Mastering Criminal Law

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Carolina Academic Press Mastering SeriesRussell Weaver, Series Editor

Mastering BankruptcyGeorge W. Kuney

Mastering Civil ProcedureDavid Charles Hricik

Mastering Criminal LawEllen S. Podgor, Peter J. Henning, Neil P. Cohen

Mastering EvidenceRonald W. Eades

Mastering Legal Analysis and CommunicationsDavid Ritchie

Mastering Products LiabilityRonald W. Eades

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Mastering Criminal Law

Ellen S. PodgorAssociate Dean of Faculty Development &

Electronic EducationProfessor of Law

Stetson University College of Law

Peter J. HenningProfessor of Law

Wayne State University Law School

Neil P. CohenRetired Distinguished Service Professor &

W.P. Toms Professor of LawUniversity of Tennessee College of Law

Carolina Academic PressDurham, North Carolina

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Copyright © 2008 Ellen S. Podgor, Peter J. Henning, and Neil P. CohenAll Rights Reserved.

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication DataPodgor, Ellen S., 1952–

Mastering criminal law / by Ellen S. Podgor, Peter J. Henning, Neil P.Cohen.

p. cm. — (Carolina Academic Press mastering series)Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 978-1-59460-337-2 (alk. paper)

1. Criminal law—United States. 2. Criminal law. I. Henning, Peter J.II. Cohen, Neil P. III. Title. IV. Series.

KF9219.P63 2008345,73—dc22 2008005012

Carolina Academic Press700 Kent Street

Durham, NC 27701Telephone (919) 489-7486

Fax (919) 493-5668www.cap-press.com

Printed in the United States of America

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Dedicated to —

Ben(esp)

&

Philip, Thomas, Edward, and Nancy(pjh)

&

Ella Florence Cohen and Molly Mae Cohen —welcome to a family that loves you dearly and

a Papa who can’t wait to hear your jokes(npc)

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Contents

Series Editor’s Foreword xxix

Preface xxxi

Chapter 1 · Introduction to Criminal Law 3Roadmap 3A. Introduction 3B. Distinguished from Civil Claims 4

1. Harmful Conduct 42. Underlying Purpose 43. The Victim 54. Remedies 55. Names of Parties 66. Procedures 6

C. Elements of a Crime 71. Actus Reus 72. Mens Rea 73. Circumstances 84. Harm 85. Causation 96. An Illustration 9

D. Constitutional Limits 101. First Amendment 102. Equal Protection 10

E. Classification of Crimes 101. Felony and Misdemeanor 102. Degrees of Crimes 113. Malum in Se and Malum Prohibitum 114. Moral Turpitude 125. Effect of Classification of Crimes 126. Administrative Sanctions 13

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F. Sources of Criminal Law 131. Common Law 13

a. Historical Status 13b. Relevance Today 14

2. Statutes 143. Administrative Crimes 154. Other Sources 155. Model Penal Code 16

G. Jurisdiction 161. Federal 172. Territorial 17

H. Participants in the Criminal Justice System 181. Investigators 182. Prosecutors 183. Defense Counsel 194. Judges 195. Jury Trial 206. Victims 207. Probation Office 21

I. The Process of a Criminal Case 211. Prosecutorial Discretion 212. Complaint or Information 223. Preliminary Hearing 224. Grand Jury 225. Arraignment 236. Motion Practice 237. Plea Bargain 248. Trial Rights 249. Jury Instructions 24

10. Double Jeopardy 2511. Appeal 2512. Remedy 26

Checkpoints 27

Chapter 2 · Interpretation and Constitutionality 29Roadmap 29A. General Rules of Statutory Interpretation 29

1. Generally 292. Plain Meaning 303. Legislative Intent 30

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4. Ejusdem Generis 315. Expressio Unius Est Exclusio Alterius 316. Precedent 317. Policy Considerations 318. Textual v. Dynamic Approach 32

