IWC/SC/55/E4

1

Marine wind farms and cetaceansS. J. Dolman,* M.P. Simmonds# and S. Keith #1

E-mail contact: marks@wdcs.org

ABSTRACT

The development of wind farms in the marine environment is set to expand rapidly in the future as governmentsstrive to meet greenhouse gas emission targets and renewable energy commitments. Marine wind farms constitutea new development and one for which the associated environmental impacts remain largely unexplored. Areas ofparticular concern, including those related to development within important cetacean habitat, are discussed. It isour contention that marine wind farms should not be developed without due consideration being given to possibleenvironmental consequences and that this should be done via appropriate environmental impact assessments.

KEYWORDS: HABITAT; NOISE; CLIMATE CHANGE___________________________________________________________________________________

INTRODUCTION

The rapid development of wind farmsWind farms offer many benefits over traditional energy sources and are expected to contributesignificantly to a reduction in climate change in coming years. Many countries have madecommitments to reduce their carbon emissions and are therefore planning to expand their currentrenewable energy sectors. For instance, the UK has recently produced a long-term strategic plan for itsenergy policy and has committed to a 60% reduction in carbon emissions by 2050 (DTI, 2003). Thispolicy is intended to ensure that energy, the environment and economic growth are properly andsustainably integrated. This means that each country must explore renewable energy sources that havea minimal long-term environmental impact.

Wind energy is the fastest growing renewable energy source. New renewable energies (including wind,solar, geothermal and tide) have experienced an annual growth worldwide of 9% between 1971 and2000, and wind energy has made up over 50% of this (International Energy Agency, 2002). Theterrestrial wind industry accounts for much of this growth. In Germany and the US, for instance, totalwind energy amounted to 8750MW and 4261MW, respectively, by the end of 2001 (see Table 1).However, as yet, there are no operating marine wind farms in these countries. Whilst the marine windindustry is in its infancy, there is a strong impetus to develop it further and particularly in offshorewaters in the near future.

Table 1Amount of energy produced from existing and planned terrestrial and marine wind farms in selected countries.Planned here includes all the projects which the authors are aware of, including those under construction, withconsent granted or with an EIA/proposal under consideration by the relevant authority (see also the Appendix).

Country Terrestrial (MW) Marine (MW)[date of figure] Existing Planned

Germany 8750 [end 2001] 0 8200-13000Denmark 2016 [2000] 234 473UK 550 [2002] 4 ¯1800Spain 2099 [2000] 0 200United States 4261 [end 2001] 0 >10500

1 *WDCS, Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society, Australasia, PO Box 50, Kippax, Holt ACT 2615 Australia# WDCS, Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society, Brookfield House, 38 St. Paul Street, Chippenham, WiltshireSN15 1LJ UK

IWC/SC/55/E4

2

Growth in the terrestrial industry has meant that the cost of wind energy has fallen by 90% in the last20 years, and it will fall further as the industry grows and matures (AWEA, 2002). Reduced costs willencourage further investment in both marine and terrestrial wind energy.

To fulfil their renewable energy commitments, countries have set targets for total wind energyproduction, for both marine and terrestrial sectors. The US target includes providing at least 5 % ofnational electricity by wind by 2020 with goals of 500MW by 2005 and 10,000MW by 2010 (Flowersand Dougherty, 2002). Some specific targets for marine wind energy have also been announced.Germany has perhaps the most ambitious target, aiming for 25,000MW of power from marine windfarms by 2020. Denmark is striving for 4,000MW by 2030 and the UK expects 2,000MW from marinewind farms by 2010 (BWEA, 2001). The European Wind Energy Association has also set targets of5,000MW by 2010 and 50,000MW by 2020 for marine wind energy production (EWEA, 2001).

The massive growth in the terrestrial sector along with the renewable energy targets set by variouscountries and increased cost efficiency, provide an impetus for extensive wind farm developments inthe marine environment. As such, more and more marine sites are being proposed for development.Furthermore, there is some significant public and political pressure to place the wind turbines offshoreso that they are out of sight . Certainly land based wind farms have proved controversial,predominantly because of their impact on the landscape. However, being situated out of sight does not,of course, necessarily mean there will be no environmental consequences (Downie in Perry, 2003).

POTENTIAL NEGATIVE IMPACTS OF MARINE WIND FARMS

The potential significance of wind turbines to wildlife has recently been recognised, at least to someextent. For example, Resolution 7.5 Wind Turbines and Migratory Species was adopted by theseventh meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on the Conservation of MigratorySpecies of Wild Animals (CMS). The Resolution invites intergovernmental organisations to co-operatewith CMS in efforts to minimise possible negative impacts of marine wind turbines on migratoryspecies. It also calls upon the Parties to:

• identify areas where migratory species are vulnerable to wind turbines;• apply and strengthen comprehensive strategic environmental impact assessment to identify

appropriate sites;• evaluate possible negative ecological impacts prior to decision making;• assess cumulative environmental impacts;• take full account of the precautionary principle in development; and• take account of impact and monitoring data as they emerge.

