affected by both global and local air circulation. (not only)7 . We should not care at all about the amount of solid waste we produce. (ittle)

B. ldentify the type of subordinate clause in italics in the following sentences:

i. At one time, the gray wolf which was also lcnown as the eastern timber wolf, roal.rred overmost of North America. - non-defining relative clause

2. The idea was that the West and the Great Plains (should) be made safe for livestock.3. Ecologists recognize the important role that was once played by this keystone predator species

in parts of the West and the Great Plains.4. Reintroducing a keystone species such as the gray wolf into a terrestrial ecosystem is one way

that helps sustain the biodiversity of the ecosystem and prevent further environmentaldegradation.

5. In 1987, the USFWS proposed that gray wolyes (should) be reintroduced into the Yellowstoneecosystem.

6. Wat the suggestion didwas bringing angry protests.

7. Some ranchers feared the wolves would attack their cattle and sheep.

C. Shorten the above subordinate clauses by using -lng clauses, ed clauses or fo- infinitive clauses.

D. ldentify the subject in the following sentence:

e.g, Reintroducing a keystone species such as the gray wolf is one way to help sustain biodiversity.

Supply two noun forms for each of the verbs in brackets:

l. Discussing / A discussion of the details ofthis contract is essential.2. (include) a new clause in the contract is essential before I can sign it.3. (prove) guilt is never easy in a court of law.4. (describe) what happened will be difficult.5. (develop) your natural abilities is vital for success.

6. (manase) your own affairs comes with practice.

7. (laugh) is supposed to be sood for the svstem.

8. (speak) develops naturally in most young children.9. (collect) stamps is a hobby pursued by many people.

10. (relax)

52

the muscles is important for pianists.


A, What is the difference between an endangered

.:ecles or threatened specles?

g Listen'to the extract and try to complete the

'c llowing classification :

:-n endangered species could become extinct;

;$

&,;' threatened species is to become extinct.

3rologists classifr species toward biological

:rtinction as

-

endangered threatened.

\t endangerrd tpui"t has

-individual

survivors that the species could

its natural range. A threatened species, also knownbut because of

soon become extinctasa--_--.-

numbers isor-

,...t."j. ttill abundant inxe11,' to become endangered

its natural

ts. Give definitions of the following terms encountered in your text:

in ecosystemi keystone species\:chei:.-rdiversity

Jse the following wordslphrasesr

_;:e clefinition of this term includes / coyers up a variety of meanings

.;:is term can be defined as/ refers to/ represents

j, The sentences that follow provide a detailed summary of ,,Reintroducing Wolves to

iellowstone,, in jumbled order. Number them in the correct order.

1 . The diminished number of gray wolves brought about changes in the ecosystem biodiversity

and environmental degradation.

2. The reintroduction of g.uy wolves into the Yellowstone ecosystem generated angry protests

from ranchers, hunters and mining and logging companies'j. In lgj3,when the gray wolf *uJi.t.d uiirdung.red species, there were only about 400-500

gray wolves left in North America'-1. Ey'2005 the number of gray wolves living around Yellowstone doubled, restoring the

ecological equillibrium.5. The gray wolf played an important ecological role by killing surplus populations of bison, elk,

caribou, mule deer and coYote.

6. Between 1850 and lgOO,2 million wolves were killed to make the plains of North America

safe for livestock and big-game animals.

D, Personalizing the toPic

"r,.hat can you do to help prevent premature extinction of species?

: -.me things you can do are listed below.

1. do"nlt buy furs, ivory products, and other materials made from endangered or threatened

animal species2. do not buy wood and paper products produced by cutting remaining old-growth forests in the

tropics3. do not buy birds, snakes, turtles, tropical fish, and other animals taken from the wild

1. do not buy orchids , cacti, and other plants that are taken from the wild

53

Lir:lil I -j : Ei..j',i iiliOl\i,,LI j'.1.,'ii.i_ Sl,'I'r::i.i',.ii_',::'',

PREPARING TO READ: What do you know about global warming?Has the weather in your country changed recently?

r:'i:: "r:,l1Fi*i irF G[ fti'llllr \tril'.r,t'{i!itG

NEWVOCABULARYoto acknowledge

to cope with

far-reaching

flood

fossil fuelsissue

to phase out

USEFUL LANGUAGE

> lntroductory there

e.g. There are threeschools of thought....,.

(See G. 1.4.4,)

> Prepositions in -rng

e.g. regarding,concerni ng, including,etc.

(See G. Xlll. 3.5.)

> Functions ot -ing

e.g. Dealing with thisthreat will require.....

(See G. X.2.)

> Reported speech

e.g. Most countriesproposed fhat moretrees should be planted.

(See G, XVll. 1.)

ffi It is hard to deal with climate changebecarse it has many causes, its effects areuneven and long{en4 and controversypersists regarding how it should be addressed.

The problem has many complex causes.It is generally agreed that carbon dioxidein the air is the biggest problem. Theproblem is also global. Dealing with thisthreat will require unprecedented

injgTational cooperation. we are all in the climate lifeboat together. ln2000, 160 countries met in the Hague to discuss this problem, but nothingwas decided. Europe and china agreed that less carbon shourd be producedbut most countries, like the USA, Australia, Canada, Russia and Japandisagreed and proposed that more plants and trees should be planted.while governments do nothing, the world is getting hotter. The USA hasalready had the worst fires and Northern Europe its worst floods. polar bearsare dying near the North Pole because the ice is melting. In the next 100years temperatures will go up even more quickly. The sea will be 88centimetres higher than it is now. Millions of people all over the world willlose their homes in terrible floods. What can we do to stop it?The problem is a long-term issue. People generally respond well to short-term problems, but we have difficulty acknowledging and coping with rong-term threats. There are three schools of thought concerning what we shouiddo about projected global warming. The first suggests a wait-and-seestrategy, with many scientists and economists calling for more research anda better understanding of the earth's climate system before we make far-reaching economic and political decisions such as phasing out fossil fuels. Asecond and rapidly growing group of scientists, economists, businessleaders, and political leaders (especially in the European union) believe thatwe should act now to reduce the risks from climate change brought about byglobal warming. They argue that the potential for harmful economic,ecological and social consequences is so great that action to slow the rate ofchange should not be delayed. The third approach is to act now as part ofano-regrets strategy. Scientists and economists supporting this position saythat we should take the key actions needed to slow global warming - even ifthe threat does not materialize - because such actions lead to other importantenvironmental, health and economic benefits. For example, a reduction in acountryr's use of oil would decrease its dependence on imported oil, whichthreatens its economic and military security.Is there any hope for the future? Some people think that solar and windenerry is the answer. Germany already has 100,000 solar roofs. The USAhas plans for 1 million. But there are some problems - like carbon dioxide -that countries cannot solve alone. Let's hope that at the next meeting,governments will stop fighting and start working together. If they don,t dosomething now, what kind of world will there be for our grandchildren?

(Text adaptedfrom G.Tyler Miller, Jr., Environmental science, Thomson Higher Education,usA,2006)

54

il

n

o5t.

n

l. Find words in your text that mean these things:

equal, flat or smoothro admit that something is true or validnever having happened beforeto direct one's attention to the problema great outpouring of waterto urge as if by commanding, to summon to get upto bring gradually out ofuseshowing great foresightsubject, problemto deal successfully with

3 Many adjectives can be formed by adding the suffix -ic, -icalot -alto a noun stem.r g. economy > economic environment > environmental politics > politicali a n you think of other adjectives ending in these suffixes?

I There are a number of adiectives ending in -lcalwhich also have anotherform, ending in -ic,*'*'ich has.a slightly d.ifferent meaning. Use a dictionary to help you check the meaningi of the:.a rs of adjectives below.

Section I- Vocabulary Activities

I9.

10.