B. Interpreting Criminal Laws 321. Common Law 322. Model Penal Code 32

C. Specific Rules Applicable to Criminal Law Interpretation 331. Rule of Lenity 332. Extraterritorial Application 34

D. Constitutional Constraints 341. Generally 342. Vagueness 343. Federalism 354. Right to Privacy 355. Cruel and Unusual Punishment 356. Ex Post Facto 357. Bill of Attainder 36

Checkpoints 36

Chapter 3 · Sentencing 37Roadmap 37A. Sentencing: In General 37B. Theories of Punishment 38

1. Rehabilitation 382. Retribution 383. Deterrence 394. Incapacitation 405. Education (or Expressive Sanctioning) 406. Restitution 417. Restorative Justice 41

C. Constitutional Limits on Sentences 421. Equal Protection 422. Cruel and Unusual Punishment 423. Sentencing Models 43

a. Determinate and Indeterminate 43b. Sentencing Guidelines 44

D. Actors in the Assignment of Sentences 451. Legislature 45

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2. Judge 453. Jury 454. Prosecutor 475. Victim 47

E. Sentencing Procedures 481. Guilty Plea 482. Sentencing Hearing 49

F. Sentencing Options 501. Diversion 502. Financial: Fines, Restitution, and Court and Similar Costs 50

a. Fine 50b. Restitution 50c. Court and Related Costs 51d. Ability to Pay 51

3. Probation 514. Community Service 525. House Arrest 526. Halfway House 537. Incarceration 53

G. Death Penalty 531. Background: Before Furman 532. Furman v. Georgia 543. Post-Furman Supreme Court Developments 554. Limits on Death Penalty 55

a. Type of Crime 55b. Defendants 56

5. Death Penalty Procedures 57a. Bifurcation 57b. Aggravating and Mitigating Circumstances 57c. Role of Trial Judge and Jury 58d. Role of Victim 58e. Appellate Review 58

6. Continuing Debate 58H. Parole and Supervised Release 59I. Executive Clemency 60Checkpoints 61

Chapter 4 · Actus Reus 63Roadmap 63A. Actus Reus, Voluntary Acts, and Omissions: In General 63

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B. Voluntary Act 64C. Omission to Act When There Was a Legal Duty to Act 64

1. Requirement of a Duty to Act 652. No General Legal Duty to Aid 653. Sources of Duty to Aid 65

a. Common Law Duty 65b. Contractual Duty 66c. Statutory Duty 66

4. Awareness of Duty 665. Reasonable Limits on What Action Is Required 66

D. Special Issue: Possession 67E. Special Issue: Vicarious Liability 67F. Common Law and Model Penal Code Compared 68G. Status Crimes: Robinson and Powell 68Checkpoints 69

Chapter 5 · Mens Rea 71Roadmap 71A. Introduction 71

1. Definition 712. Role of Mens Rea 713. Proof of Mens Rea 724. Role of Motive 72

B. Construction of Mens Rea Elements 731. Precise Mens Rea Often Unclear 732. Model Penal Code Rules of Construction 74

C. Varieties of Mens Rea 741. Model Penal Code’s Revolutionary Formulation 752. General/Specific Criminal Intent 75

D. Intentionally (Purposely, With Intent To, Sometimes Willfully) 761. Intentionally and Knowingly 77

a. Willfully 77b. Definition 77c. Model Penal Code Definition 78

2. Transferred Intent (or Bad Shot Doctrine) 783. Proof of Intent: Motive 794. Proof of Intent: Presumptions 79

E. Knowingly 801. What Must Be Known 802. How Certain is Knowledge: Model Penal Code Definition 81

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3. Deliberate Indifference (or the Ostrich Problem) 82F. Recklessly 82G. Criminal Negligence 83