Furthermore, the scientific council of CMS has been instructed to assess existing and potential threats,including those to habitat and food sources, from marine wind farms to migratory mammals and birdsfor the next Meeting of the Parties.

The impacts on non-migratory species can also be expected to be significant. This may be particularlytrue for resident or semi-resident populations residing in the vicinity of a marine wind farm.

Summary of related literatureDespite the rapid expansion that is planned for wind farms, to date there is only a relatively smallnumber of reports and papers that relate to their potential environmental impact. This literature isoutlined in Table 2.

IWC

/SC

/55/

E4 3

Aut

hor

(Dat

e)T

itle

Top

ic/S

umm

ary

Typ

e of

Rep

ort

Size

Gill

& T

aylo

r (2

001)

.T

he P

oten

tial e

ffec

t of

elec

trom

agne

tic f

ield

sge

nera

ted

by c

ablin

g be

twee

n of

fsho

re w

ind

turb

ines

upo

n el

asm

obra

nch

fish

es.

Rev

iew

of

liter

atur

e on

ela

smob

ranc

h el

ectr

orec

eptio

n, o

ffsh

ore

win

d fa

rmde

velo

pmen

t, B

ritis

h el

asm

obra

nchs

and

a s

tudy

dem

onst

ratin

g a

cert

ain

leve

l of

avoi

danc

e by

the

dogf

ish

(Scy

liorh

inus

can

icul

a) o

f th

e m

axim

umpr

edic

ted

elec

tric

fie

ld (

1000

Vcm

-1)

gene

rate

d fr

om 3

-cor

e un

ders

ea15

0kV

, 600

A c

able

s.

Rep

ort f

or a

gove

rnm

ent

agen

cy(C

CW

, in

the

UK

).

47 p

ages

(exc

ludi

ngre

fere

nces

).

Eng

ell-

S¿re

nsen

(20

02).

Poss

ible

eff

ects

of

the

offs

hore

win

d fa

rm a

tV

inde

by o

n th

e ou

tcom

e of

fis

hing

: The

poss

ible

eff

ects

of

elec

trom

agne

tic f

ield

s an

dno

ise.

Noi

se r

ecor

ding

s fr

om th

e lit

erat

ure1,

2 and

pre

dict

ed e

lect

rom

agne

tic f

ield

sar

e ev

alua

ted

in te

rms

of th

eir

pote

ntia

l im

pact

s on

fis

h sp

ecie

s at

Vin

deby

mar

ine

win

d fa

rm, D

enm

ark.

A s

tudy

of

the

effe

ct th

at th

is w

ind

farm

has

on a

loca

l fla

tfis

h fi

sher

y is

als

o ou

tline

d an

d di

scus

sed.

Con

sulta

ntre

port

.18

pag

es(e

xclu

ding

refe

renc

es).

Eng

ell-

S¿re

nsen

& S

kyt

(200

0).

Eva

luat

ion

of th

e E

ffec

t of

Noi

se f

rom

Off

shor

e Pi

le-D

rivi

ng o

n M

arin

e Fi

sh.

The

hea

ring

abi

lity

and

avoi

danc

e of

sou

nd b

y fi

sh a

re c

onsi

dere

d in

eval

uatin

g th

e ef

fect

s of

pile

-dri

ving

act

ivity

on

the

beha

viou

r an

dph

ysio

logy

of

diff

eren

t fis

h sp

ecie

s us

ing

nois

e re

cord

ings

fro

m th

elit

erat

ure3 .

Con

sulta

ntre

port

.18

pag

es(e

xclu

ding

refe

renc

es).

ET

SU (

2000

).A

n as

sess

men

t of

the

envi

ronm

enta

l eff

ects

of

offs

hore

win

d fa

rms.

Iden

tifie

s en

viro

nmen

tal c

once

rns

in te

rms

of e

nvir

onm

enta

l ass

essm

ent a

ndhi

ghlig

hts

whe

re f

utur

e re

sear

ch s

houl

d fo

cus.

Dis

cuss

es e

ffec

ts o

f w

ind

farm

s on

bir

ds, m

arin

e m

amm

als,

fis

h an

d th

e be

ntho

s.

Con

sulta

ntre

port

.15

pag

es.

Hen

riks

en e

t al.

