Marsh Philosophy of Curriculum Evaluation Development Sep06

Philosophy of curriculum evaluation development

Prof. Colin J MarshCurtin University

The focus will be upon:

• What is curriculum?• Process components of curriculum.

What is curriculum?

Session 1

What does the term mean? Is it simply using whatever means to

achieve desirable ends? But then complications emerge:

• What should be included in the curriculum for schools?

• Who decides what should count?• Who controls the selection?• How do we know if the curriculum has been

learned?

Consider the following statements and indicate whether you agree or disagree with them:

• The curriculum should stress societal needs overindividual needs.

• Not all subject matters are created equal.• Curriculum should focus on personal purpose: the

need for personal integration.• Curriculum should provide the tools for individual

survival in an unstable and changing world.• The established disciplines of knowledge are

essential.• The curriculum materials, when used by intended

learners, should produce specified learning competencies.

• Curriculum should reflect current real-life situations.

Agree Disagree

Definition 1

Curriculum is such “permanent” subjects as grammar, reading, logic, rhetoric, mathematics, and the great books that best embody essential knowledge.

Reflection

Many curriculum frameworks are based on this approach

Problems• It is limited to only academic subjects• It assumes that the state of knowledge

doesn’t change

Definition 2

Curriculum is those subjects that are most useful for living in contemporary society.

Reflection• It focuses on the here and now• It doesn’t preclude students from making

their own choices

Problems• It assumes that what is contemporary is

better than what is long-lasting.• It encourages students to accommodate

to society rather than trying to improve it.

Definition 3

Curriculum is all planned learnings for which the school is responsible

Reflection• It includes all written documents and

ideas about what students should know• It is a commonly held view of curriculum

Problems• It assumes that what is studied is what

is learned• It may cause teachers to simply select

those planned learnings which are easiest to achieve

• Does this exclude unplanned learnings?

Definition 4

Curriculum cannot be described by its outward features, but rather by the point of view of the thinking from which it springs. A curriculum is something to be felt rather than something to be seen.

Reflection• It has an important emphasis on

experiencing a curriculum.

Problems• How do you decide what to include?• Would this lead to major variations

between schools?

Definition 5

Curriculum is all the experiences learners have under the guidance of the school

Reflection• It is assumed that the curriculum is the sum of

the meanings students experience as they engage in the activities of the school

• It includes both planned and unplanned experiences

Problems• It provides no basis for differentiating between

desirable & undesirable experiences• It may make the tasks of the school impossibly

broad

Definition 6

Curriculum is questioning of areas of authority and searching for more complex views of human situations

Reflection• It suggests the need to develop new

terms and new ways of thinking (post modern forms of thinking).

• It encourages students to question claims to truth.

Problems• Is a solid knowledge background needed

before questioning occurs?• Is it too general, too vague?

Definition 7

Curriculum is what the student constructs from working with the computer and its various networks (Internet, World Wide Web).

Reflection• Students use computers as part of the

natural landscape.• It encourages students to make their

own meaning.

Problems• Not all students have the same levels of

access.• Web-based orientations may be biased.

Definition 8

Curriculum is the totality of learning experiences provided to learners so that they can attain general skills and knowledge at a variety of learning sites

Reflection• It emphasizes other learning sites in

addition to schools.• It highlights generic skills and being

flexible.

Problems.• It can lead to an emphasis upon a large

number of outcomes and highly specific requirements.

• It has a vocational emphasis.

Definition 9

Curriculum is all the experiences that learners have in the course of living

Reflection• It places emphasis on the personal and social

character of curriculum• It emphasizes the individual’s own capacity to

direct his/her own life.

Problems• It makes no distinction between what happens in

school and what happens in life generally• It suggests that school has no special

responsibilities for curriculum• Who decides the course of individual lives?

Review of Definitions

• Are there any diverse values implicit in these definitions?

• Does any particular definition gives rise to problems & questions?