1. Rationale 842. Definition 843. Model Penal Code Definition 84

H. Strict Liability 851. Rationale for Strict Liability Crimes 862. Model Penal Code 86

I. Vicarious and Corporate Liability 861. Vicarious Liability 862. Corporate Liability 87

a. Historical Development 87b. Model Penal Code Comparison 88

J. Ignorance and Mistake 881. Mistake or Ignorance Negates Mens Rea 882. Not Negativing Mens Rea – General Intent Crimes 893. Ignorance of Illegality 894. Crime as Facts or Law Thought to Be 905. Lambert v. California 906. Law Not Accessible 917. Reliance Upon Official Statement 918. Reliance Upon Advice of Private Lawyer 92

Checkpoints 93

Chapter 6 · Causation 95Roadmap 95A. Overview and Policy Basis 95

1. Policy Basis 952. Proof Issues 96

B. Two Varieties: “But For” and Proximate Cause 96C. “But For” or “Actual” or “Cause-in-Fact” Causation 96

1. Acceleration of Death 972. More Than One Cause: Substantial Factor 973. Concurrent Causes 98

D. Proximate Cause 981. Very Minor Effect 992. Different Victim Than Intended 993. Unexpected Result from Negligence or Recklessness 99

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4. Multiple Causes: Dependent and Independent Intervening Causes 100a. Independent Intervening Cause 100b. Dependent Intervening Cause 101

i. Poor Medical Care 101ii. Pre-Existing Medical Condition 102iii. Harm by Third Person 102iv. Victim’s Own Actions 103

E. Model Penal Code and Common Law Compared 1031. Different Actual Result 1032. Same Actual Result 1043. Special Rule for Strict Liability 105

Checkpoints 105

Chapter 7 · Burden of Proof 107Roadmap 107A. Terminology: Different Burdens 107

1. Standard of Proof 1072. Burden of Production 1083. Burden of Persuasion 108

B. Overview of Parties’ Burdens 108C. Prosecution Must Prove Each Element Beyond

a Reasonable Doubt 1091. Due Process Requirement of Prosecution’s Burden 1092. Definition of Reasonable Doubt 1093. Venue, Jurisdiction, and Statute of Limitations 110

a. Venue and Jurisdiction 110b. Statute of Limitations 110

D. Flexibility in Burden of Proof of Defenses 1111. Flexibility Among Jurisdictions 1112. Defenses, Affirmative Defenses, and Exceptions 1123. Defenses that Negate a Mens Rea Element 113

E. Sentencing 113F. Model Penal Code 114G. Presumptions 114

1. Conclusive and Rebuttable Presumptions 1152. Permissive Inference (or Permissive Presumption) 116

Checkpoints 117

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Chapter 8 · Homicide and Related Crimes 119Roadmap 119A. Homicide and Related Crimes: In General 119B. Object of Homicide 120

1. Both Killer and Victim Must Be Human Beings 1202. Traditional View: Victim Must Have Been Born Alive 1203. Pre-Birth Killings 121

C. Definition of Death 1221. Traditional View: Natural Heartbeat and Breathing 1222. Brain Death 123

D. Special Causation Rule: Year and a Day 123E. Different Approaches to Homicide 124F. Overview of Common Law and Traditional American Models 125

1. Common Law Approach 1252. Traditional American Approach 125

a. Text of 1794 Pennsylvania Murder Law 125b. Murder v. Manslaughter 126

G. Definition of Malice Aforethought 1261. Intent to Kill 1272. Intent to Do Serious Bodily Injury 1283. Commission of a Felony (Felony Murder Rule) 1284. Depraved Heart Carelessness 128

H. Categories of Traditional Homicide: Overview 1291. First Degree Murder: In General 1292. Second Degree Murder: In General 1293. Voluntary Manslaughter: In General 1294. Involuntary Manslaughter: In General 129