(200

1).

Doe

s un

derw

ater

noi

se f

rom

off

shor

e w

ind

farm

s po

tent

ially

aff

ect s

eals

and

har

bour

porp

oise

s?

Noi

se le

vel r

ecor

ding

s fr

om d

iffe

rent

win

d tu

rbin

es a

re c

ompa

red

with

ceta

cean

aud

iogr

ams

to c

alcu

late

the

max

imum

det

ectio

n di

stan

ce f

rom

an

oper

atio

nal m

arin

e tu

rbin

e fo

r a

harb

our

porp

oise

. 50

m is

pro

pose

d as

the

dete

ctio

n lim

it.

Post

erpr

esen

tatio

nto

mar

ine

conf

eren

ce.

Post

erpr

esen

tatio

n

His

cock

et a

l. (2

002)

.H

igh

Lev

el E

nvir

onm

enta

l Scr

eeni

ng S

tudy

for

Off

shor

e W

ind

Farm

Dev

elop

men

ts —

Mar

ine

Hab

itats

and

Spe

cies

Pro

ject

.

Focu

ses

on m

arin

e ha

bita

ts a

nd s

peci

es: i

dent

ifyi

ng b

ioto

pes

that

are

like

lyto

be

deve

lope

d by

mar

ine

win

d fa

rms

in th

e U

K. B

ioto

pe s

ensi

tivity

to th

isfo

rm o

f de

velo

pmen

t is

also

add

ress

ed.

Key

issu

es th

at s

houl

d be

cons

ider

ed in

EIA

of

mar

ine

win

d fa

rms

are

high

light

ed.

Rep

ort t

ogo

vern

men

t(D

TI,

UK

)

34 p

ages

(exc

ludi

ngre

fere

nces

).

Hof

fman

et a

l. (2

000)

.E

ffec

ts o

f m

arin

e w

indf

arm

s on

the

dist

ribu

tion

of f

ish,

she

llfis

h an

d m

arin

em

amm

als

in th

e H

orns

Rev

are

a.

The

impa

cts

of p

ropo

sed

win

dmill

s in

the

Hor

ns R

ev a

rea,

on

mar

ine

wild

life

wer

e ad

dres

sed

in te

rms

of th

eir

phys

ical

pre

senc

e, a

rtif

icia

l ree

fef

fect

s, n

oise

and

mag

netic

fie

lds.

Con

sulta

ntre

port

.39

pag

es(e

xclu

ding

refe

renc

es).

Lai

dre

et a

l. (2

001)

.Sa

telli

te tr

acki

ng a

s a

tool

to s

tudy

pot

entia

lef

fect

s of

an

offs

hore

win

d fa

rm o

n se

als

atR

¿san

d.

A s

tudy

that

eva

luat

es th

e us

e of

sat

ellit

e ta

gs a

s a

tool

to a

sses

s th

e ex

tent

to w

hich

the

plan

ned

mar

ine

win

d fa

rm a

t Rds

and

effe

cts

the

loca

l sea

lpo

pula

tions

. The

res

olut

ion

of th

e sa

telli

te te

lem

etry

dat

a w

as n

ot f

ine

enou

gh to

det

erm

ine

the

use

of th

e pr

opos

ed w

ind

farm

are

a by

sea

ls.

Rep

ort f

orgo

vern

men

t(D

enm

ark)

.

41 p

ages

(exc

ludi

ngre

fere

nces

).

Tab

le 2

Sum

mar

y of

rec

ent l

itera

ture

rel

ated

to m

arin

e w

ind

farm

s, c

etac

eans

and

oth

er w

ildlif

e.

IWC

/SC

/55/

E4 4

Aut

hor

(Dat

e)T

itle

Top

ic/S

umm

ary

Typ

e of

Rep

ort

Size

Lai

dre

et a

l. (2

002)

Mon

itori

ng e

ffec

ts o

f of

fsho

re w

indf

arm

s on

harb

our

porp

oise

s us

ing

POD

s (p

orpo

ise

dete

ctor

s).

Col

late

s da

ta f

rom

PO

Ds

from

fou

r ar

eas:

R¿d

sand

, Hor

ns R

eef,

Mec

klen

burg

Bay

and

Vin

deby

off

shor

e w

ind

farm

, in

Den

mar

k. T

heau

thor

s ev

alua

te th

e se

nsiti

vity

of

POD

s an

d va

lidity

of

POD

dat

a. A

mon

itori

ng d

esig

n an

d st

atis

tical

met

hod

are

deve

lope

d fo

r de

tect

ing

the

effe

cts

of m

arin

e w

ind

farm

s on

har

bour

por

pois

es.