: -:lssic - classical- ::mic - comical

s

S

0

II

J

I

)

fa

l"

fta

:l

It

:,

)

3. economic - economical4. historic - historical

5. politic - political

iS

.t

I 3ompound nouns are very common in English. They help us describe exacfly what we are talkingii:*:ut. Many of them contain an -ing form. Look over tlie eximples and define them as indicated.: r. a \\'ait-and see strategy > a strategy which implies waiting and seeing

a far-reaching decision >a short-term problem >a no-regrets strategy >a high-pitched sound >a life-support system >rapidly growing population >wolf-populated lands >water-short regions >

; nd 7 near synonyms and 4 near antonyms in your text to the following words.'; lr\YMS

rvorldwide is similar in meaning to globalto reduce the speed is similar in meaning toplanned is similar in meaning toargument is similar in meaning tocaused is similar in meaning torise is similar in meaning tomanage is similar in meaning to

I _-)\YMSlong-term is nearly opposite in meaning toeven is nearly opposite in meaning toprecedented is nearly opposite in meaning toagreed is nearly opposite in meaning to

55

short-term


A. lntroductory there expresses existence and gives focus to a notionalsubject.

e.g. There are three schools of thought concerning whaf wii should do aboutglobal warming.

ldentify introductory there and demonstrative there in the following sentences.1. There are always limits to population growth in nature.2. There can phosphate be deposited as sediment and remain trapped for millions of years.3. What kind of world will there be for our grandchildren?4. There have been serious droughts in North Korea, Afghanistan, Sudan and Ethiopia5. Even those who never use the wilderness areas may want to know that they are there.

Sometimes the uses of rl and there are confused. Correct the sentences that are wrong.1. It was a good show on television last night.2. There are two miles to the station.3. It was Andrew who won the race.4. It is a strange man at the door.5. There are two blocks to the post office.

B. What part of speech is regarding in the following sentence?

e.g. The effects of climate change are uneven and long-term, and controversy persistsregardinghowit should be addressed.

Write sentences of your own using the following prepositions in -ing.

l. Conceming2. Considering3. Including

C. Specifythe syntactic functions of -ing in the following sentences.

1. Dealing with this threat will require unprecedented international cooperation.2. While governments do nothing, the world is getting hotter.3. A rapidly growing group of scientists, economists, business leaders, and

believe that we should act now to reduce the risks from climate change.4. The first school suggests a wait-and-see strategy, with many scientists and economists calling

for more research and a better understanding of the earth's climate system.5. Governments should makefar-reaching economic and political decisions such as phasing out

fossil fuels.

D. ls this sentence correct? Why?

e.g. Most countries, like the USA, proposed that more plants and trees should be planted.

Use the correct verb forms in the following sentences:l. It is imperative that three conditions (be accomplished) for ofa

population by natural selection.Recent studies indicated that the effect of global warming (be) temporary.It is likely that the global temperatures (rise) several degrees over the nexthundred years.

4. Some studies suggested that larger amounts of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere

s By th" r"te 'e80s

"#i':;l#'J:f.::*iffillJ'rTi';:i;ff ::A#l ?ffliffi;"*.*(contribute) to global warming.

56

(subject)

political leaders

2.J.


A. Explain in your own words what is meant by "we are a!!in the crimate'eboat togethef'.

3. Decide if the following statements are true (T) or false (F) according to the{ormation in the text.

1. Climate change is not difficult to deal with because it has many solutions.:. Most people agree on the fact that carbon dioxide in the air is the most important problem.3. Japan agreed with Europe about global warming.-1. Nothing was decided at the llague-because some cormfies did not want to produce less carbon dioxide.5. The USA are worried about global warming.6. Russia believed that trees would stop global warming.

The sea will be less higher than it is now in the next 100 years.8. China has already had unusually heavy rains.9. The North Pole is colder than it has ever been before.1 0. There are three schools of thought supporting different strategies for reducing the threat of

global warming.

I What can people do to reduce the threat of global warming? Study the chart below and decideniirich five of these solutions are the most important.

Prevention Cleanup- -: tbssil fuel use (especially coal) Remove carbon dioxide from smokestack

and vehicle emissionsi ---tr from coal to natural gas Store carbon dioxide by planting trees-:- prove energy effi ciency Sequester carbon dioxide deep

underground:::lt to renewable energy resources Sequester carbon dioxide in soil by

taking crop land out ofproduction

fI

5

, :ansfer energy efficiency and renewable:lerg' technologies to developing countriesi.:Juce deforestation

- ie more sustainable,;iculture-:nit urban sprawl..

" juce poverfy

: :u population growth

I Personalizing the topicAlhat can you do to reduce the threat of globalwarming?

1. drive a fuel-efficient car, walk, bike and use mass transit:. use energy - efficient windows-i. use energy - efficient appliances and lights{. heavily insulate your house and sealall draftsi. reduce garbage by recycling and reuse5. insulate your hot water heater

plant trees to shade your house during summer8. wash laundry in warm or cold water9. use low-flow shower head

t!'ilrich things in this list do you do or plan to do?

Sequester carbon dioxide in the deepocean

Repair leaky natural gas pipelines andfacilitiesUse animal feeds that reduce ammoniaemissions by belching cows

ffiffi@@

57

UNit 14 : ENVIRCNh4ENITAI- SCIE}.{CES

PREPARING TO READ: How would you determine whether a particular species found in agiven area is a keystone species?

WI'IY SHOI.JLD WE CARH ABCIUT THE AMERICAN ALI.IGATOR?

NEW VOCABULARY

C}

bass

bream

extinctiongator

habitatkeystone

nesting moundspredator

sustainability

USEFUL LANGUAGE

> lf it weren't for_e.g.lf itwere notforhumans, the American

alligator would have no

natural predators.

(See G Xll.2.)

> Correlative pairs

e.g. Other people huntedalligators eifher for sportor out of hatred.

(See G X|.2.)

) Because introducing a

clause of reason

e.g. Some ecologists

classify the American

alligator as a keystone

species because of itsimportant ecological roles

(See G. Xlll.3.4.)

M Ttre American alligator is one ofNorth America's largest reptiles. If itwere not for humans, the Americanalligalor would have no naturalpredators. This species, which hassurvived for nearly 200 million years,has been able to adapt to numerouschanges in the earth's environmentalconditions.But matters changed when hunters began killing large numbers of theseanimals for their exotic meat, for their skin, for leather goods. Beforehunting was controlled in 1970 an estimated l0 million alligators werekilled for their skins.other people hunted alligators either for sport or out of hatred. Befween1950 and 1960, hunters wiped o:ut 90%o of the alligators in Louisiana. By the1960s, the alligator population in the Florida Everglades was also nearextinction.People who say ,,So what?" are overlooking the alligator's importantecological role - its niche - in subtropical wetland communities. Alligatorsdig deep depressions, or gator holes. These holes hold fresh water duringdry spells, serve as refuges for aquatic life, and supply fresh water and foodfor many animals. Large alligator nesting mounds provide nesting andfeeding sites for species of herons and egrets. This helps maintainpopulations of game fish such as bass and bream. As alligators move fromgator holes Jo nesting mounds, they help keep areas of open water free ofinvading vegetation. Without these free ecosystem services, freshwaterponds and coastal wetlands found in the alligator's habitat, shrubs and treeswould fill in and dozens of species would disappear.Some ecologists classif, the American alligator as a keystone speciesbecause of its important ecological roles in helping maintain the structure,function, and sustainability of the communities where it is found.In 1967, the U.S. government placed the American alligator on theendangered species list. Protected from hunters, the population had made astrong comeback in many areas by 1975 - too strong, according to thosewho find alligators in their backyards and swimming pools, as well as toduck hunters, whose retriever dogs are sometimes eaten by alligators.To biologists, the comeback of the American alligator is an importantsuccess story in wildlife conservation. Conservation efforts have saved theAmerican alligator from the brink of extinction. The American alligator is ingood hands now, but we have to make an effort to protect it. Its survival isdirectly linked to the survival of the other creatures in the ecosystem.

(Text adaptedfron G. Tyler Miller, Jr., Enyironmental Science, Thomson Higher Education,usA,2006)

3

58


' -./,. rJ

animal preying upon othersto fail to observe or considera period of a certain type of weathera small hilla fish of the pereh familya yellowish freshwater fish with an arched backfish hunted for sport or foodto enter a territory forcefully in order to attack or occupythe natural environment of an animal or planta swimming bird of various kind

Make a compound word in each sentence by adding one of the words given.come stone waterlandlife

system yard

communities. '- -r---''

: Match the following words/ phrases with the: efinitions:

meanmg to

sustainability is nearly opposite in meaning tousuaVnative is nearly opposite in meaninglodestruction is nearly opposite in meaninglo

"::

"r7. -*,

/....+',,S--J, trr/.l

3

Ii0.

without these free eco - services, dozens of species wourd disappear.Some ecologists classif, the American alligator u, u iry_ species.Protected from hunters, the popuration had *ud. u rt org'- ba.t in many areas by 1975.Protected from hunters, the population had made a rtiongrcomeback in rnuny u..u, by 1975 -9o :qong, according to those who find alligators in their backTo biologists, the comeback of the American alligator i, *-irn[onunt success story inwild_ conservation.Without these free ecosystem services, freshthe alligator's habitat, would disappear.

