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2

Dimensions of child rearing

� Acceptance and involvement (warmth–coldness)� Degree of affection and acceptance of child

� Parental warmth relates to� Development of internalized standards of conduct

� Positive emotional and social well being

� Control (restrictiveness–permissiveness)� Degree to which parents impose rules and control

� Consistent control and enforcement of rules, when combined with support and affection, can have positive consequences

� Child rearing practices are greatly influenced by cultural practices

3

What techniques do parents use to set

boundaries?

� Induction� Reasoning – child will understand what to do in similar situation

� Power Assertion� “Spare the rod, spoil the child”

� Withdrawal of Love� Threats or isolation of child

4

Parenting styles� Authoritative Parents

� High on Warmth, High on Control

� Self-reliance, independence, high self-esteem and social competence

� Authoritarian Parents

� Low on Warmth, High on Control

� Less socially competent, lower self-reliance and self-esteem

� Permissive Parents

� Permissive – Indulgent

� High Warmth, low Control

� Less competent in school but fairly high in social competence and self-confidence

� Permissive – neglecting

� Low Warmth, low Control

� Least competent, responsible and mature children

5

Canadian Parents

� Authoritative parenting = positive benefits

� Permissive and authoritarian parenting styles = less positive outcomes

� Consistent parenting practice = more harmonious

� Family systems theory frames the family as an interdependent unit

� both mothers’ and fathers’ parenting practices are considered

6

What influence do siblings have on social and

personal development in early childhood?

� Positive Aspects

� Cooperation

� Teaching

� Nurturance

� Negative Aspects

� Conflict

� Control

� Competition

� Siblings imitate each other

� Conflict may enhance social competence and self-identity

� As siblings age, relationship becomes more egalitarian and conflict declines

� Preparation of child to new sibling shows less sibling rivalry

7

What does the research say about birth order?

� First-born children

� More highly motivated to achieve, more cooperative, adult-oriented

� Show greater anxiety, less self-reliant

� More likely to have imaginary playmate

� Later-born children

� Tend to be more popular with peers

� More rebellious, liberal and agreeable

� Parenting style may differ between first- and later-born children

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Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in

Development, First Canadian Edition Spencer A. Rathus & Christina M. Rinaldi

Chapter 10

9

How does the self develop during early

childhood?

� The Self= sense of self (self-concept)

� Emerges gradually during infancy

� Categorical Self – external traits

� Age groupings

� Sex

� Self-Esteem� High value attached to themselves

� Secure attachment and mothers sensitive to their needs

� By age 4, begin evaluative judgments� Cognitive and physical competence

� Social acceptance by peers and parents

10

Erikson’s Initiative Versus Guilt

� Erikson’s stage of psychosocial development� Strive to achieve independence from parents

� Strive to master adult behaviours

� Children begin to internalize adult rules� Fear of violating rules may cause guilt

� Support to explore helps develop initiative

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Fears in the early childhood

� Number of fears peaks between 2 1/2 and 4 years

� But see a decline in fears of loud noises, falling, sudden movement and strangers

� Most likely to have fears about� animals, imaginary creatures, the dark and personal safety

� In middle childhood, fears become more realistic

12

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Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in

Development, First Canadian Edition Spencer A. Rathus & Christina M. Rinaldi

Chapter 10

13

How do gender roles develop? � Stages of development of gender roles

� 2 - 2 1/2 years – accurate identifying pictures of boys and girls

� 3 years – display knowledge of gender stereotypes

� Traditional stereotypes about activities, occupations, personality traits

� View their own gender more positive

� Cultural stereotypes� Feminine gender roles- dependence, gentleness, helpfulness,

warmth, emotionality, submissiveness, home-orientation

� Masculine gender roles – aggressiveness, self-confidence, independence, competitiveness, competence in business, math and science

14

Theories of the development of sex differences� Evolution and Heredity

� Sex differences are result of natural selection, adaptation

� Survival set passed through genes (heredity)

� Result – parental investment model

� Organization of the Brain

� Hippocampus and Navigation

� Males use both hemispheres and rely on geometry

� Females use right hemisphere (with right prefrontal cortex) and rely on landmarks

� Right-brained or Left-brained

� Left and right hemispheres more specialized in men

� Sex Hormones

� Prenatal influence on behavioural tendencies

� Social Cognitive Theory

� Observational learning and socialization (e.g. Parental influence)

15

Kohlberg’s Cognitive Developmental Theory

Of Gender Typing

Form concepts about gender and fit behaviour to those concepts

� Gender Identity

� Knowledge that one is male or female

� Gender Stability

� People retain their sex for life

� Gender Constancy

� Sex does not change, even if people modify behaviour or dress

� Conservation of gender – related to development of conservation

� Once child has achieved gender stability and constancy, they seek to behave in ways consistent with their sex

16

Lessons in Observation:

Gender

17

Gender and play

� By 18-months child shows more preference for gender-stereotyped toys� Girls are more likely to stray from stereotypes

� Gender differences in play activities� Boys prefer vigorous outdoor, rough and tumble play

� Girls seek out other girls to protect against this behaviour

� Girls prefer arts and crafts, domestic play

� Boys are not responsive to girls’ suggestions� Unpleasant to interact with unresponsive playmate

� Boys may view girls as inferior