Rep

ort f

orgo

vern

men

t(D

enm

ark)

.

95 p

ages

(inc

ludi

ngre

fere

nces

and

appe

ndic

es).

Vel

la e

t al.

(200

1).

Ass

essm

ent o

f th

e ef

fect

s of

noi

se a

ndvi

brat

ion

from

off

shor

e w

ind

farm

s on

mar

ine

wild

life.

A r

evie

w o

f st

udie

s an

d in

form

atio

n on

the

effe

cts

of n

oise

and

vib

ratio

nfr

om o

ffsh

ore

win

d fa

rms

on m

arin

e in

vert

ebra

tes,

fis

h an

d m

arin

em

amm

als.

It i

dent

ifie

s un

cert

aint

ies

and

mak

es r

ecom

men

datio

ns f

orfu

rthe

r w

ork.

Rep

ort t

ogo

vern

men

t(D

TI,

UK

)

80 p

ages

(exc

ludi

ngre

fere

nces

).

1 Wes

terb

erg

(199

4)Fi

sker

iund

ers

knin

ger

vid

havb

aser

etvi

ndkr

aftv

erk

1990

-199

3.D

etai

ls s

ome

of th

e fi

rst r

ecor

ding

s of

sou

nd p

rodu

ced

from

a 2

20kW

oper

atio

nal w

ind

turb

ine

at tw

o di

ffer

ent w

ind

spee

ds (

6ms-1

& 1

2ms-1

),ac

ross

the

freq

uenc

y ra

nge

1Hz

to 2

0 kH

z.

Con

sulta

ntre

port

.

2 fldeg

aard

& D

anne

skio

ld—

Sam

s¿e

(200

0a).

Und

erw

ater

noi

se m

easu

rem

ents

, ana

lysi

s an

dpr

edic

tions

. R

¿dsa

nd O

ffsh

ore

Win

d fa

rmE

IA T

echn

ical

Bac

kgro

und

Rep

ort:

Und

erw

ater

Noi

se

Noi

se le

vels

fro

m o

pera

tiona

l win

d tu

rbin

es a

re c

ompa

red

with

am

bien

tle

vels

acr

oss

a w

ide

freq

uenc

y ra

nge

(1H

z to

100

kHz)

and

for

dif

fere

ntfo

unda

tion

type

s an

d po

wer

cla

sses

.

Con

sulta

ntre

port

.29

pag

es.

3 fldeg

aard

& D

anne

skio

ld-

Sam

s¿e

(200

0b).

Off

shor

e pi

le d

rivi

ng u

nder

wat

er a

nd a

bove

wat

er n

oise

mea

sure

men

ts a

nd a

naly

sis.

Mea

sure

men

ts o

f so

und

leve

ls f

rom

pile

-dri

ving

a m

onop

ile f

ound

atio

ndu

ring

con

stru

ctio

n, a

t dif

fere

nt d

ista

nces

fro

m th

e so

urce

and

acr

oss

diff

eren

t fre

quen

cies

. T

he r

esul

ts a

re g

iven

with

no

disc

ussi

on.

Con

sulta

ntre

port

.31

pag

es.

Tab

le 2

Con

tinue

d.

IWC/SC/55/E4

5

PRESENT AND FUTURE EXTENT OF MARINE WIND FARMS

Marine wind farm developmentThe sources of information available on marine wind farms are not consistent in their formatting.Thus, in order to evaluate properly the extent of marine wind farm development, there is a need tocollate information in a comprehensive and consistent format. A first attempt to do this has been madehere (see Appendix). The need to gather available information on environmental aspects of offshorewind energy has also been recognised (for example, Bruns et al., 2002; Vella et al., 2001).

Some trends in the present and future development of marine wind farms are evident. At present, allmarine wind farms are limited to shallow, less than 10m deep, near-shore waters, within approximately5km of the coast. However, plans are now being made for large-scale development further offshore outto EEZ boundaries (see Appendix). Current marine wind farms have been on a small scale, generallyless than 20 turbines, but future plans are considering farms with hundreds of turbines. The largestmarine wind farm to date is sited at Horns Reef, Denmark. It came into operation in December 2002and has 80 turbines.

The actual size of the turbines has also been increasing; for example, Germany and the Netherlands aredeveloping a wind turbine in excess of 100m high that produces in the region of 5MW (H rter, 2002).Larger scale development, larger turbines and plans to develop further offshore have wider implicationsfor environmental impact.

EuropeAs far as the authors are presently aware, there are currently 12 existing operational marine wind farmsin the world and all of these are in Europe. World wide, a number of marine wind farms are in variousstages of development. There are projects under construction, projects with approval, planned projectsthat are still under consideration and a number of other project proposals. An indication of the scaleand distribution of current and planned development is given in Figure 1, which shows marine windfarm developments in northern Europe (also see Appendix).