: iil! ! near synonyms and 3 near antonyms in your text to the following words,:':\ONYMSshelter is similar in meaning todestroy completely is similar inreturn is similar in meaning toalligator is similar in meaning toenmity is similar in meaning tomerchandise is similar in meaning tocave/opening is similar in meaning to

: edge is similar in meaning to;TONM\4S

ponds and coastal wetlands found in

extinction

59


2.

3.4.

5.

6.

2.

J.4.

5.

6.

A. Why is were used in the following sentence rather than uvas?

e.g, If it were not for humans, the American alligator would have no natural predators.

Rephrase the following sentences using '/f lf weren't for''.

1. Without these free ecosystem services, dozens of species would disappear.If it weren't for these free ecosystem services, dozens of species would disappear.

2. We have used technology to alter nature. Otherwise, we couldn't meet our growing needs and

provide basic support.3. Without any control on the population growth, some species would cover the earth's entire

surface. -4. Without amphibians, we wouldn't-be aware of the decline in environmental quality in many

parts of the world.5. Shark species play an important ecological role. Without their services, the oceans would be

teeming with dead and dying fish.6. Without pollinating insects, we would have very few fruits and vegetables to enjoy.

B. Rephrase the above sentences by omitting d.

e.g, If it were not for humans, the American alligator would have no natural predators.

Weren't it for humans, the American alligator would have no natural predators.

C. Study the following correlative pair and specify the parts of sentence or the type of clauses

they connect.e.g. Other people hunted alligators either for sport or out of hatred.

Combine the sentences below by using correlative pairs.l. Climate is affected by global circulation. Climate is affected by local air circulation.

Climate is affected by both global and local air circulation.Climate is affected not only by global circulation, but also by local air circulation.Much of this energy is reflected away. Much of this energy is absorbed by chemicals in the

planet's atmosphere.

Natural foods are not free of risks. Additives are not free of risks.A warmer climate would have beneficial effects. A warmer climate would have harmful effects.

Changes in the earth's climate are not new. Changes in the earth's climate are not unusual.

The USA could not reach an agreement on reducing the emission of carbon dioxide. Australiacould not reach an agreement on reducing the emission of carbon dioxide.

D. Study this sentence and decide what type of clause is introduced by because.

e.g. Some ecologists classiff the American alligator as a keystone species because of itsecological roles.

Finish these sentences as shown in the model below.1. Polar bears are dying near the north Pole because

Polar bears are dying near the north Pole because the ice is melting.Overfishing is a big and growing problem becauseThe use ofpesticides is controversial becauseRemoving salt from seawater will not probably be done widely because

This country experienced increased flooding because

60

Wildemess should be preserved because


0 Listen to the extract and try to complete the following definition of a keystone species:Akeystoneisthewedge.-stoneplacedatthetopofastone-'Removethisstoneandthearch-.lnsomecommunities,keystonespeciesSerVeasimilarrole.Thesespecieshaveamuch larger effect on the types and _ of other species in a community than their numbersu'ould suggest. Eliminating a keystone species may _ alter the structure and _ of acommunity. The loss of a keystone species can lead to population _ and _ of otherspecies that depend on it for certain services. According to Edward O.\\rilson, ,,The loss of a keystone species is like a drill accidentally striking a line. It causeslights all over."

A. Summarizingl, Ten potential content points are listed below. Decide which four points best summarise thekey ideas in your text.

1. After being placed on the endangered species list, the American alligator was protected fromhunters and made a strong comeback.

2. Large alligator nesting mounds provide nesting and feeding sites for species of herons andegrets.

3. Between 1950-1970, 10 million alligators were killed by humans for their skin, for sport orout of hatred

4. The American alligator is the North America's largest reptile.5. The comeback of the American alligator is an important success story for biologists in wildlife

conservation.6. The survival of American alligator is directly linked to the survival of the other creatures in

7.

the ecosystem.Alligators do a lot of free ecosystem services preventing dozens of species fromdisappearance.Some ecologists classif, the American alligator as a keystone species because of its importantecological roles.

9. While moving from gator holes to nesting mounds, alligators help keep areas of open waterfree of invading vegetation.

10. The American alligator has survived for 200 million years and has adapted to numerouschanges in the environment.

ll, Now arrange your resulting four content points in a logica! order.

B, Applying what you read

imagine the following situation:S,-rme homeowners in Florida believe they should have the right to kill any alligator found on their:roperry. Others argue against this policy, noting that alligators are a threatened species, and thatlousing developments have invaded the habitats of alligators, not the other way around. Others go:urther and believe the American alligator species has an inherent right to exist. What is your opinion:,n this issue? Express, in a paragraph of 50-70 words, your opinion FOR and AGAINST the-\merican alligator, using the following expressions and linking words/phrases:

The main / greatest / (dis)advantage of_,s_One point / argument infavour of / against_It could be argued that / A further common criticism of _Nevertheless / however / still / yet / on the other handIn addition / Furthermore / Moreover

61

IJNit 15 : ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCESPREPARING TO READ: What can you do to reduce your use and waste of water?

WATER CONFLICTS IN THE MIDDLE EAST

NEW VOCABULARYodam

downstream

to emerge

headwaters

hydrologic cyclepollutant

population growth

upstream

water-shortage

USEFUL LANGUAGE

> Defining and non-defining relativeclauses

e.g. Three countries -use most water thatflows in Africa's NileRiver-

(See G. Xlll.3. 10.)

> Time expressions

e.g. Emerging watershortages is one of the

three most seriousproblems the world faces

during this century.

(See G. XlV.)

> lnversion in shortanswers

e.g. Ethiopia plans to

divert more waterfrom the

Nile. So does Sudan.

(See G. XVl.3.)

m Water keeps us alive, moderatesclimate, sculpts the land, removes and

dilutes wastes and pollutants, and is

recycled by the hydrologic cycle. Youcould survive for several weeks withoutfood but only a few days without water.Despite its importance, water is one ofour most poorly managed resources. Wewaste it and pollute it. As BenjaminFranklin said many decades ago, ,,It is not until the well runs dry that we

know the worth of water." Differences in average annual precipitationdivide the world's countries and people into water haves and have-nots.

Some places get lots of rain, whereas others get very little. Many countries

in the Middle East, with some of the world's highest population growth,face water-shortages and conflicts over access to water because they share

water from three major river basins: the Nile, Jordan, and Tigris-Euphrates.

Three countries - Ethiopia, Sudan, and Egypt - use most water that flows inAfiica's Nile River, with Egypt being last in line along the river. To meet the

water needs of its rapidly growing population, Ethiopia plans to divert more

water fiom the Nile. So does Sudan. Such upstream diversions would reduce

the amount of water available to Egypt, which cannot exist without irrigationwater from the Nile. Egypt could go to war with Sudan and Ethiopia for more

water, cut population growth, or improve irrigation effrciency.

The Jordan basin is by far the most water-short region, with fiercecompetition for its water among Jordan, Syria, Palestine and Israel. Syria

plans to build dams and withdraw more water from the Jordan River,

decreasing the downstream supply for Jordan and Israel. Israel warns that itmay destroy the largest dam that Syria plans to build.

Turkey, located at the headwaters of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers,

controls how much water flows downstream to Syria and Iraq before

emptying into the Persian Gulf. Turkey is building 24 dams along the upper

Tigris and Euphrates to generate electricity and inigate a large area of land.

If completed, these dams will reduce the flow of water downstream to Syria

and Iraq by as much as 35Yo in normal years and by much more in dry years.

Syria also plans to build a large dam along the Euphrates to divert water

arriving from Turkey. This will leave little water for Iraq and could lead to awater war befween that country and Syria. Finding a solution in this and

other water-short areas will not be easy.

Currently, there are no cooperative agreements for use of 158 of the world's263 basins that are shared by two or more countries.

To many analysts, emerging water shortages in many parts of the world - along

with the related problems of biodiversity loss and climate change - are the three

most serious environmental problems the world faces during this century.