I. Schematic Summary of Traditional Homicide 130J. Murder 130

1. First Degree Murder: Wilful, Deliberate, and Premeditated Killing 130a. Wilful, Deliberate, and Premeditated: In General 131b. Wilful 131c. Deliberate 131d. Premeditate 132e. Poison or Lying in Wait 133

i. Relationship to Wilful, Deliberate, and Premeditated 133ii. Lying in Wait 134iii. Poison 134

f. Role of Motive 134

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2. First Degree Murder: Felony Murder (Listed Felony) 1353. Second Degree Murder 135

a. Intent to Kill (Without Premeditation and Deliberation) 136b. Intent to Do Serious Bodily Injury 136c. Depraved Heart 136d. Felony-Murder 138

4. Felony Murder 138a. Commission of Felony as Malice Aforethought 138b. Rationale for Felony Murder Rule 139c. Listed and Nonlisted Felonies 139d. Limits on Felony Murder: In General 140e. Merger (or Independent Felony Rule) 140f. Dangerous Felonies 141g. Causation (Res Gestae Rule) 143

i. Duration of Felony 143ii. Death of Co-Felon 144iii. Killing by Non-Felon 144

h. Differentiating Among Felons 145i. Reject Rule Entirely 145

K. Manslaughter 1461. Voluntary Manslaughter 146

a. Heat of Passion 147b. Insufficient Cooling Time 147c. Legally Sufficient Provocation 147d. Reasonable Person Would Be Provoked 149e. Defendant Actually Provoked 149

2. Involuntary Manslaughter 149a. Criminal Negligence 150b. Misdemeanor Manslaughter (Unlawful Act Doctrine) 151

L. Model Penal Code and Other Modern Criminal Statutes 1511. Overview of Model Penal Code Homicide Categories 1512. Schematic Summary of Model Penal Code

Homicide Provisions 1523. Model Penal Code Compared with Traditional American

Approach 152M. Vehicular Homicide 153N. Suicide and Assisting (or Aiding) or Attempting Suicide 154

1. Causing or Assisting Suicide 1542. Killing Another While Attempting Suicide 155

Checkpoints 155

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Chapter 9 · Rape and Other Sexual Offenses 157Roadmap 157A. Introduction 157B. Elements of Rape 157

1. Modern Statutes 1582. Sexual Intercourse 1583. Mens Rea 1584. Force or Threat 1595. Consent 160

a. Requirement of Consent 160b. Criticism of Consent Element 160c. Burden of Proof 160d. Verbal Resistance as Lack of Consent 161

C. Special Situations 1611. Acquaintance Rape 1612. Incapacity 1623. Fraud 163

a. Fraud in the Factum 163b. Fraud in the Inducement 163c. Impersonation 164

4. Marital Immunity 164D. Statutory Rape 164

1. Age Element 165a. Majority View: Strict Liability 165b. Minority View: Mistake Recognized 165

2. Scope of Liability 165E. Proving Rape 166

1. Prosecuting Rape 1662. Rape Shield Statutes 1663. Prior Sexual Assaults 167

F. Model Penal Code 168Checkpoints 169

Chapter 10 · Assault, Battery, and Related Offenses 171Roadmap 171A. Assault, Battery, and Related Offenses: In General 171B. Assault 172

1. Attempted Battery 1722. Frightening 172

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C. Battery 1731. Physical Harm 1732. Mens Rea 173

D. Modern Combined Offense: Model Penal Code 174E. Conditional Assaults and Batteries 175F. Aggravated Versions of Assault and Battery 175

1. Degree of Harm 1752. Especially Grave Intent 1753. Nature of Victim 1764. Especially Dangerous Means of Inflicting Harm 176

G. Special Defenses: Consent and Parental Authority 1771. Consent 1772. Parental and Teacher’s Privilege 177

H. Related Crimes: Reckless Endangerment, Mayhem, and Stalking 1781. Mayhem 1782. Reckless Endangerment 1783. Stalking 179

Checkpoints 180

Chapter 11 · Theft, Property Offenses, and Burglary 181Roadmap 181A. Overview 181