Coastal regions of the North and Baltic Seas are set to become hot spots for development because manyEuropean countries have extensive plans for future projects near-shore and beyond their respectiveterritorial waters, Germany, Denmark and the UK in particular. Germany has plans to build very largeturbines and situate them more than 30km offshore in depths of 20-35m. Potential development ofmarine wind farms is not limited to northern Europe. In Italy, for instance, there is a lot of interestoffshore (Rosenbeck, 2001).

United StatesCurrently, there are no operational marine wind farms in the US. However, two are set for constructionand a number of others have been planned for the eastern seaboard (Parenteau, 2002) (also seeAppendix). The US has a great potential for offshore wind energy because of its extensive coastline andthese projects will constitute an extensive and large scale development of the Outer Continental Shelf.

Asia and the rest of the worldThere are no operational marine wind farms in Asia, of which the authors are aware, but the terrestrialwind industry is developing rapidly in some countries. The main limitations for future developmentswill be financial and infrastructural (see below). China had a total installed capacity of 400MW by theend of 2001 (Zhipeng & Zhigang, 2002) but the majority of turbines have been imported, sodevelopment of near-shore and offshore wind resources is not imminent. Similarly, India has arelatively large operational terrestrial wind capacity; 1094MW of power was installed in 2000(Whitman, 2001).

Factors influencing development and environmental impact assessmentThe status of the wind energy industry varies in different countries. The expense, expertise andinfrastructure required for a viable marine wind farm development means that the terrestrial sector isgenerally explored first. So the state of the terrestrial sector, to a certain extent, reflects potential fordevelopment of marine wind farms. In addition, the marketplace, subsidies and other investmentencouragement are important factors that influence the extent of future marine wind farm development(H rter, 2002). For example, although Sweden has three operational marine wind farms and full

IWC/SC/55/E4

6

permission for two further projects, further viable development is uncertain (Wizelius, 2002). Swedenalso has an extensive terrestrial wind resource that has not been explored.

The levels of environmental investigation into possible effects and precise methods of environmentalimpact assessment (EIA) also differ between countries (Bruns et al., 2002). The soundness of theframework for planning and consent for proposed marine wind farms on the Outer Continental Shelf inthe US has also recently been questioned (Parenteau, 2002).

IWC

/SC

/55/

E4 7

Figu

re 1

Map

of

dist

ribu

tion

of c

urre

nt a

nd p

lann

ed n

ear-

shor

e an

d of

fsho

re m

arin

e w

ind

farm

s in

nor

ther

n E

urop

e.

IWC/SC/55/E4

8

LATEST INFORMATION ON IMPACTS OF MARINE WIND FARMS

General ConsiderationsThe environmental impacts of marine wind farms can be viewed as long or short-term and each stageof a marine wind farm development has associated impacts. The construction and decommissioningphases have many short-term associated impacts while the operational phase is likely to be a majorsource of long-term impact. Generally, greatest concern has been raised about the operational phasebecause of its potential for long term impact (WWF & TWT, 2001).

Activities that are of particular importance to cetaceans are listed below:

Activities likely to cause short term impacts:• seismic exploration;• intense noise due to ramming/piling, drilling and dredging operations;• increased vessel activities during exploration and construction;• increased turbidity due to construction and cable laying; and, later,• decommissioning of wind farms. (This may involve the use of explosives.)

Activities likely to cause long term impacts:• the presence of structures (physical presence of the towers and artificial reef effects);• continual operational noise and vibrations emanating from the wind turbines;• electromagnetic impacts due to cabling that may impact navigation (this may be of particular

concern for elasmobranchs (Gill & Taylor, 2001)); and,• increased vessel traffic, from maintenance operations, for instance.

Cumulative impacts, on a local and regional scale, may result from a number of these activities incombination and, potentially, they may also act to cause negative environmental consequences incombination with other marine activities.

The number and arrangement of turbines and the site location vary considerably depending on thespecific project. There may be one to several hundreds of turbines arranged in rows or clusters and avariety of different foundation types are used depending on local circumstances (Engell-S¿rensen &Skyt, 2001b). The number and size of turbines, the arrangement and the foundation type all havedifferent implications for environmental impact. Different foundation types require differentconstruction operations. The construction phase is commonly very intensive (Laidre et al., 2001). Fordriven monopile foundations, pile-driving activity will consist of repetitive percussive impacts lastingfor hours. The pile-driving of one monopile at the proposed R¿dsand marine wind farm will last forfour hours and there are 72 turbines to build (Engell-S¿rensen & Skyt, 2000a). Furthermore, thefoundation type of each turbine will affect the transmission of noise to the water during the operationalphase (fldegaard & Danneskiold — Sams¿e 2000a).