A Working Definition (Marsh & Willis, 2003)

Curriculum is an interrelated set of plans and activities that a student experiences under the guidance of the school

Points to note about this definition:

• The curriculum is an amalgam of planned & unplanned activities

• Importance of both teachers & students• Students ‘experience’ the curriculum• Under the guidance of the school refers to a

wide range of activities within and out of class

My definition

Curriculum is…

Hidden Curriculum (Jackson, 1968)

• the social requirements of learning at school are often hidden

• three elements of the hidden curriculum are:- the crowded nature of the classroom- contradictory allegiances required of teachers & peers- unequal power relations of teachers over students

Hidden Curriculum (ctd)

• Hidden curriculum “involved the learning of attitudes, norms, beliefs, values & assumptions often expressed as rules, rituals & regulations” (Seddon, 1983)

• These rules, rituals & regulations are rarely questioned & are just taken for granted

Examples of Hidden Curriculum

• arrangement of time, facilities & materials

• kinds & frequency of examinations• grading & assessments systems• texts treated as the most authoritative

sources of knowledge• arrangement of school subjects &

timetable• school uniform requirements

Null Curriculum (Eisner, 1979)

• what schools do not teach is as important as what they do teach

• certain intellectual processes and subject ideas can be either present or absent in a school curriculum

Null Curriculum (Intellectual Processes)

• in most schools the intellectual processes which are emphasized are cognitive processes involving use of words & numbers

• there are other intellectual processes which are non verbal & non-rule abiding

• these modes of thought operate in the visual, auditory, metamorphic & poetic ways

• these processes are reflected in schools

Null Curriculum (content or subject matter)

• most schools teach virtually the same subject matter – they maintain a tradition

• subjects that are part of a tradition are there because they create predictability, & they sustain stability

• subjects that are given little or no time include the visual arts, music.

Syllabus

• is typically a listing of content to be taught in a single course

• it sometimes includes a small number of general aims & objectives

• it provides detailed information to teachers about what is to be taught

• a syllabus can be subscribed in a curriculum

Curriculum Guide

• typically includes a listing of content but also aims, objectives, specific materials & activities, possible experiences & forms of evaluation

• it can be for one course or a series of courses

Fundamental process elements of curriculum

Content – this may be depicted as topics, themes or concept maps

Purpose – usually categorised as intellectual, social & personal purposes of

schoolingOrganisation – planning is based upon

scope & sequence (Walker, 1990)

Session 2

Fraenkel’s (1980) process questions

• what information, skills, attitudes & values are students to learn and why?

• what characteristics do students possess? What have they already learned? How might these prior learnings & characteristics affect further learning?

• what particular information shall students study? Why? How might this be information be organised?

Process Questions (ctd)

• what kinds of learning activities can help students learn or acquire various knowledge, skills, attitudes, values? How might these learning experiences be organised?

• what kinds of teacher operations can help students attain various desired objectives?

Process Questions (ctd)

• How can the effects of instruction be evaluated

• How can objectives, subject matters, learning activities, teaching strategies & evaluative measures be organised & interrelated so as to encourage learning?

The Process Components of Curriculum

Although there are different emphasis and priorities most curriculum planners will use specific components, even if they are used in a different order. They include:

What? (objectives/outcomes)How? (use of specific learning activities)When? (organizing/sequencing learning

activities)So what? (checking on what has been learnt)

Objectives

Selecting learning experiences

Organizing learning experiences

Evaluation

What educational goals should the school seek to attain?

How can learning experiences be selected which are likely to be useful in attaining these objectives.

How can learning experiences be organized for effective instruction?

How can the effectiveness of learning experiences be evaluated?

Ralph Tyler’s principles

Tyler rationale for curriculum

Curriculum sources

Student Contemporary society

Subject matter

Tentative general objectives

Screens

Philosophy of education

Philosophy of learning

Precise instructional objectives

Objectives for Curriculum

How do we know which ones to select?What do we use as our sources?

Do we derive our objectives from:• What we know of the learners.• What we consider are important life skills• What subject specialists tell us is important.• Our philosophy of teaching and education.• Our understanding about how children learn.

Some educators use very specific objectives termed behavioural objectives. Students have to do observable activities (e.g. to list, add, demonstrate) under certain conditions (e.g. using only certain equipment, time limits) and to an acceptable level of performance (e.g. in time taken, accuracy).

Instructional objectives are not as specific. They provide some criteria for teachers to use in terms of:

• Scope• Suitability• Validity• Feasibility

Example

The objectives for a topic might focus on a problem

Or They could be based on particular

concepts taken from a discipline.

Which is preferable? Why

Consider the following examples:

How is pollution being controlled in the Singapore River?

Give examples of erosion and deposition which occurs along the northern coast of Singapore?

