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UNIT – III

  RODUCTION ANALYSIS

 Introduction: Production is a process of converting an input into a more valuable

output. The analysis of demand is mainly used for planning the production process

and determining the level of production.

Definition:The processes  and methods  used to transform tangible  inputs (raw

materials, semi-finished goods, subassemblies) and intangible  inputs (ideas,

information, knowledge) into goods or services. Resources are used in this process

to create an output that is suitable for use or has echange value.

The production theory stresses the efficient use of inputs for producing the desired

output. This can be achieved either by using the minimum input to produce a

maimum output.

Production process includes! """"""

 """#c$uisition of capital resources

 """%fficient employment of these resources

 """Recruitment and training of employees

 """&ormal mechanical process of converting raw material into finished goods.

Production function:

The production function epresses a functional ' technological relationship between

physical inputs and physical outputs of a firm at any particular time period. The

output is thus a function of inputs. athematically production function can be

written as

* f (+, +, , / ,T)

0here 12 stands for the $uantity of output and +, +, , /, T are various input

factors such as land, labour, capital, organi3ation and technology. 4ere output is the

function of inputs. 4ence output becomes the dependent variable and inputs are the

independent variables.

The above function does not state by how much the output of 12 changes as a

conse$uence of change of variable inputs. 5n order to epress the $uantitative

relationship between inputs and output, Production function has been epressed in a

precise mathematical e$uation i.e.

Processing  5nput /utput

http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/process.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/method.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/tangible.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/raw-material.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/raw-material.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/semi-finished-good-SFG.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/subassembly.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/intangible.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/idea.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/information.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/knowledge.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/goods.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/services.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/resource.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/create.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/output.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/exchange-value.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/method.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/tangible.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/raw-material.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/raw-material.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/semi-finished-good-SFG.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/subassembly.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/intangible.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/idea.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/information.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/knowledge.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/goods.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/services.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/resource.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/create.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/output.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/exchange-value.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/process.html

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6* a7b()

0hich shows that there is a constant relationship between applications of input (the

only factor input 89: in this case) and the amount of output (y) produced.

 Importance:

. 0hen inputs are specified in physical units, production function helps to

estimate the level of production.

. 5t becomes is e$uates when different combinations of inputs yield the same

level of output.

;. 5t indicates the manner in which the firm can substitute on input for another

without altering the total output.

. The production function eplains the maimum $uantity of output, which can

be produced, from any chosen $uantities of various inputs or the minimum

$uantities of various inputs that are re$uired to produce a given $uantity of 

output.

Production function can be fitted the particular firm or industry or for the economy

as whole. Production function will change with an improvement in technology.

 Assumptions:

Production function has the following assumptions.

. The production function is related to a particular period of time.

. There is no change in technology.

;. The producer is using the best techni$ues available.

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. 0hen $uantities of certain inputs, are fied and others are variable and

. 0hen all inputs are variable.

These two types of relationships have been eplained in the form of laws.

i) +aw of variable proportions'/ne variable

ii) +aw of returns to scale'Two variable.

I. Production functions with one variable and law of returns:

The law of variable proportions which is a new name given to old classical concept of 

 1+aw of diminishing returns has played a vital role in the modern economics theory.

#ssume that a firms production function consists of fied $uantities of all inputs

(land, e$uipment, etc.) ecept labour which is a variable input when the firm

epands output by employing more and more labour it alters the proportion between

fied and the variable inputs. The law can be stated as follows!

 10hen total output or production of a commodity is increased by adding units of a

variable input while the $uantities of other inputs are held constant, the increase in

total production becomes after some point, smaller and smaller2.

 15f e$ual increments of one input are added, the inputs of other production services

being held constant, beyond a certain point the resulting increments of product will

decrease i.e. the marginal product will diminish2. (G. Stigler)

 1#s the proportion of one factor in a combination of factors is increased, after a

point, first the marginal and then the average product of that factor will diminish2.

(F. Benha)

The law of variable proportions refers to the behavior of output as the $uantity of 

one ?actor is increased @eeping the $uantity of other factors fied and further it

states that the marginal product and average product will eventually do cline. This

law states three types of productivity an input factor A Total, average and marginalphysical productivity.

 Assumptions of the Law ! The law is based upon the following assumptions!

i) The state of technology remains constant. 5f there is any improvement in

technology, the average and marginal output will not decrease but

increase.

ii) /nly one factor of input is made variable and other factors are kept

constant. This law does not apply to those cases where the factors mustbe used in rigidly fied proportions.

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iii) #ll units of the variable factors are homogenous.

Three stages of law:

The behaviors of the /utput when the varying $uantity of one factor is combineswith a fied $uantity of the other can be divided in to three district stages. The three

stages can be better understood by following the table

?ied factor Bariable factor

(+abour)

Total product #verage

Product

arginal

Product

CC CC - Dtage

5 C C C

; EC FC =C

< ;CC E= ;C Dtage55 = ;C >< C

> ;;C == C

E ;;C

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proportions operates in three stages. 5n the first stage, total product increases at an

increasing rate. The marginal product in this stage increases at an increasing rate

resulting in a greater increase in total product. The average product also increases.

This stage continues up to the point where average product is e$ual to marginal

product. The law of increasing returns is in operation at this stage. The law of diminishing returns starts operating from the second stage awards. #t the second

stage total product increases only at a diminishing rate. The average product also

declines. The second stage comes to an end where total product becomes maimum

and marginal product becomes 3ero. The marginal product becomes negative in the

third stage. Do the total product also declines. The average product continues to

decline.

0e can sum up the above relationship thus when 8#.P.: is rising, 1. P.: rises more

than 1 #. PI 0hen 8#. P.2 is maimum and constant, 8. P.: becomes e$ual to 8#. P.: 

when 8#. P.: starts falling, 8. P.: falls faster than 8 #. P.:.