Areas of ResearchMuch of the consideration given to the impacts of marine wind farms on cetaceans has focused onharbour porpoises and some dolphin species. Little attention has been paid to other odontocete speciesand the authors not aware of any studies to assess the possible impacts of offshore wind farms onbaleen species. Most other literature on the environmental impacts of marine wind farms deals withimpacts on other wildlife (see Table 2, above).

Due to a lack of data and conclusive evidence, the available reports tend to vary in their interpretationof the significance of the potential environmental impacts of marine wind farms. (This may also beaffected by how precautionary the authors are in their evaluation.). For example, one report commentsthat odontocetes are likely to show initial avoidance, followed by habituation and possibly attraction towind farms as feeding grounds (Vella et al., 2001). Whereas in another report, it is suggested thatcetaceans will be temporarily displaced over a wide area during construction and decommissioningphases. Then, the report goes on to suggest they will be displaced more permanently over a smallerarea during the operational phase, and, unless this area is a critical habitat, the overall effect is expectedto be insignificant (Hoffman et al., 2000). Similarly, the extent to which artificial reef effects areconsidered to be significant also varies in the literature (ETSU, 2000; Hoffman et al., 2000; Vella etal., 2001).

IWC/SC/55/E4

9

Sightings of harbour porpoises (Phocoena phocoena) entering the marine wind farm area at Vindeby(Skov et al., 2002) illustrate that porpoises still traverse this area, despite the presence of the marinewind farm. However, this does not tell us whether they are being impacted in any way by the farm orallow us to say how significant any such impact might be. A porpoise might still enter an area that is ofkey biological importance to it, despite negative consequences, and exposure to certain sound levels fora prolonged period might adversely affect it (perhaps causing hearing deterioration). Anecdotalobservations of harbour porpoises within the proposed marine wind farm area at R¿dsand (Carstensenet al., 2001) mean there is a potential for the proposed development to interfere with porpoisemovements.

NoiseNoise has the potential to cause short and long term impacts (see above). It is a potential source ofdisturbance to cetaceans and could lead to displacement from an area and therefore loss of access topotentially important habitat. The widespread development of marine wind farms (for example, seeFigure 1) means this could be significant.

Noise is produced during the construction, operational and decommissioning phases and by associatedvessels. At present, very little research has focused specifically on the impact that noise produced fromindividual wind turbines or entire marine wind farms might have on cetaceans. Furthermore, relevantdata from existing operational wind farms is only very slowly becoming available. It will be ofimportance to establish sound emission levels from all of the phases of wind farm development andgive consideration to their consequences and their mitigation.

Recordings of noise during pile-driving activity at land, Sweden, showed that sound levels had notreduced significantly at a distance of 760m, compared to the level at 30m (fldegaard & Danneskiold —Sams¿e 2000b). Sound levels from pile-driving impacts exceeded ambient levels in the frequencyrange 4Hz to 20kHz and peaks varied with distance from source and were in the 250Hz to 400Hzrange. Cetaceans have not been specifically addressed in relation to this form of noise and noevaluation of these results, of which the authors are aware, has been carried out for cetaceans.However, on the basis of these measurements, Henriksen et al. (2001a; in Laidre et al., 2001) notedconcern about the potential effects on marine mammals. They indicated that there is a high risk ofhearing damage in the vicinity of pile-driving and that the animals will be able to hear the noise over alarge area . Other reports have indicated that sound levels for pile-driving are in the range of 50-100Hzand 150dBre.1 Pa at 1m (Richardson et al ., 1995).

Operational farms have been reported to produce broadband low frequency noise above ambient levels(fldegaard & Danneskiold — Sams¿e 2000a) and at the lower end of the threshold frequency spectra ofselected representative odontocetes (Richardson et al., 1995). fldegaard & Danneskiold - Sams¿e2000a ) showed that marine wind turbines with different foundation types emit sound with differentcharacteristics. Turbines with concrete foundations emit higher noise levels below 50Hz and lowerlevels between 50Hz and 500Hz, than those with monopile foundations. Westerberg (1994) Detailssome of the first recordings of sound produced from a 220kW operational wind turbine at two differentwind speeds (6ms-1 & 12ms-1), across the frequency range 1Hz to 20 kHz. It was found that, althoughhigher wind speeds meant that higher noise levels were emitted from marine wind turbines, the relativelevel of noise above ambient did not change because ambient noise levels increased in line with windspeed.