(Text adapted from G. Tyler Mille r, Jr., Enyironmental Science, Thomson Higher Education,

usA,2006)

62

..-


DespiteMany

A, Find words in your text that mean these things:

substance causing pollutiona lack of something that is needed, insufficiency

to tum something from its course, to cause it to go by a different route

in the direction from which a stream flowsa barrier built across a river to hold back water and control its flowviolent in temper, manner or actionthe streams forming the sources of a riverto discharge itself or its contentscoming up or out into view

3, Use the word in brackets to complete the sentences, Add the necessary prefix and/or suffix

and put the word in the correct form.

1. Water keeps us alive, moderates climate, sculpts the land, removes and dilutes wastes and

_. (POLLUTE)

1.

2.

1.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

) its importance, water is one of our most managed resources. (POOR)

countries in the Middle East, with some of the world's highest population

, face water-shortaggs and conflicts. (GROW)diversions would reduce the amount of water available to Egypt.1. Such

(STREAM)Egypt could go to war with Sudan and Ethiopia for more water or improve

irrigation . (EFFTCIENT)6. Syria plans to withdraw more water from

supply for Jordan and Israel. (STREAM)the Jordan River, decreasing the

7. Turkey, located at the of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, controls how

parts of the world is one of themuch water flows downstream to Syria and Iraq. (WATER)

8. To many analysts, water shortages in manY

most serious environmental problems' (EMERGE)

C, Find 5 near synonyms and 3 near antonyms in your text to the following words.

S\NONYMS1. yearly is similar in meaning to2. reduce is similar in meaning to3. deviate is similar in meaning to4. value is similar in meaning to5. fountain is similar in meaning to

I.NTONYMS

1. dead is nearly opposite in meaning to alive

2. unavailable is nearly opposite in meaning to3. upstream is nearly opposite in meaning to

g Listen to the extract and supply the missing words.

-{nother problem area is water. This is becoming more and more precious

-,

so

save as much as you can. the toilet accounts for a third of al1

-

water use, so

don,tflushrvouuog.ttingridofatissue,forexamp1e.Taked-insteadofabath, and donl keep the water while you wash, or clean your teeth. And don't use a

n'hen there are water . Try putting some in a

-instead.

annual

63


A, Look at the following sentences and combine them into one:

e.g. Three countries use most water. Water flows in Africa's Nile River.Three countries use most water that flows in Africa's Nile River. (defining relative clause)

Combine each of the following pairs of sentences into a single sentence, Make the secondsentence into a relative one and insert it into the first sentence. Note whether the relative clauseis a defining one or a non.defining one.

1. Such upstream diversions would reduce the amount of water available to Egypt.exist without irrigation water from the Nile.

2. Turkey controls how much water flows downstream to Syria and Iraq. Turkeyheadwaters of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.

3. Syria also plans to build a large dam alongthe Euphrates to divert water. Water arrives from Turkey.4. Emerging water shortages in many parts of the world is one of the most serious environmental

problems. The world faces one of the most serious environmental problems during this century.5. The low prices of water encourage even greater waste and pollution of this renewable resource. We

have no substitute for this renewable resource.6. One of the most precious resources is fresh water. Fresh water flows across the earth's land

surface and into rivers, streams, lakes, wetlands, and estuaries.7. The region is called its watershed or drainage basin. From this region, surface water drains

into a river, lake, wetland, or other body of water.

B. Try to combine the sentences below (1-7) with the most appropriate adverbials of time (a-g)e.g. The human population tripled during the last century. (7+c)

l. water-short counties are likely to engage in conflicts a. Eventuallyover access to water resources2. great floods used to occur every 50 years

-r. all species become extinct or evolve into new species.

Egypt cannot

located at the

4. Scientists are creating a third green revolution by usinggenetic engineering5. _ the passenger pigeon disappeared for ever becauseof human activities

b. By the end of the 196 centuryc. _ during the last centuryd. since 1950

e. In the past

6. Pesticide use has increased more than 50-fold7. The human population tripled

f. In the near futureg._ these days

Comment on the compatibility verb tense-time adverbial and also on the position of the Iatter.

C. What does the following short-form sentence below express?

e.g. Ethiopia plans to divert more water from the Nile. So does Sudan.

Give short answers to the following statements, expressing (dis)agreement.

1. Egypt uses most water that flows in Africa's Nile River. Ethiopia.2. Syria has no intention of increasing the downstream supply for other countries.

Israel3. Turkey is building 24 dams along the upper Tigris and Euphrates to generate

SyriaThe eastern USA met serious water problems in the past. the western USA.Egypt has not worked out water sharing agreements with other countries.

4.

5.

l-*

64

Sudan.


A, Reading for detail

Test your understanding of this text by answering these multiple-cholce reading comprehensionquestions without lookiig ut.i riirrriext. choose tr,.;il;rswer from the choices risted... Are the countries in Middle East having problems because ofa. droughts b. floo-ds Fi. Emerging water shortages in many parts of the world is:his.century. e --- --'..,J vqr'D the world faces during:. the most serious

:nvironmeni"r p."il.- 3;ffi,i,ilXiJfi::ftT:serious 1.ll.,or,h, most serious

., "i:1',".T;HrTffJiT"f diven,,o., *ut., rrom the N,e, thus ,."0I',:?il:Tfl"1T,0::1'",..

b. two.olutior.-

_The Jordan basin is shared by 'ru'rurrJ c' three solutions

:mportant / essential to bear in nind that;;rling the issue of'.:/t)')_Second(lil

*@.:.; d i t i on / F u r t he r m ir"Jiorc o,

h

: rurkev shares irs waters with Svria *, #;:fi,6iJJ:.**#::Il;#*?j:restine, Svria

' empties into the Persian Gulf 'u.l. uriloi" gz+ au^'" a,;;;. c. is situated at rhe Gua*uto.Tigris and Euphrates rivers-

B, Writing a list -'D^ro 4,u LuP,"atcs rlvers of Tigris and Euphrates rivers

;'J,llf.';:[imfrT:[ii;'J:1;3 fl:?:*Tdrink

up the pond in which * rives,,think about

3, Expressing your personal point of view"-13re you have a

"u 11* t?'eral ways You c1n--rgduce your use and waste of water. which four of these'::jons do you believe are the ,o.,

-i-,,p'oi-t? which

"li"r, ", ,rre rist do you do or pran to do?

What can you do?Water Use and Wast*, Shower instead of taking baths, and take short showers

: i:ffT;[1,31.J. *t it. r.,,t ing [.tn, shaving or washing

" Y:. water-saving toilets, showerheads, and faucet aerators' \\'ash onlv full loads of cloth"t ;;;;;he lowest p"rriii, *r,er-rever sening for smarer loads' \\Iash a car from a bucket or.oupy *ut"r, and use the hose for rinsing only' Replace your rawn with native pr-*,rilu, need rittre if any watering. \\'ater lawns and gardens i, th" ";;i; *o*irg or evening. Use drip irrigation for garden. urJ tio*".r.d,. L se recycled water for watering lawns and houseplants

- se the following expressions:.:,i opinion / As far qs I am concerned

65

IJNit 22 : PHYSICS

'RE'ARTNG To READ: what is the difference between chemical and physical changes of

matter?

PI.IYSICAL STATES OF MATTER

NEWVOCABULARYobond

bubble

to condense

to liquefy

to meltrate

to quiver

to solidifY

sublimation

to vaporize

USEFUL LANGUAGE

> As introducing a

clause of ProPortion

e.g. As the temPerature

increases

-(See G. Xlll. 3.7.)

> on...V'ingto rePlace

whenlif clauses

e.g. The reverse change,

from a gas to a liquid on

cooling, is known as-(See G, X.2.)

> Contraction of if /

when clauses

e.g When heated,a

solid absorbs heat

energy_

(See G. X.3.)

m The kinetic molecular

theory helPs account for

properties of the three physical --

states of matter - solids, liquids,

and gases.

