Philosophy of curriculum evaluation development
Prof. Colin J MarshCurtin University
The focus will be upon:
• What is curriculum?• Process components of curriculum.
What is curriculum?
Session 1
What does the term mean? Is it simply using whatever means to
achieve desirable ends? But then complications emerge:
• What should be included in the curriculum for schools?
• Who decides what should count?• Who controls the selection?• How do we know if the curriculum has been
learned?
Consider the following statements and indicate whether you agree or disagree with them:
• The curriculum should stress societal needs overindividual needs.
• Not all subject matters are created equal.• Curriculum should focus on personal purpose: the
need for personal integration.• Curriculum should provide the tools for individual
survival in an unstable and changing world.• The established disciplines of knowledge are
essential.• The curriculum materials, when used by intended
learners, should produce specified learning competencies.
• Curriculum should reflect current real-life situations.
Agree Disagree
Definition 1
Curriculum is such “permanent” subjects as grammar, reading, logic, rhetoric, mathematics, and the great books that best embody essential knowledge.
Reflection
Many curriculum frameworks are based on this approach
Problems• It is limited to only academic subjects• It assumes that the state of knowledge
doesn’t change
Definition 2
Curriculum is those subjects that are most useful for living in contemporary society.
Reflection• It focuses on the here and now• It doesn’t preclude students from making
their own choices
Problems• It assumes that what is contemporary is
better than what is long-lasting.• It encourages students to accommodate
to society rather than trying to improve it.
Definition 3
Curriculum is all planned learnings for which the school is responsible
Reflection• It includes all written documents and
ideas about what students should know• It is a commonly held view of curriculum
Problems• It assumes that what is studied is what
is learned• It may cause teachers to simply select
those planned learnings which are easiest to achieve
• Does this exclude unplanned learnings?
Definition 4
Curriculum cannot be described by its outward features, but rather by the point of view of the thinking from which it springs. A curriculum is something to be felt rather than something to be seen.
Reflection• It has an important emphasis on
experiencing a curriculum.
Problems• How do you decide what to include?• Would this lead to major variations
between schools?
Definition 5
Curriculum is all the experiences learners have under the guidance of the school
Reflection• It is assumed that the curriculum is the sum of
the meanings students experience as they engage in the activities of the school
• It includes both planned and unplanned experiences
Problems• It provides no basis for differentiating between
desirable & undesirable experiences• It may make the tasks of the school impossibly
broad
Definition 6
Curriculum is questioning of areas of authority and searching for more complex views of human situations
Reflection• It suggests the need to develop new
terms and new ways of thinking (post modern forms of thinking).
• It encourages students to question claims to truth.
Problems• Is a solid knowledge background needed
before questioning occurs?• Is it too general, too vague?
Definition 7
Curriculum is what the student constructs from working with the computer and its various networks (Internet, World Wide Web).
Reflection• Students use computers as part of the
natural landscape.• It encourages students to make their
own meaning.
Problems• Not all students have the same levels of
access.• Web-based orientations may be biased.
Definition 8
Curriculum is the totality of learning experiences provided to learners so that they can attain general skills and knowledge at a variety of learning sites
Reflection• It emphasizes other learning sites in
addition to schools.• It highlights generic skills and being
flexible.
Problems.• It can lead to an emphasis upon a large
number of outcomes and highly specific requirements.
• It has a vocational emphasis.
Definition 9
Curriculum is all the experiences that learners have in the course of living
Reflection• It places emphasis on the personal and social
character of curriculum• It emphasizes the individual’s own capacity to
direct his/her own life.
Problems• It makes no distinction between what happens in
school and what happens in life generally• It suggests that school has no special
responsibilities for curriculum• Who decides the course of individual lives?
Review of Definitions
• Are there any diverse values implicit in these definitions?
• Does any particular definition gives rise to problems & questions?