The zone of audibility and potential zone of exclusion around operational marine wind turbines andmarine wind farms has not been clearly defined. Different studies reach different conclusions, perhapsaffected by local conditions. By comparing the auditory sensitivities of odontocete species for differentfrequencies with the characteristics of the sound emitted from wind turbines, Henriksen et al (2001b)predicted that the maximum detection distance for harbour porpoises is likely to be in the region of50m from an operational wind turbine. Whereas from sound recordings made at the marine wind farmsat Vindeby in Denmark and Gotland (Bockstigen) in Sweden it was predicted that noise from a windturbine will be audible to marine mammals only up to 20m from its foundations (Bach et al., 2000).

Furthermore, there is a potential for different sound emission characteristics from the larger turbineslikely to be employed in deeper waters. Noise levels from 2MW turbines are predicted to be higherthan turbines of the 500kW class at frequencies below 100Hz and lower at frequencies above 100Hz(fldegaard & Danneskiold — Sams¿e 2000a).

IWC/SC/55/E4

10

Habitat Use / BACI / Distribution and Relative AbundanceOne study has specifically looked at the presence and movements of cetaceans within a proposedmarine wind farm area. The motivation for this study has been the implementation of a BACI(Before/After Controlled Impact) design to EIA (Skov et al., 2002). This research has looked atharbour porpoises, using PODs (Porpoise Detectors). PODs promise to be a useful and reliable tool formonitoring distribution and relative abundance of animals in an area, giving an idea of habitat use.Skov et al. (2002) tested the reliability and validity of POD data for this purpose and developedstatistical tests for their data. They recommend a robust monitoring design.

Previously, in studies at R¿dsand and Vindeby offshore wind farms, it had not been possible to drawconclusions from the data collected due to practical difficulties (Carstensen et al., 2001). However,continued deployment of PODs should aid future comparisons aiming to detect and assess any changesin harbour porpoise activity due to marine wind farms. Some PODs remain in place and Skov et al.(2002) recommend that monitoring be continued at all positions.

Other WildlifeThe impacts of marine wind farms on seals have been investigated. Using the same method as forharbour porpoises, Henriksen et al. (2001a) predict that seals may hear the noise emitted from marinewind farms at a distance of up to 1km. Tracking studies at the proposed R¿dsand marine wind farmhave not been able to address fine scale movement of seals within the study area (Laidre et al., 2001).However, Laidre et al. were able to make inferences about seal home ranges and how seals use thegeneral area. They note that because grey seals (Halichoerus grypus) have large home ranges they donot use the wind farm area very often and that harbour seals (Phoca vitulina), which have a morelocalised habitat, do not use the wind farm area.

Changes to habitat and changes in prey species resulting from wind farm installations can be expectedto affect cetaceans and seals (Hiscock et al., 2002). The effect that marine wind farms have on fish hasbeen the focus of a number of reports (see Table 2). For instance, there is a potential forelectromagnetic fields emanating from undersea cables to affect the movements of some fish species(Engell-S¿rensen, 2002; Gill & Taylor, 2001). This issue is also being considered in the proposedR¿dsand marine wind farm EIA (Engell-S¿rensen, 2002). Artificial reef effects have been predicted toinfluence the numbers of fish in a marine wind farm area (Vella et al., 2001). However, thesignificance of this effect, to form a food chain basis, has been questioned (Hoffman et al., 2000).

The effects of different types of construction on fish have been evaluated for factors such as sedimentspill (Engell-S¿rensen & Skyt, 2001b) and noise (Engell-S¿rensen, 2002). Noise emitted from pile-driving activity may also effect fish (Engell-S¿rensen & Skyt, 2001b). Engell-S¿rensen & Skyt useresults from the baseline study by fldegaard & Danneskiold — Sams¿e (2000b; outlined above) toassess the impact of pile-driving. However, in a different report, Engell-S¿rensen & Skyt (2001a) useresults from another baseline study by fldegaard & Danneskiold — Sams¿e (2000a) to assess the impactof noise from operational marine wind farms. It is clear that more baseline studies are required to drawconclusions in future assessments, especially considering the variation in sound transmissionconditions between sites. There is also a need for this kind of assessment to be carried out for cetaceandifferent species.

LACK OF INFORMATION AND AREAS OF CONCERN

There is a lack of information about the potential impacts that marine wind farms have on cetaceans. Itis also evident that the majority of research work to date has been conducted in inshore waters aroundEurope. This is because this is where the current development is focused (see Figure 1, above). Yet thepotential for widespread development elsewhere, in the US particularly, should be an incentive toinitiate more research.