The main forces between

particles are ionic bonds, metal

tonds, hydrogen bonds, diPole-

dipole forces, and London

foices. The PhYsical state of a

lio[l;#'riffi;',;;;ru*r" depends on the strengrh of the bonds

;;;;;; dicles. rhe temperature..ut q'i't' "'"!'-111:'^,:1"19:-:t:'::(_"d; I"'rri^["ilir; p;;i or sublimation temperature) also depends on

it. .tteigtt of the bonds beflveen particles'

The atoms, ions, oru nof.*f"t in a solid are very close together and their

motion is restricted ptit"tify to quivering in place' When.heated' a solid

absorbs heat energy, ;rJlir li*fclls begin-to vibrate more violently' At this

;;;;; ;h; ;orid Inde'goes melting: il changes to a liquid' For a pure

substance, this hanstbination occurs at a sinlle temperature known as the

melting point. And ,"i""-u.r.u - from a liquid to a solid - is freezing or

,oiiaif"i l"n. This change occurs at the freezing point, which for every pure

substance is the sarne iJ.p".uto." as the melting point- A few substances

canchangedirectlyfromasolidintoagas,aprocesscalledsublimation.Anr*u-pf.if .ubstance that sublimes is iodine'

Particlesinaliquidt,u*urangeofenergiesandspeeds.buttheyhaveafixed average speed at a given tJmperature. rn.y are somervhat like a gloup

of people milling J;f,;J uumping into one another at a crowded party'

Although attractive forces tend to keep particles relativell, close together, a

few near the surface have enough enetgy to escape into the gaseous state'

just as a few people near the door at a crowded party ma)' escape outdoors

for fresh air or to go home'

Changing from the iiq'ia "utt

to the. gaseous or vapour state is known as

vaporization. e. tn" ie'mp.iutor" of a liquid increases. pressure rises, and its

rate of vaporization- in"."ut"t' At some temperature' bubb]11 "t ,'1!:11

"pp.* tfrt"rghout the liquid and escape through the surface'.This process rs

known as boiling. rL u',oiling point is the temperature at which the vapour

pressure of the liquid equals tf,e pressure of the atmosphere above the liquid'

The reverse change - from a gas to a liquid on cooling.- is known as

condensation. Subsiances have tifferent fieezing and boiling points' E'g'

;;;-rr*t solid or freezes at 1,528" ' Sulphur melts at 1 13o'

(Text adaptedfroz G. Tyler Miller Jr'' Chemistry' Wadsworth Publishing Compan-v'

Califomia" 1991)

90


A. Find words in your text that mean these things:

1. something that binds, attaches or restrains, e'9. a rope

2. the quality of being strong

3. vibrating4. appears5. purification6. moving round and round in a confused mass

7 . small balls of air in a liquid or in a solidified liquid, such as glass

8. an extent, the limits between which something operates or varies

9. speed

10. knocking with a dull-sounding blow

B. Form verbs from these adjectives by adding -fy:

e.g. make solid = solidifY

1. make liquid2. make pure3. make bigger4. make rare

5. make humid

C. Find the related forms of these verbs:Verb

1) vaporize2) condense3) liquifu4) freeze5) crystallize6) melt7) sublime

D. Study this diagram and complete the sentences explaining it.

lf water is suffrciently cooled, it is said to

Nounvapour/vaporization

Adjectivevaporized

ffi ,1---too*g'*^n**'u' 1---

-.tl solidirying | -------

-.- | liquetytng | --\

1.

ICE WATER WATER VAPOUR

e.g. There are

-states

of mattst, -----, , and

There are three states of matter, solid, liquid and gas'

1.

2.

4.

5.

If water is heated, it is said toIf a liquid is heated, it is said toIf a liquid is cooled, it is said toIfice is heated, it is said to

91


A. Rewrite these sentences, using on ...ing in place of the when clauses:

e.g. The change from a gas to a liquidwhen the gas is cooled is known as condensation.

The change from-a'gas to a liquid on cooling is known as condensation.

1. Air rises when it is heated.

2. When water vapour condenses, it forms droplets of water.

3. When it boils, water readily gives off water vapour.

4. When it meets a body of cold air, the water vapour in the atmosphere condenses.

5. When these droplets combine, they may become heavy enough to fall as rain.

6. When it is heated, water evaporates.'7. Water boils away when it is kept at a temperature of 100 degtees centigrade.

B. What type of clause does as introduce in the following sentence?

e.g. As the temperature of a liquid increases, pressure rises, and its rate of vaporization

increases.

Combine the following sentences by using as.

1. The temperature of a liquid increases. At the same time, pressure rises.

As the temperature increases, pressure rises.

2. The speed of diffusion increases. At the same time, the heat of the gas increases.

3. The frequency of a wave becomes lower. Simultaneously, the wave gets longer.

4. The focal length ofa convex lens decreases. In contrast, its thickness increases.

5. The frequency of a wave becomes higher whereas the wave gets shorter.

6. Melting points of the hydrocarbons tend to rise steadily. Simultaneouslr'. the molecules

become larger.7. The more the air holes are opened, the larger the volume of air that is sucked in by the gas

flowing rapidly through the chimney.8. The heat released on burning a given hydrocarbon

of the molecule.

increases regularly with the increasing size

C. After whenllthesubject and the verb to be may be left out, if the subiect is the same in both

parts of the sentence.

e.g. When a solid is heated, it absorbs heat energy.

When heated, a solid absorbs heat enerry.

Rewrite these sentences, contracting the when[f clauses.

1. Parallel light rays will diverge when they are reflected from a convex surface.

2. A card will show an inverted image if it is held at the focal point of a convex lens.

3. When it is part of a sphere, a mirror is known as a spherical mirror.

4. An image ii invariabiy inverted when it has been made by passing parallel light ra1's through a

convex lens.If the minor is convex, it will reflect an image which is smaller than the object in front of it.

When it is struck by parallel light rays, a plane mirror reflects a laterally inverted but identical

image.Mixtures of methane and chlorine when they are exposed to sunlight react rapidly, reaction

which, at appropriate concentration of the two gases may assume explosive proportions.

If a system in a dynamic equilibrium is subjected to a stress, the system u'ill change, ifpossible, to relieve the stress.

5.

6.

7.

8.

92

I

L


A. and vice versa (Latin) is often used in scientific writing at the end of a sentence to express

opposition.e.g. At this point the solid undergoes melting: it changes to a liquid and vice versa.

At this point the solid undergoes melting: it changes to a liquid ond then it changes

back from a liquid to a solid.

Now express fully the meaning of and vice versa in these sentences:

1. Long waves have lower frequencies, and vice versa.

2. A poor heat insulator is a good conductor ofheat, and vice versa'

3. The moon reflects sunlight to the earth, ard vice versa.

4. A dull surface absorbs more heat and reflects less heat than a shiny one, and vice versa.

5. South poles repel south poles and attract nofh poles. and vice versa.

6. The image of an object in a plane mirror is identical, but the left side is on the right, and vice

versa.

B. Sentence BuildingJoin these sentences using the suggestions in brackets and making any necessary changes. The

first one has already been done for you.

i. Matter affects every part of your life. Energy affects every part of your life' (ike)

Like mafter, energy affects every part of your life.

2. you need energy io t".p your heart beating. You need energy to cook food' You need energy

to travel. You need energy to warm the buildings. You live in these buildings.

(comma / comma / comma, and / which)

3. Y", .arrot t"r.h energy. You cannot pick up energy. You can use it to do work.

(or / but)

4.

change water into steam. (when+v-ing / or / when+v-ing / and+v-ing )

C. DefiningLook up four of the nouns describing a change of state in a dictionary of science, then write a

definition of each one.

A vapourA gas

A liquidA solid

D. Classify each of the following as a physical or a chemical change:

l. A candle burns. 6' Strawberries ripen'

2. Snowflakes form. 7. Wax melts'

3. Sugar dissolves in hot water. 8. A solvent removes paint.

4. Deodorant spray escapes from a can. 9. Paint dries'

5 A ham is sliced. 10' Grapes ferment into wine'

93

Unit 23 : PF{YSXCS

PREPARING TO READ: Distinguish among a scientific 1aw, a hypothesis, and a theory'

MATTHR, MASS ANN ENERGY

NEW VOCABULARYoangularegress

hypothesisinertia

ingress

momentum, momenta

USEFUL LANGUAGE

> lnversion of word

order

e.g. So difficult was this

problem fhat Einstein

could not solve it.

(See G. XVl.3.)

> Reported sPeech:

exceptions

e.g. Newton had shownthat this energY is'conserved',

(See G. lX.)

> Avoiding rePetition ofwords: the former, the

latter

e.g. lt has twice the mass

of the latter car.