1. Historical Development of Theft and Related Crimes 1812. Modern Consolidated Theft Statutes 182

B. Terminology 1841. Custody 1842. Possession 1843. Ownership (Title) 1854. Abandoned 186

C. Larceny 1861. Trespass 1862. Taking 1863. Carrying Away (Asportation) 1874. Personal Property 187

a. Personal v. Real Property 187b. Animals 188c. Intangible Property; Services 188

5. Of Another 189a. Possession v. Ownership v. Custody 189b. Lost Property 190

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c. Employees and Bailees 190d. Illegal Possessor 192

6. Intent to Steal 192a. Claim of Right 192b. Permanent 193c. Continuing Trespass 193d. Single Larceny Doctrine 194

7. Valuing Property 194D. Larceny by Trick 195E. Embezzlement 196

1. Entrustment 1962. Conversion 1973. Fraud 1974. Larceny-Embezzlement Distinctions 198

F. False Pretenses 1981. False Pretenses v. Larceny by Trick 1982. Elements of False Pretenses 199

a. False Statement of Past or Present Fact 199i. Omission 199ii. Puffery 200b. Factual Statement Is Actually False 200c. Intent and Knowledge 200d. Reliance (Materiality) 201

G. Forgery 201H. Receiving Stolen Property 202

1. Receiving or Concealing 2022. Stolen Property 2023. Knowledge Property Was Stolen 2024. Intent to Deprive Owner 203

I. Robbery 2031. Definition 2032. Elements 203

a. Force or Threat of Immediate Force 203b. Timing of Use of Force 204c. Person or Presence of Victim 204

3. Aggravated Robbery 2054. Larceny From the Person 206

J. Extortion 206K. Burglary 207

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1. Definition 2072. Elements 208

a. Breaking 208b. Entering 208c. Dwelling 209d. Of Another 209e. At Night 210f. With Intent to Commit a Felony Therein 210

Checkpoints 211

Chapter 12 · Criminal Enterprises 213Roadmap 213A. Introduction 213B. RICO 214

1. Types of Violations 2142. Application of RICO 215

C. Street Gangs 2151. STEP 2162. Vagueness Challenge 216

D. Money Laundering 2171. Elements of § 1956 2172. Elements of § 1957 218

Checkpoints 219

Chapter 13 · Accomplice Liability 221Roadmap 221A. Introduction 221

1. Scope of Liability 2222. Aiding and Abetting 2223. Nature of Assistance 222

B. Common Law Divisions 2231. First Degree Principal 2232. Second Degree Principal 2243. Accessory Before the Fact 2244. Accessory After the Fact 2245. Procedural Rules 225

C. Modern Statutory Approach 2261. Historical Development 2262. Charging the Offense 2263. Multiple Defendants 227

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D. Actus Reus 2281. Nature of Assistance 2282. Mere Presence 228

E. Mens Rea 2291. Two Mens Rea Elements 2292. Knowledge Alone 2303. Greater Offense 2304. Natural and Probable Consequences 231

F. Abandonment 231G. Innocent Instrumentality and Exempt Participants 232

1. Innocent Instrumentality 2322. Exempt Participants 232

H. Model Penal Code 2331. Scope of Liability 2332. Innocent and Irresponsible Party 2343. Definition of Accomplice 2344. Agreement to Aid 2345. Attempting to Aid 2356. Purpose of Promoting or Facilitating Offense 236

a. Recklessness and Negligence 236b. Result Crime 236c. No Natural and Probable Consequences Doctrine 236

7. Abandonment 237Checkpoints 237

Chapter 14 · Solicitation 239Roadmap 239A. Introduction 239B. Historical Development 240C. Modern Statutes 240D. Punishment 240E. Elements 241

1. Actus Reus 241a. Indirect Assistance 241b. Innocent Instrumentality 241

2. Mens Rea 242F. Uncommunicated Solicitation 243G. Solicitation and Attempt 244H. Merger 244I. Defenses 245

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1. Renunciation and Entrapment 2452. Solicitor Cannot Be Convicted of Crime Solicited 245