It is not unreasonable to propose that the parties to ASCOBANS (the Agreement on the Conservationof Small Cetaceans in the Baltic and North Seas), as part of their commitment to cetacean conservation,should be responding to marine wind farm developments. They could be initiating research into effectsand mitigation of any impacts that may threaten the status of small cetaceans. Furthermore, the harbourporpoise and the bottlenose dolphin are species of primary concern in Europe and are listed on

IWC/SC/55/E4

11

Annexes 2 and 4 of the Habitats and Species Directive (Council Directive 92/43/EEC). All cetaceansare listed on Annex 4. Therefore, European countries would appear to have a requirement to researchand respond to the precise nature and significance of any impacts that may affect these species.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

It has been shown that although marine wind farms are limited to certain areas at present, the industryis set for massive expansion with the implementation of various planned projects. Internationalrenewable energy policy is likely to drive these projects swiftly to completion. It appears that marinewind farm development is continuing without a sound understanding of the long-term impacts thatcould result.

Baseline dataKnowledge of the abundance and distribution of cetaceans in many parts of the world, as well as ofimportant habitats, remains significantly limited. This is a considerable problem in relation to theassessment of suitable locations for wind farms with respect to cetaceans because it is difficult toidentify important habitat areas. Therefore, without prior knowledge of distribution and abundance, nofirm conclusions can be made as to the significance of the impact from marine wind farms.

Work is also limited on the potential for marine wind farms to displace cetaceans from habitat.Consideration might also be given to whether cetacean migrations might be affected byelectromagnetic fields generated from the under surface cables, noting that cetaceans appear to besensitive to variations in the Earth s magnetic field (Klinowska, 1990).

Although some studies have addressed measurement of the noise emitted from marine wind farms, thishas only occurred on a limited basis. To properly assess the significance of noise from whole marinewind farms, comprehensive measurements of the sound produced from different numbers,arrangements, foundation types and sizes of wind turbines in different areas, coastal morphology,seabed characteristics and conditions (wind speeds and temperature for example) are required.

Environmental Impact Assessment and MonitoringIt is also apparent that the EIA process is not sufficiently developed in many countries to properlyaddress the impacts of marine wind farms on cetaceans. EIA can help mitigate the impacts of anyproposed development if applied rigorously. Some recommendations for EIA in relation to marinewind farms and cetaceans are detailed here.

Consideration of impacts should begin at the initial stages of planning and encompass the entire life ofthe marine wind farm. Therefore, all elements of the exploration, construction, operation, maintenanceand decommissioning of wind farms and any proposed extensions to the project in the future should beconsidered. Importantly, environmental assessment should involve dedicated baseline surveys toassess the use of the area by marine wildlife during all seasons and, in particular, the significance of thearea for breeding, feeding or migration.

The current lack of knowledge of impacts should result in the application of a highly precautionaryapproach, especially where large scale projects are under consideration. It is also important that allpotential impacts are assessed on a regional scale in a strategic assessment that takes into account otherlocal activities. The migratory nature of many cetaceans as well as the restricted nature of others needsto be considered.

There should be extensive public consultation at each stage of the process, including before decisionsare made about site selection. Care should be taken to mitigate impacts to the fullest extent possiblethrough considered site selection, design and monitoring. Once underway, the project should involvecontinuous monitoring and evaluation of impacts on all cetaceans, other marine life and the marineenvironment. Evaluation and monitoring reports need to be submitted to the appropriate bodies,including government agencies and relevant conservation organisations.

Other recommendationsConsidering the uncertainties surrounding the potential impacts of marine wind farms, designatedprotected areas should be granted additional protection mechanisms, such as extended buffer zones.

IWC/SC/55/E4

12

A comprehensive list that details all existing marine wind farms and all developments in every stage ofplanning needs to be compiled and this would require the co-operation of governments, researchers anddevelopers. Agreeing on a standard format and using common, advanced, mapping techniques, such asGIS, would promote compatibility with different users in different countries. It would also allow acomparison with other marine activities to facilitate further consideration of the potential forcumulative impacts.

In addition, international co-operation is called for to enable an international strategic environmentalassessment that deals with the potential impacts of marine wind farms. A particular need for such anapproach has been illustrated for northern European countries (Figure 1). The International WhalingCommission, CMS and ASCOBANS could potentially act as mediators for the co-operation requiredfor such an ambitious undertaking. The authors support this concept in principle.

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Engell-S¿rensen, K. 2002. Possible effects of the offshore wind farm at Vindeby on the outcome offishing: The possible effects of electromagnetic fields and noise. Bio/consult as report prepared forSEAS, Doc. No. 1920-003-001-rev.2.

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Feb

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270

0

IWC/SC/55/E4

18