(See G. XlX.1.)

are mere deductions from the three major laws already mentioned.

of the three major laws, the conservation of matter was the most venerable'

It had been iLplied in the atomistic philosophy of Democritus and

Lucretius, which supposed all matter to be made up of untreatable'

unalterabie and indestructible atoms. It asserted that the matter content of

the universe remained always the same, and the matter content of any bit of

the universe or of any region of space remained the same except in so far as

it was altered by the ingress or egress of atoms'

The universe was a sta"ge in wtrich always the same actors-the atoms-played

their parts, differing ii disguises and groupings, but without change of

identiiy. And these actors were endowed with immortality'

The second law, that of the conservation of mass, was of more modern

gr"*rf, Newton had supposed every. body or piece -of substance to have

associated with it u, unrurying quuniity, its mass, which gave a measure of

its 'inertia'. If one motor-ca.iqui,.t twice the engine power of another to

;;;r, ;qrrl control over its ,notion we say that it has twice the mass of the

latter car.The law of gravitation asserts that the gravitational pulls on fw'o bodies are

in exact prJportion to their masses, so that if the earth's attlaction on two

ffi et the end of last century,

physical science recognized

three major conservation laws:

the conservation of matter, the

conservation of mass and the

conservation of energY' Other

minor laws, such as those of the

conservation of linear and

angular momenta, need not

enter our discussion, since theY

bodies p-r.. to be the same, their'masses' must be the,same'

il;iltl;;.j;;tpL, that of conservation of energy, is the most recent of all'^ I ! r -r- - -:*-t ^^+ :^ -,,-.

Onergy cun er,ist in a vast variety of forms, of which the simplest l:,t11:

"r..ff of motion-the motion of a train along a level track, or of a billiard

ball over a table. Newton had shown that this purely mechanical energy is

tconserved'.

These three conservation laws ought of course to have been treated merely

asworkinghypotheses,tobetestedineveryconceivab]e-wayanddiscardedas soon *1frly showei signs of failing. Yet so securely did they seem to be

established that they were heated as indisputable universal laws.

(fext adapted from G. Tyler Miller Jr', Chemistry' Wadsworth Publishing Compan'v'

California, 1991)

94



angular, discard, egress, hypothesis, inertia' momentum' venerable

1. anguiar having sharP corners

2. aged, deserviing great resPect or honour

3. reluctance to change its motton

6'suppositionputforwardtoaccountforcertainfactsandusedasabasisforfurther investigation

l. the quantity oi'no"*tnt in a body' measured by multiplying its

mass by its sPeed

B. Use the word in brackets to complete the sentence'

Add the necessary prefix and/or suifix and put the word in the correct form'

1. At the end of last century, science recognized three major conservation laws'

(PHYSICS)2. bther minor laws need not enter our discussion since they are mere

4. get rid ofas useless

from an enclosed Place

major laws. (DEDUCE)These laws ought to have been tested in every

The law of the conservation of matter had been implied in the

J.4.

5.

way. (CONCETVE)

The law of the conservation of mass was of more modern . (GROW)

from the three

philosophy of

Democritus and Lucretius. (ATOM)6. This law asserted that the matter of the universe remained always the same'

(coNTAIN)7 . Energy can exist in a vast of forms. (VARIOUS)

C. Find 5 near synonyms and 7 near antonyms in your text to the following words'

SYNONYMS1. mask is similar in meaning b disguise

2. attraction is similar in meaning to

3. simply is similar in meaning to

4. widespread is similar in meaning to

5. conservation is similar in meaning to

ANTONYMS

Qpposites or negatives of many words are made by putting uN-, /N-, or lM- in front of them'

1. egress is nearly opposite in meaning to ingress

2. triatable is nearly opposite in meaning to

3. alterable is nearly opposite in meaning to

4. destructible is nearly opposite in meaning to

5. mortality is nearly opposite in meaning to

6. varying is nearly opposite in meaning to

7. disputable is nearly opposite in meaning to

95

Section II- Language Focus

A, What's the basic difference in word order between these twosentences?

e.g. Yet so securely did the laws seem to be established that they weretreated as indisputable universal laws.Yet the laws seemed to be established so securely that they weretreated as indisputable universal laws.

Rewrite these sentences by using the adverb so in initial position,

1. This problem was so difficult that Einstein could not solve itSo difficult uras this problem that Einstein could not solve it.

2. Steam is so hot that it expands the mercury rapidly.3. A cube of wood is so light that it floats.4. Bacteria, however, are so tiny that they can pass through even the finest filter.5. The amount of chlorine added to water is so large that it can affect its taste ven' much6. The expansion of water inside the bottle was so great that it overflou,ed the tube.

B. ls this sentence correct? Why?

e.g. Newton had shown that this purely mechanical energy is 'conseryed'.

Use the correct verb forms:

1. The law of the conservation of matter asserted that the matter content of the universe(remain) always the same.

2.

J.

4.

Someone once said that the difference between a scientist and an artistdifference befween discoverv and creation.

rro be) the

I learned recently that Jupiter (to be) the largest ofall planets.Mendeleev discovered that if the elements were arranged in order of ilcreasing atomicevery eighth element

5. The Apollo missionmoon.

(have) similar properties.didn't succeed in demonstrating that there (to be1 life on the

C. What meaning is conveyed by the latterin the following sentence?

e.g. If one motor-car requires twice the engine power of another to give us equal control o\,erits motion we say that it has twice the mass of the latter car.

Read and rewrite these sentences by using fhe former / the latter.

1. Electrons orbit the nucleus just as planets orbit the sun.The former rotate an elliptical orbit and so do the latter.

2. Thenucleusofanatomismainlycomposedofprotonsandneutrons.Protons carn apositivecharge, while neutrons have no electric charge.

3. An atom of hydrogen possesses a single proton, whereas an atom of uranium possesses 92.Therefore, an atom of uranium is much heavier than an atom of hydrogen.

4" An element is composed of similar atoms, and a compound is composed of different atoms.An element cannot be decomposed into other substances, but a compound can.

5. In any magnet there is a south pole and a north pole. The south pole repels a1l other southpoles and the north pole repels all other north poles.

6. A football will fall more slowly than a stone of the same size, because the,foorball hasa lower density than the stone.

96


A. Divide the text into paragraphs specifying the introductory words of -eqch paragraph.

Paragraph IParagraphZParagraph 3Paragraph 4Paragraph 5

At the end of last century

B. A well.written text should have a topic sentence that expresses the main idea of the text.

Can you find the topic sentence in your text?

C. Extract the main idea of each paragraph.

Paragraph 1

Paragraph2Paragraph 3Paragraph 4Paragraph 5

D. What does the first law of thermodynamics state? Choose the most scientific statement from

the variants presented below.

1. According to the first law of thermodynamics, we will never run out of energy.

Z. The first law of thermodynamics statis that energy can neither be created nor destroyed'

3. The first law of thermodynamics asserts that we can harness energy from whatever source -solar, geothermal, naturai gas, and so on - if we are clever enough to transform it usefully'

4. ln all chemical and physical changes, energy is neither created nor destroyed but merely

transformed from one form to another.

5. The first law of thermodynamics says that the total energy of the system plus its surroundings

. must staY the same.

E. Distinguish among the three laws of conservation using the following words:

The law refers to / asserts that / states that / says that

According to this la\Y

As far as this law is concerned

On the basis of this theory

F. Exemplify some applications of the three laws of conservation from nature or everyday life.

G. Classify each of the following as a law, a theory, or a hypothesis:

1. All matter is composed of elements.1 )+):a3. Black cats bring bad luck.

4. The sun will set tonight.5. The gravitational pult of the sun and moon causes tides'

6. It will rain tomorrow.7. Heat flows spontaneously from hot to cold areas'

8. There will be aparty tonight on campus.

97

U rr it 24 : ? l-l:r'S IC S

PREPARING TO READ: Can you avoid radioactivity?

nise *vffiffiY 0r RAiiiffiAcTt\ti'i'\r

NEW VOCABULARYodamp

to emit - emission

exposurepitchblende

sample

shed

USEFUL LANGUAGE

>Formal subjunctive

e.g. suggested that this

he called-

(See G. XVll, 1.)

> Reportedquestions

e,g. He wondered whythis happened.

(See G. lX. 1.)