Checkpoints 246

Chapter 15 · Attempt and Related Preparatory Crimes 247Roadmap 247A. In General 247

1. Terminology 2482. Rationale for Attempt 2483. Common Law and Modern Recognition 2484. Punishment for Attempt 249

a. General Rule: Lesser Punishment Than for Target Crime 249b. Minority Rule: Same Punishment as Target Crime 250

5. Attempt as Lesser Included Offense 2506. Relationship to Solicitation and Conspiracy 2517. Overview of Elements of Attempt 2518. Proof of Elements 252

B. Actus Reus of Attempt 2521. Preparation and Perpetration 2522. Tests of Conduct Sufficient for Attempt 254

a. Dangerous Proximity 254b. Last Act 254c. Indispensable Element 255d. Probable Desistance 255e. Unequivocality/Res Ipsa Loquitur 256f. Substantial Step 256

C. Mens Rea of Attempt 2571. Mens Rea Elements 257

a. Intent to Commit Target Offense 258b. Intent to Engage in the Conduct Constituting the Attempt 258c. Mens Rea for Target Crime 259

2. Illustration: Attempted Homicide 2593. Evidence of Mens Rea Elements 260

D. Impossibility 2611. Overlapping and Vague Categories 2612. Traditional Categories: Factual and Legal Impossibility 261

a. Factual Impossibility 261b. Legal Impossibility 262

i. Hybrid Legal Impossibility 262ii. “True” Legal Impossibility 263

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3. Elimination of Factual and Legal Impossibility 2644. Inherent Impossibility 264

E. Abandonment 2651. Common Law 265

a. Did Not Recognize Abandonment Defense 265b. Absence of Formal Abandonment Defense 265

2. Modern Statutes: Recognition of Abandonment Defense 266a. Voluntary 266b. Complete Abandonment 266c. Prevent Commission of Target Crime 267

F. Criminalizing Preparatory Conduct 2671. Communicating a Threat 2682. Possession of Burglary Tools 2683. Assault 269

a. Assault as Attempted Battery 269b. Assault as Frightening 269

G. Model Penal Code 2701. Actus Reus and Mens Rea 270

a. Done Everything Toward Completion 270b. Substantial Step 271

2. Aiding an Attempt 2723. Renunciation 2724. Impossibility Defense 272

Checkpoints 273

Chapter 16 · Conspiracy 275Roadmap 275A. Introduction 275

1. Danger of Group Criminality 2752. Historical Development 2763. Advantages to Prosecution 276

B. The Conspiratorial Agreement 2771. What Constitutes an Agreement 2772. Proof of Agreement 2773. Object of Conspiracy 2784. Accomplice Liability and Conspiracy 2795. No Merger of Conspiracy and Object Crime 279

C. Mens Rea of Conspiracy 2791. Intent to Agree 2792. Knowledge 280

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a. Scope of Knowledge 280b. Deliberate Indifference 281

3. Corrupt Motive 2814. Merchants and Suppliers 282

a. United States v. Falcone 282b. Factors 283c. Nature of Goods or Services 283

D. Overt Acts 284E. Parties to a Conspiracy 285

1. Plurality 2852. Verdict 2853. Inconsistent Verdicts 2864. Variance 2865. Types of Conspiracies 287

a. Scope of Agreement 287b. Hub-and-Spoke and Chain Conspiracies 288

F. Co-Conspirator Statements 2881. Not Excluded as Hearsay 2882. Standard of Proof 2893. Considering the Statement 2894. Timing of the Statement 2905. Pre-Existing Conspiracy 291