A Working Definition (Marsh & Willis, 2003)
Curriculum is an interrelated set of plans and activities that a student experiences under the guidance of the school
Points to note about this definition:
• The curriculum is an amalgam of planned & unplanned activities
• Importance of both teachers & students• Students ‘experience’ the curriculum• Under the guidance of the school refers to a
wide range of activities within and out of class
My definition
Curriculum is…
Hidden Curriculum (Jackson, 1968)
• the social requirements of learning at school are often hidden
• three elements of the hidden curriculum are:- the crowded nature of the classroom- contradictory allegiances required of teachers & peers- unequal power relations of teachers over students
Hidden Curriculum (ctd)
• Hidden curriculum “involved the learning of attitudes, norms, beliefs, values & assumptions often expressed as rules, rituals & regulations” (Seddon, 1983)
• These rules, rituals & regulations are rarely questioned & are just taken for granted
Examples of Hidden Curriculum
• arrangement of time, facilities & materials
• kinds & frequency of examinations• grading & assessments systems• texts treated as the most authoritative
sources of knowledge• arrangement of school subjects &
timetable• school uniform requirements
Null Curriculum (Eisner, 1979)
• what schools do not teach is as important as what they do teach
• certain intellectual processes and subject ideas can be either present or absent in a school curriculum
Null Curriculum (Intellectual Processes)
• in most schools the intellectual processes which are emphasized are cognitive processes involving use of words & numbers
• there are other intellectual processes which are non verbal & non-rule abiding
• these modes of thought operate in the visual, auditory, metamorphic & poetic ways
• these processes are reflected in schools
Null Curriculum (content or subject matter)
• most schools teach virtually the same subject matter – they maintain a tradition
• subjects that are part of a tradition are there because they create predictability, & they sustain stability
• subjects that are given little or no time include the visual arts, music.
Syllabus
• is typically a listing of content to be taught in a single course
• it sometimes includes a small number of general aims & objectives
• it provides detailed information to teachers about what is to be taught
• a syllabus can be subscribed in a curriculum
Curriculum Guide
• typically includes a listing of content but also aims, objectives, specific materials & activities, possible experiences & forms of evaluation
• it can be for one course or a series of courses
Fundamental process elements of curriculum
Content – this may be depicted as topics, themes or concept maps
Purpose – usually categorised as intellectual, social & personal purposes of
schoolingOrganisation – planning is based upon
scope & sequence (Walker, 1990)
Session 2
Fraenkel’s (1980) process questions
• what information, skills, attitudes & values are students to learn and why?
• what characteristics do students possess? What have they already learned? How might these prior learnings & characteristics affect further learning?
• what particular information shall students study? Why? How might this be information be organised?
Process Questions (ctd)
• what kinds of learning activities can help students learn or acquire various knowledge, skills, attitudes, values? How might these learning experiences be organised?
• what kinds of teacher operations can help students attain various desired objectives?
Process Questions (ctd)
• How can the effects of instruction be evaluated
• How can objectives, subject matters, learning activities, teaching strategies & evaluative measures be organised & interrelated so as to encourage learning?
The Process Components of Curriculum
Although there are different emphasis and priorities most curriculum planners will use specific components, even if they are used in a different order. They include:
What? (objectives/outcomes)How? (use of specific learning activities)When? (organizing/sequencing learning
activities)So what? (checking on what has been learnt)
Objectives
Selecting learning experiences
Organizing learning experiences
Evaluation
What educational goals should the school seek to attain?
How can learning experiences be selected which are likely to be useful in attaining these objectives.
How can learning experiences be organized for effective instruction?
How can the effectiveness of learning experiences be evaluated?
Ralph Tyler’s principles
Tyler rationale for curriculum
Curriculum sources
Student Contemporary society
Subject matter
Tentative general objectives
Screens
Philosophy of education
Philosophy of learning
Precise instructional objectives
Objectives for Curriculum
How do we know which ones to select?What do we use as our sources?
Do we derive our objectives from:• What we know of the learners.• What we consider are important life skills• What subject specialists tell us is important.• Our philosophy of teaching and education.• Our understanding about how children learn.
Some educators use very specific objectives termed behavioural objectives. Students have to do observable activities (e.g. to list, add, demonstrate) under certain conditions (e.g. using only certain equipment, time limits) and to an acceptable level of performance (e.g. in time taken, accuracy).
Instructional objectives are not as specific. They provide some criteria for teachers to use in terms of:
• Scope• Suitability• Validity• Feasibility
Example
The objectives for a topic might focus on a problem
Or They could be based on particular
concepts taken from a discipline.
Which is preferable? Why
Consider the following examples:
How is pollution being controlled in the Singapore River?
Give examples of erosion and deposition which occurs along the northern coast of Singapore?
Outcome statements
They are now widely used in many countries.Some special characteristics include:• They concentrate upon outputs rather
than inputs.• They are broad descriptions of student
competencies not connected to specific content or teaching
• They reflect long term learning of significances beyond school.
Health & Physical Education example
The student understands how factors influence personal health behaviours and how to appraise their own and others’ health, safety and physical activity practices (Strand Outcome Statement).