> Passive voioe

e.g. Little was knownabout this-

(See G. Vlll.)

ffi One winter day in 1896, HenriBecquerel, a French PhYsicist, Put a

sample of uranium rock on toP of an

unexposed photographic plate in a desk

drawer; then he left for a brief vacation'When he returned several days later, he

was surprised to find that the film inthe drawer had a faint image of the

uranium rock. He did not expect this

because the plate had been heavily wrapped to prevent accidental exposure'

Becquerel wondered why this happened. He concluded that somehow the

,.uriurn rock had emitted some highly energetic rar s that penetrated the

protective covering and exposed the photographic p1ate. \larie Curie, a

scientist working *ith B.rq.,erel, suggested that this phenomenon be called

radioactivity.During the next few years, Marie Curie and her husband. Pierre. processed

and p-urified several tons of pitchblende. Working long hours in an

abandoned shed, which was hot and smelly in summer and cold and damp in

winter, they eventually obtained a few tenths of a gram of tn'o new

elements, both radioaCtive. One was the element polonium (Po). which

Marie named for her homeland, Poland. The other u,as radium 1Ra), named

from the Latin word for raY.

Tlpes of radioactivity. Becquerel and other scientists discovered three types ofnuturul radioactive emissions. They were named after the first three letters in the

Greek alphabet - alpha (u), beta (0), and gamma (y). Alpha emissions are the

least penetrating arrd have a positive electrical charge; beta emissions have a

negative charge; and gamma rays, the most penetrating of all. have no charge.

These emissions come from the nuclei of atoms that haYe an unstable

combination of protons and neutrons. Such nuclei change their internal

structure by emitting one or more of these types of radiation. Some isotopes

are unstable, and ioln. u." not. An isotope that spontaneously emits

radiation is called aradioactive isotope, or radioisotope'

Effects of radioactivity. Scientists have slowly leamed. the hard way, how

radioactivity affects living things. Lifile was known about this at the turn oflast century when Marie Curie worked with radioactive materials in her

Paris laboratory. Because of her exposure to radioactiviry, she suffered from

anemia, had a miscarriage and eventually died of leukemia. The effects ofradioactivity on your body depend on the amount and frequency of

exposure, itr. typ. of radiation and whether the radiation comes from

ouiside or insidi your body. From the outside, alpha emitters are the least

dangerous because they cannot penetrate your skin. Beta emissions don't

p"rit ut. the skin well, either. Gamma rays are the most dangerous because

they easily pass through your skin and into your body'

(Text adaptedfrom G.Tyler Miller Jr., Chemistry, wadsworth Publishing companl'.

Califomi4 1991)

I

I

98

Section I- Vocabulary Activities


ffi ct, amount, emis sion, exposure, mis carriage, penetrating,

pit chbl ende, pr ev ent, pr oc e s s ed, s ampl e

L2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.10.

pitchblende an ore rich in uranium.put through a manufacturing process

leaving something uncoveredabortion occurring without being induced

making a way into or through, piercingthe act of sending out heat, light, fumes, lava, etc'

a small separated part showing the quality of the whole

to have an effect onto keep a thing from haPPening

the total of anything

most dangerous because they Pass through your skin and into


Add the necessary prefix and/or suffix and put the word in the correct form'

l. From the outside, alPha are the least dangerous because they cannot penetrate

your skin. (EMIT)2. Gamma rays are the

your body. (EASY)learned how radioactivity affects things' (LIVE)

discoveredthreetypesofnaturalradioactiveemissions.3. Scientists have slowlY4. Becquerel and other

(scrENCE)5. Marie curie and her husband Piene worked long hours in an shed, which

was hot and smelly in summer and cold and damp in winter. (ABANDON)

6. The plate had been heavily wrapped to prevent xposure. (ACCIDENT)

i Henii Becquerer' atr'ffiHfL i;: ,lT;J'?1"'""-".1:i;}ffi$k

on top ora(n)

C. Find 8 near synonyms and 4 near antonyms in your text to the following words;

SYNONYMSl. short is similar in meaning to brief2. ultimately/finally is similar in meaning to

3. shelter is similar in meaning to4. fade/colourless is similar in meaning to

5. packed is similar in meaning to6. wet is similar in meaning to

7. specimen is similar in meaning to

8. marvelled/was surprised is similar in meaning to

ANTONYMSunexposed1. exposed is nearly opposite in meaning to

2. voluntarily is nearly opposite in meaning to

3. lightly is nearly opposite in meaning to

4. intentional is nearly opposite in meaning to

i*4

99

Section Il- Language Focus

A, ls this sentence correct? Why?

e.g. Marie Curie suggested that this phenomenon be called radioactivity.

Use the correct verb forms in the following sentences:

1. Thompson proposed that negatively charged particlesall atoms.It is imperative that the nucleus of an atomprotons and positively uncharged neutrons.

2.

(bel a fundamental part of

kontairy both positir ely charged

(consistl of h1 drogen and oxYgenIt is likely that a compound such as wateratoms combined in a specific, simple, whole number ratio-

Scientists demanded that observations and measurements (he rnade) in nafure.

It was high time that scientists (interpret) the data of the scientific lau's and theones'

It is imperative that the radiation beam

-

(focusl precisell on the tumour

area to minimize the damage to other cells.

B. What type of clause does why introduce in the following example?

e.g. Becquerel wondered why this phenomenon happened.

Report the following questions, making any necessary changes.

1. How does radioactivity affect living things?Scientists learned how radioactivity affected living things.

2. Does the radiation come from outside or inside your body?Scientists did not know

3. Why is the exposure to radioactivity harmful?They wondered

4. Is there a special branch of medicine called nuclear medicine?

He enquired5. How much exposure to radioactivity is harmful?

The sick woman wanted to find out-.6. Why do cancer patients exposed to radioactivity to kill cancer cell have nausea. diarrhea and a

low white blood cell count?I did not know

7. What are the beneficial uses of radioactivity?They wondered

C. What is the difference in meaning between these two sentences?

e.g. The three emissi ons were named after the first three letters in the Greek alphabet.

Scientist s named the tree emissions after the first three letters in the Greek alphabet.

Rewrite these sentences in the active voice.

1. The plate had been heavily wrapped to prevent accidental exposure.

Becquerel hadheavily wrapped the plate to prevent accidental exposure.

2. An isotope that spontaneously emits radiation is called a radioisotope.

Physicists3. Little was known about this at the turn of last century'

Scientists4. This treatment must be strictly confined to the tumour area.

Phvsicians5. Other isotopes

Radiotherapyare used to detect blockages.

6. Rapidly growing normal ce lls will also be killed wben exposed to radioactivitl.

4.5.

6.

tiI

t

I

I

I

t

I

Exposure to radioactivity

100

Section Ill - Text Structure

A. Rewrite these sentences as one sentence beginning with the word(s)

provided. Then check against the text.

1. Marie curie and her husband Pierre had been working long hours in

an abandoned shed. This was hot and smelly in summer.

This was cold and damp in winter. They eventually obtained a few tenths of a gram of two

new elements. These were both radioactive.

Working2. Marie Curie was exposed to radioactivity. She suffered from anemia. She had a miscarriage.

Evenhrally she died of leukemia.

Because ofwas surprised to find. The fihn was in theHenry Becquerel returned sevbral days later. He

drawer. It had a faint image of the uranium rock.

When4. Be.qrffiw the uranium rock emitted some highly

penetrated the protective covering. They exposed the photographic plate.

Becquerel concluded

B. The table below shows the important features of alpha, beta and gamma emissions.

energetic rays. They

Name ldentity charge ^fi::"JPenetrating

PowerVelocity

Alpha (o)

Beta (B) electron

Helium - 4nucleus

2+ 5-10% ofthesoeed of Iup to 90% of the

lowlow tomoderateof lieht

Gamma (y) High-energYradiation similar toX rays

speed of light high

Comparison and Contrast.

Find similarities and ditferences among the three types of emissions, by using the data in the

table above. Similarly, use the following indications:

As compared to /In comparison with / In contrast to / W'hereas

X is dffirent / dffirs from Y in a number of respects

X is identical / similar to in a number of respects

It is worth noticing / mentioningConsequently / As a result / Thus

This / That explains whY

C. Drawing conclusions.

Which emission is the most dangerous of the three types?

Which emission is the least dangerous of the three types?

Answer the questions using the following indications:

From the data in the table it can be inferred / concluded / estimated

In conclusion / To conclude / To sum up

101

Llmit 25 : PE-lYSiCS

pREpARING TO READ: Skim-read these two texts. In terms of subject-maner $'hat do they

have in common?

NEW VOCABULARYoto crash

to disruptto duck

extinction

strain

task force

to trigger

USEFUL LANGUAGE

> Although and but

e.g. Although there is no

record, a large asteroid

could destroy civilization.

(See G. Xlll. 3, 6.)