Outcome statements

They are now widely used in many countries.Some special characteristics include:• They concentrate upon outputs rather

than inputs.• They are broad descriptions of student

competencies not connected to specific content or teaching

• They reflect long term learning of significances beyond school.

Health & Physical Education example

The student understands how factors influence personal health behaviours and how to appraise their own and others’ health, safety and physical activity practices (Strand Outcome Statement).

Science example

The student demonstrates an awareness that energy is present in daily life (Foundation Outcome Statement).

Deciding upon Learning Activities & Content

Deciding upon these is very important and includes:

• The physical arrangement of the classroom.

• The modes of instruction the teacher will use.

• The ways in which the student activities are organized and coordinated.

Physical arrangement of classroom/learning environment

• What is the pattern of furniture and space?

• Does this pattern aid student learning?• How easy is student and teacher

movement?• How effectively is shared space used?

Modes of InstructionTeacher directed/student-centered emphasis in lessons

Modes of instruction

Intro Major activity

Concl Teacher role

Students role

Organization mode

Lecturing/Teacher talks

T T T Presents information

Listen and respond

Total class

Practice drills

T T/P T Repeats examples until skill mastered

Respond and practice

Total class/Small groups

Directed questioning

T T/P T Presents questions

Respond with answer, occasional questions

Total class/small groups/ individual

Teacher directed/student-centred emphasis in lessons

Modes of Instruction


Intro

Major activity

Concl

Teacher role

Students role

Organization mode

Discussion T T/P T Questions, listens, responds

Listen, respond, question

Total class/Small groups/Individual

Demonstration

T P T/P Presents information materials

Observe, listen, practise

Total class/Small groups

Problem solving/inquiry

T P T/P Directs activities

Engage in activities

Small groups/individual

Teacher directed/student-centred emphasis in lessons

Modes of Instruction


Intro

Major activity

Concl Teacher role

Students role

Organization mode

Role playing, simulation games

T P T/P Introduces, monitors

Participate/Act out

Small groups

Small group activity

T P T/P Introduces, supervisors

Participate, interact, report

Small groups

Independent study

P P P Facilitates, monitors

Initiates, engages in activities

Individual

T = Teacher directedP = Pupil centred

Organizing/Sequencing Learning Activities

Although many teachers contend that they know intuitively which modes of instruction/learning experiences to select and how to sequence them, the following are useful reminders:

Organizing/Sequencing Learning Activities

• All students learn differently and therefore teachers should select from a wide variety so that they don’t disadvantage some students.

• No single approach is better than another.• The learning experience used must be broad

enough to achieve the teaching objectives/objectives.

• The learning experiences should be appropriate to students’ interests and abilities.

Methods of sequencing the content

• Integration - arranging content for learning activities that builds upon what has been learnt in other subjects.

• Manageably sized units - breaking the content and learning experiences into manageable steps to facilitate learning.

• Simple to complex - present simple ideas before complex ones are used.

Commonly Used Assessment Techniques

Techniques Diagnostic Formative Summative

Informal observing and recording of student behaviour

Anecdotal recordsCase historiesCheck listsRating scales by teacherUnobtrusive techniques

Anecdotal recordsCase histories

Check listsRating scales by teacherUnobtrusive techniques

Anecdotal recordsCase historiesCheck listsRating scales by teacherUnobtrusive techniques



Informal collecting of information from students

InterestinventoriesRating scales by studentsQuestionnairesInterviewsSociogramsSelf-reports





Analysis of student work examples

Individual and group projectsContent analysis of work booksLogbooks and journalsPortfolios





Testing of students

Objective testStandardised testsEssay testsSemantic differentialsAttitude scalesSimulation and role playsProjective techniques

Objective testsStandardised testsEssay testsSemantic differentialsAttitude scalesSimulation and role playsProjective techniques

Objective testsStandardised testsEssay testsSemantic differentialsAttitude scalesSimulation and role playsProjective techniques

Planning in Curriculum: Is there a best way?• The logical planning steps are to start

with objectives/outcomes and then go to learning activities and evaluation.

• Planners can start at any point and work forwards or backwards. For example, start with a particular assessment and use this as your focus.

• Curriculum planning is like doing a jigsaw puzzle.

Documents

Marsh Philosophy of Curriculum Evaluation Development Sep06