G. Limitations on Conspiracy 2911. Wharton’s Rule 2912. Protected Class of Victims 2923. Withdrawal and Abandonment 292

a. Withdrawal 292b. Abandonment and Renunciation 293

4. Impossibility 294H. Liability for Substantive Offenses 295

1. Scope of Liability 2952. Pinkerton Rule 2953. Limit on Liability 2964. Nature of Intent 2965. No Need to Charge Conspiracy 296

I. Model Penal Code 2971. Elements 2972. Mens Rea 2973. Members of a Conspiracy 297

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4. Unilateral 2985. Renunciation and Pinkerton 298

Checkpoints 299

Chapter 17 · Defenses in General, Alibi, and Entrapment 301Roadmap 301A. Overview 301

1. Policy Basis of Defenses 3012. Definition of “Defense” 3023. Multiple Defenses 3024. Burden and Standard of Proof 3035. Impact of Defenses 304

a. Complete Defense 304b. Partial Defense 304c. Negate Element of Crime 304

B. Justifications and Excuses 305C. Right to Present a Defense 306

1. Generally 3062. Exceptions to Right to Present a Defense 306

D. Cultural Defenses 307E. Alibi 308

1. What Is an Alibi? 3082. Notice of Intent to Use Alibi Defense 308

F. Entrapment 3091. Subjective Test 3102. Objective Test 3113. Entrapment by Estoppel 312

G. Outrageous Government Conduct 312Checkpoints 313

Chapter 18 · Defending Self, Others, and Property 315Roadmap 315A. Introduction 315B. Self-Defense 316

1. Introduction 3162. Elements of Self-Defense 316

a. Use or Threat of Imminent Physical Harm 317b. Unlawful Force Used or Threatened 318c. Honest and Reasonable Belief Force Was Necessary 318

i. Honest Belief Force Necessary 319

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ii. Reasonable Belief Force Necessary 320iii. Balancing Objective and Subjective 321

d. Proportionality 321i. Reasonable Amount of Force 322ii. Deadly and Non-Deadly Force 322

3. Imperfect Self-Defense 323a. Unreasonable Belief of Imminent Threat 323b. Unreasonable Amount of Force Used 324

4. Aggressor 324a. Denying Self-Defense 324b. Withdrawal 325c. Escalation 325

5. Retreat 326a. Safety 326b. Castle Doctrine 326c. Deadly Force 327d. Stand Your Ground Laws 327

6. Burden of Proof 3287. Model Penal Code 328

a. Belief 328b. Immediately Necessary 329c. Unlawful Force 329d. Deadly Force 330

C. Battered Spouse Syndrome 331D. Defense of Others 332

1. Common Law 333a. Relationship Requirement 333b. Act-At-Peril Rule 334

2. Reasonable Belief Rule 3343. Honest Belief Rule: Model Penal Code 335

E. Defense of Property and Habitation 3361. Elements 3362. Limitations 337

a. Police Seizure of Property 337b. Time Frame for Use of Force 337c. Reasonable Non-Deadly Force 338d. Deadly Force 338

i. Deadly Force Generally Barred 338ii. Expanded Use of Deadly Force 339

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3. Defense of Habitation 339a. Special Protection of Habitation 339b. Common Law 340c. Reasonable Belief of Harmful Conduct After Entry 340d. Demand 341

4. Spring Guns and Other Devices 3425. Model Penal Code 343

a. Non-Deadly Force 343b. Request to Desist 343c. Deadly Force 344

i. Habitation 344ii. Serious Felony 344

d. Spring Guns and Similar Devices 344F. Crime Prevention and Arrest 345

1. Crime Prevention 345a. Non-Deadly Force to Prevent Crime 345b. Deadly Force 345

i. Any Felony 345ii. Forcible Felonies 345

c. Model Penal Code 3462. Arrest 347

a. Police 347i. Authority to Arrest 347ii. Use of Force to Effectuate Arrest 347iii. Availability of Self-defense 349

b. Private Citizens 349i. Authority to Arrest 349ii. Use of Force 350

Checkpoints 351

Chapter 19 · Necessity and Duress 353Roadmap 353A. Generally 353B. Necessity 354

1. Common Law 3542. Economic Harm 3553. Balancing Harm 3554. Model Penal Code 3555. Civil Disobedience 355

C. Duress 356

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1. Elements 3562. Model Penal Code 357