>Adj+ enough + infto reduce clauses of

result

e.g. The dust and/or

vapour cloud could be

big enough to create a

,,nuclear winter".

(See G. lV. 5.)

$qST'm,Rfitt$,

Text 1.

A scientific task force has reported that

collisions with "near-earth objects", such

as asteroids and comets, are no longer the

stuffofscience fiction, but represent a real

threat. US and French ashonomers

recently calculated that 900 asteroids, all 1

km acioss or larger, are whizzing around

the solar system on orbits that cross that of

-

-

the earth. Although there is no record of any person being killed b1 a comet or

asteroid, a large one could destroy civilisation. AccordLng to the task force,

gou.^**ts s"hould aim to detect a potential collision ) ears Ln advance, thus

ilrlrrg them time to take emergency measures. Objects trom space hit the

Jarth-all the time but most burn up harmlessly as shootir" stars. However, a

100-metre object crashes into the planet every 10.000 1ears. uiggering al

explosion larier than the most powerful bomb ever let ofr .{n object 1 km in

diameter r.oi., a direct hit on the planet everl' 100.000 iears. The most

famous of these coincided with the ixtinction of the dinosaurs 65 million

v.*, ugo. An asteroid of this size that hit solid earth u'ould lbrm a crater ten

times its own size and would shower the stratosphere $ ith dust. blotting out

the sun, shutting down all plant growth and condemning those $ho survived

to death by cold and starvation'

Text 2.

The press and Hollywood often focus on the impact of a large asteroid, say

t tm in diameter, which would wipe out life within prorimitl' of the impact

site. More seriously, it would affect the whole world in indirect ways' The

au.t unalor rupou, "lord

created by an impact to either the land or the ocean

.oriJ U" big enough to create a ,pucleai winter"' like a mini-ice age' and

disruptclimatepatterns,adverselyaffectingmajorfood-grou'ingregionsofthe world and strainini world food supplfts. However. such an impact is

quite unlikely over the next thousand years, at least' Of much greater

concern should be asteroids in the 30 to 200 metre range. w'hich are far

;;;.; in number. The Meteor crater in Arizona, measuring roughly a km

in diameter, was caused by a nickel-iron rock only about 30 metres across'

That,s avery small asteroia *ni"n we couldn't see from telescopes until it's

.igfri utor. ihe earth - when it's much too late to do anything but duck for

.ou"I.. However, as,70/o of the Earth is covered by oceans. an ocean impact

would be much more damaging. An asteroid hitting land causes mainly

localiseddamage'Theeffectsofanoceanimpactwould!eflitmuchfurtheru*uy tt un the Jffects of a land impact, due to the more effective propagation

of water waves.

(TextadaptedfromFionaScott-Barrett,NewProJiciency,PearsonEducationLimited,England, 2002).

102


A, Match the following words with the definitions:

crash, disrupt, duck, emergency, extinction,let off, strain, taskforce, trigger, whizz

military group formed for a short time to deal with a particular problem

to move quickly up and down, especially to avoid being seen or hit1.

2

taskforce

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

serious happening or situation needing prompt action

to cause a vehicle or aircraft to have a collisionthe process of extinguishingto set in actionto make a sound like that of moving at great speed through air

to cause to explodeto interrupt the flow or continuitYto stretch tightly, to make taut

B. Find in your text two different words with the meaning ,,to destroy completely"'

C, Gompound nouns are very common in English, They help us describe exactly what we are

talking about. Many of them contain an -ing form, Look over the examples and define them as

indicated.

e.g. near-earth objects > obiects that/which are near the earth

food- growing regions ->regions that/which grow food

Read and rewrite these as in the example above.

1. rope made by hand

2. an effect that lasts a long time3. a job that consumes a lot of time4. adrugthat forms habit5. a display that catches the eYe

6. a record that plays long

D. Find synonyms in your text to the following words:

harmful is similar in meaning toimportance is similar in meaning tonearness is similar in meaning tosubject-matter is similar in meaning tocollide is similar in meaning to

transmittance is similar in meaning tounfavourably is similar in meaning tohunger is similar in meaning to

E. Find antonyms in your text to the following words:

7. wire made of copper8. a view that takes your breath away

9. a decision that reaches far10. an event that shakes the world1 1. a shark that eats man

12. envelopes that seal themselves

damaging

damaging1.

2.

J.4.

harmless is nearly opposite in meaning to

smoothly is nearly opposite in meaning tocarelessness is nearly opposite in meaning toprobable is nearly opposite in meaning to

103


A. Sentences with although and buf. Study the following

patterns:e,g. Although there is no record of any person being killed bi' a

comet or asteroid, a large one could destroy civilisation'There is no record of any person being killed by a comet or

asteroid but alatge one could destroy civilisation'

Find the sentence in List B which matches a sentence in List A and join them together as in the

example above.

List A List B

1. the oil deposits are not very extensive

2. the majority of our engineering products

are made of iron and steel

3. ammonia will not catch fire in the air4. water is never manufactured

5. there is a small leakage of steam

6. in simple single-celled animals oxygen

is directly absorbed

7. air is invisible8. lead is a base metal

(but, however, etc.).

asteroids,

affectedd) in larger animals this process u ould be tc'ro

slowe) it has many imPortant uses

fl other non-ferrous metals are sometimes used

g) it frequently has to be Purifiedh) they are still worth exPloring

a) heat rapidly causes the acid

b) it is a substance which fillsc) the efficiency of the engine

to distrl or er

up space

\\,as not seriouslr

B. Compare these two ways of expressing the same idea:

e.g. The dust and/or vapour cloud created by an impact to either the land or the ocean could

be so big that they might create a ,,nuclear winter"'

The dust and/or rupo; cloud created by an impact to either the land or the ocean could

be big enough to create a ,,nuclear winter"'

Rewrite the sentences by using adiective+enough +infinitive.

1. The world,s supply of natural rubber is not so large that it can satisfy the needs of industry'

Z. The expansion oiwater inside the bottle was so great that it overflowed the tube.

3. Steam is so hot that it expands the mercury rapidly'

4. These droplets may become so large and healy that they are precipitated as rain'

5. A cube of lead is so hear'y that it sinks'

6. When steam touches a mirror, it becomes so cold that it condenses.

7. When the tiny droplets in a cloud combine, they may become so large and hearl that they fall'

O LISTENINGListen to the recording and fill in the gaps with the most appropriate text organizers

stone, comets are aggregates of ice and

they hit the atmosphere the-Y start breaking up'

and they break up

-

faster.

-afl

A blast over a denselY PoPulated

dust,

-

are weaklY held together --they get further down the pressure increases

explosion with a brilliant flash and scorching heat'

area would kill 1.5 million people.

are composed of metal

104

I

Section Ill- Text Structure

A. Word-OrderOne word is in the wrong position in each of these

sentences. Show with an arrow where the wrongly'placed word should be. Then check against the text'

1. The press and Hollywood focus often on the

impact of a large asteroid, say 1 km in diameter,

which would wipe out life within proximity ofthe impact site.

Z. The dust and/or vapour cloud created by an impact to either the land or the ocean cotrld be

enough big to create a ,,nuclear winter".

B. Questions on the texts

1. By using the phrase ,,are no longer the stuff of science fiction"author give of the risks of collisions with near-earth objects?

what impression does the

What exactly was it that ,, coincided with the extinction of the dinosaurs,'?

What is meant by ,,duckfor cover"?Which phrases in Text i echoe the idea of ,,death by cold and starvation" mentioned in the

final line of Text 1?

C, DefiningLook up in-a dictionary of science, then write the definitions of near'earth objects.

AsteroidsCometsMeteorites

D. SummarizingEight content ploints are listed below. Decide which four points best summarize the potential

main ideas of the texts.

1. A smaller asteroid landing in the sea could create tsunami, inflicting catastrophic damage to

coastal cities.2. Asteroids are solar system bodies smaller than planets but larger than meteoroids'

3. 900 asteroids are whizzing around the solar system on orbits crossing the earth'

4. So far, many people have been killed by asteroids'

5. A potentiai collision should be detected years in advance to allow governments to take

measures.6. ln the longer-term the impact of a large asteroid could create major climate changes and

worldwide food shortages.

7. Collisions with asteroids represent a real threat.

8. The impact of large asteroid would destroy life in the immediate area.

E. Arrange the four main ideas in logical order.

F. Writing a summaryRewrite the four main content points in your own words, paraphrasing them if necessary.

2.

4.

105

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