Science example
The student demonstrates an awareness that energy is present in daily life (Foundation Outcome Statement).
Deciding upon Learning Activities & Content
Deciding upon these is very important and includes:
• The physical arrangement of the classroom.
• The modes of instruction the teacher will use.
• The ways in which the student activities are organized and coordinated.
Physical arrangement of classroom/learning environment
• What is the pattern of furniture and space?
• Does this pattern aid student learning?• How easy is student and teacher
movement?• How effectively is shared space used?
Modes of InstructionTeacher directed/student-centered emphasis in lessons
Modes of instruction
Intro Major activity
Concl Teacher role
Students role
Organization mode
Lecturing/Teacher talks
T T T Presents information
Listen and respond
Total class
Practice drills
T T/P T Repeats examples until skill mastered
Respond and practice
Total class/Small groups
Directed questioning
T T/P T Presents questions
Respond with answer, occasional questions
Total class/small groups/ individual
Teacher directed/student-centred emphasis in lessons
Modes of Instruction
Modes of instruction
Intro
Major activity
Concl
Teacher role
Students role
Organization mode
Discussion T T/P T Questions, listens, responds
Listen, respond, question
Total class/Small groups/Individual
Demonstration
T P T/P Presents information materials
Observe, listen, practise
Total class/Small groups
Problem solving/inquiry
T P T/P Directs activities
Engage in activities
Small groups/individual
Teacher directed/student-centred emphasis in lessons
Modes of Instruction
Modes of instruction
Intro
Major activity
Concl Teacher role
Students role
Organization mode
Role playing, simulation games
T P T/P Introduces, monitors
Participate/Act out
Small groups
Small group activity
T P T/P Introduces, supervisors
Participate, interact, report
Small groups
Independent study
P P P Facilitates, monitors
Initiates, engages in activities
Individual
T = Teacher directedP = Pupil centred
Organizing/Sequencing Learning Activities
Although many teachers contend that they know intuitively which modes of instruction/learning experiences to select and how to sequence them, the following are useful reminders:
Organizing/Sequencing Learning Activities
• All students learn differently and therefore teachers should select from a wide variety so that they don’t disadvantage some students.
• No single approach is better than another.• The learning experience used must be broad
enough to achieve the teaching objectives/objectives.
• The learning experiences should be appropriate to students’ interests and abilities.
Methods of sequencing the content
• Integration - arranging content for learning activities that builds upon what has been learnt in other subjects.
• Manageably sized units - breaking the content and learning experiences into manageable steps to facilitate learning.
• Simple to complex - present simple ideas before complex ones are used.
Commonly Used Assessment Techniques
Techniques Diagnostic Formative Summative
Informal observing and recording of student behaviour
Anecdotal recordsCase historiesCheck listsRating scales by teacherUnobtrusive techniques
Anecdotal recordsCase histories
Check listsRating scales by teacherUnobtrusive techniques
Anecdotal recordsCase historiesCheck listsRating scales by teacherUnobtrusive techniques
Commonly Used Assessment Techniques
Techniques Diagnostic Formative Summative
Informal collecting of information from students
InterestinventoriesRating scales by studentsQuestionnairesInterviewsSociogramsSelf-reports
InterestinventoriesRating scales by studentsQuestionnairesInterviewsSociogramsSelf-reports
InterestinventoriesRating scales by studentsQuestionnairesInterviewsSociogramsSelf-reports
Commonly Used Assessment Techniques
Techniques Diagnostic Formative Summative
Analysis of student work examples
Individual and group projectsContent analysis of work booksLogbooks and journalsPortfolios
Individual and group projectsContent analysis of work booksLogbooks and journalsPortfolios
Individual and group projectsContent analysis of work booksLogbooks and journalsPortfolios
Commonly Used Assessment Techniques
Techniques Diagnostic Formative Summative
Testing of students
Objective testStandardised testsEssay testsSemantic differentialsAttitude scalesSimulation and role playsProjective techniques
Objective testsStandardised testsEssay testsSemantic differentialsAttitude scalesSimulation and role playsProjective techniques
Objective testsStandardised testsEssay testsSemantic differentialsAttitude scalesSimulation and role playsProjective techniques
Planning in Curriculum: Is there a best way?• The logical planning steps are to start
with objectives/outcomes and then go to learning activities and evaluation.
• Planners can start at any point and work forwards or backwards. For example, start with a particular assessment and use this as your focus.
• Curriculum planning is like doing a jigsaw puzzle.