Checkpoints 357

Chapter 20 · Competency, Insanity, and Diminished Capacity 359Roadmap 359A. Overview 359B. Competency 360

1. Tests of Competence 3602. Determining Competency 3613. Effect of Incompetence 361

C. Insanity 3621. Theoretical Basis for Insanity Defense 3622. Mental Disease or Defect 3633. Tests of Insanity 363

a. M’Naghten Test 364b. Irresistible Impulse Test 365c. Durham (Product) Test 365d. Model Penal Code (Substantial Capacity) Test 365

4. Procedural Issues in Insanity Defense 366a. Notice of Intent to Use Insanity Defense 366b. Burden of Proof 367c. Jury Issues 367d. Impact of Finding of Not Guilty By Reason of Insanity 368

5. Abolition of the Insanity Defense 368D. Diminished Capacity 369

1. Negating Mens Rea 3692. Diminished Capacity Defense 370

Checkpoints 371

Chapter 21 · Intoxication 373Roadmap 373A. Overview 373B. Common Law 374

1. Voluntary Intoxication 374a. Defined 374b. Negate an Element of the Crime 375

i. Actus Reus 375ii. Omission to Act 375iii. Mens Rea 375

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2. Involuntary Intoxication 376a. Defined 376b. Negate an Element of the Crime 376c. Insanity Defense 376d. Insanity-Like Defense 377

C. Rejecting or Limiting Intoxication 377D. Model Penal Code 378Checkpoints 379

Mastering Criminal Law Checklist 381

Index 385

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Series Editor’s ForewordThe Carolina Academic Press Mastering Series is designed to provide you

with a tool that will enable you to easily and efficiently “master” the substanceand content of law school courses. Throughout the series, the focus is on qual-ity writing that makes legal concepts understandable. As a result, the series isdesigned to be easy to read and is not unduly cluttered with footnotes or citesto secondary sources.

In order to facilitate student mastery of topics, the Mastering Series includesa number of pedagogical features designed to improve learning and retention.At the beginning of each chapter, you will find a “Roadmap” that tells youabout the chapter and provides you with a sense of the material that you willcover. A “Checkpoint” at the end of each chapter encourages you to stop andreview the key concepts, reiterating what you have learned. Throughout thebook, key terms are explained and emphasized. Finally, a “Master Checklist”at the end of each book reinforces what you have learned and helps you iden-tify any areas that need review or further study.

We hope that you will enjoy studying with, and learning from, the Mas-tering Series.

Russell L. WeaverProfessor of Law & Distinguished University ScholarUniversity of Louisville, Louis D. Brandeis School of Law

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Preface

It is not easy to capture all of criminal law in one relatively small book.With different state statutes, and also a federal system, it is difficult to includeall of the nuances in the law. The Model Penal Code has exerted a substantialinfluence on the development of state statutes, despite it not being adopted incomplete form by any jurisdiction. This book covers the major points that arediscussed in many criminal law courses. It is intended to provide an overviewof this important subject, as opposed to a resolution of a specific problem orcase. The authors hope that this book will offer students an easier road incomprehending the subject area of criminal law.

There are many to thank, including Brooklyn Law School, Santa Clara Uni-versity Law School, Stetson University College of Law, Wayne State UniversityLaw School, and Deans Darby Dickerson, Don Polden, Larry Solan, and JoanWexler. Also thanks go to research assistants Ross S. Felsher and Gordon J.Kirsch and from support services, Dianne Oeste, Shannon Mullins, Lisa Padla,Louise Petren, and Janice Strawn.

Ellen S. PodgorPeter J. HenningNeil P. CohenMarch, 2008

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