Thus, the total product, marginal product and average product pass through three

phases, vi3., increasing diminishing and negative returns stage. The law of variable

proportion is nothing but the combination of the law of increasing and demising

returns.

II. !aw of "eturns of Scale: #production functions with two variable inputs

$law of returns:

The law of returns to scale eplains the behavior of the total output in response to

change in the scale of the firm, i.e., in response to a simultaneous to changes in the

scale of the firm, i.e., in response to a simultaneous and proportional increase in all

the inputs. ore precisely, the +aw of returns to scale eplains how a simultaneous

and proportionate increase in all the inputs affects the total output at its various

levels.

The concept of variable proportions is a short-run phenomenon as in these periodfied factors cannot be changed and all factors cannot be changed. /n the other

hand in the long-term all factors can be changed as made variable. 0hen we study

the changes in output when all factors or inputs are changed, we study returns to

scale. #n increase in the scale means that all inputs or factors are increased in the

same proportion. 5n variable proportions, the cooperating factors may be increased

or decreased and one faster (%.+and in agriculture (or) machinery in industry)

remains constant so that the changes in proportion among the factors result in

certain changes in output. 5n returns to scale all the necessary factors or production

are increased or decreased to the same etent so that whatever the scale of production, the proportion among the factors remains the same.

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0hen a firm epands, its scale increases all its inputs proportionally, then technically

there are three possibilities. (i) The total output may increase proportionately (ii)

The total output may increase more than proportionately and (iii) The total output

may increase less than proportionately. 5f increase in the total output is proportionalto the increase in input, it means constant returns to scale. 5f increase in the

output is greater than the proportional increase in the inputs, it means increasing

return to scale. 5f increase in the output is less than proportional increase in the

inputs, it means diminishing returns to scale.

+et us now eplain the laws of returns to scale with the help of iso$uants for a two-

input and single output production system.

IS%&'()TS

The term 5so$uants is derived from the words 8iso: and 8$uant: A 85so: means e$ual

and 8$uent: implies $uantity. 5so$uant therefore, means e$ual $uantity. # family of 

iso-product curves or iso$uants or production difference curves can represent a

production function with two variable inputs, which are substitutable for one another

within limits.

5$o$uants are the curves, which represent the different combinations of inputs

producing a particular $uantity of output. #ny combination on the iso$uant

represents the some level of output.

?or a given output level firm:s production become,

 

* f (+, )

0here 8:, the units of output is a function of the $uantity of two inputs 8+: and 8:.

Thus an iso$uant shows all possible combinations of two inputs, which are capable of 

producing e$ual or a given level of output. Dince each combination yields same

output, the producer becomes indifferent towards these combinations.

 Assumptions:

. There are only two factors of production, vi3. labour and capital.

. The two factors can substitute each other up to certain limit

;. The shape of the iso$uant depends upon the etent of substitutability of the

two inputs.

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ombinations +abour (units) apital (Jnits) /utput ($uintals)

# C =C

K E =C

; < =C

L < < =C% = =C

ombination 8#: represent unit of labour and C units of capital and produces 8=C: 

$uintals of a product all other combinations in the table are assumed to yield the

same given output of a product say 8=C: $uintals by employing any one of the

alternative combinations of the two factors labour and capital. 5f we plot all these

combinations on a paper and Hoin them, we will get continues and smooth curve

called 5so-product curve as shown below.

+abour is on the 9-ais and capital is on the 6-ais. 5 is the 5D/-Product curve

which shows all the alternative combinations #, K, , L, % which can produce =C

$uintals of a product.Features of iso*uant:

. Lownward sloping

. onve to origin

;. Lo not interest

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cost curves moves upwards and vice versa. #ny change in input prices changes the

scope of iso cost lines.

+obb,Douglas production function:

Production function of the linear homogenous type is invested by Muntwicksell and

first tested by . 0. obb and P. 4. Louglas in FG. This famous statistical

production function is known as obb-Louglas production function. /riginally the

function is applied on the empirical study of the #merican manufacturing industry.

obb A Louglas production function takes the following mathematical form.

6* (#@9 +-)

0here 6*output

@*apital

+*+abour

#, N*positive constant

 Assumptions:

5t has the following assumptions

. The function assumes that output is the function of two factors vi3. capital

and labour.

. 5t is a linear homogenous production function of the first degree

;. The function assumes that the logarithm of the total output of the economy is

a linear function of the logarithms of the labour force and capital stock.

. There is perfect competition

E. There is no change in technology

Producer-s *uilibriu:#!east cost cobination of inputs:

The tem producer:s e$uilibrium is the counter part of consumer:s e$uilibrium. Must as

the consumer is in e$uilibrium when be secures maimum satisfaction, in the same

manner, the producer is in e$uilibrium when he secures maimum output, with the

least cost cobination of factors of production.

The optimum position of the producer can be found with the help of iso-product

curve. The 5so-product curve or e$ual product curve or production indifference curve

shows different combinations of two factors of production, which yield the sameoutput. This is illustrated as follows.

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+et us suppose. The producer can produces the given output of paddy say CC

$uintals by employing any one of the following alternative combinations of the two

factors labour and capital computation of least cost combination of two inputs.

+

Jnits

@

Jnits

/utput

+O+P (;Rs.)

ost of

labour

@9@P( CC FC >< =<

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Production may be carried on a small scale or o a large scale by a firm. 0hen a firm

epands its si3e of production by increasing all the factors, it secures certain

advantages known as economies of production. arshall has classified these

economies of large-scale production into internal economies and eternaleconomies.

5nternal economies are those, which are opened to a single factory or a single firm

independently of the action of other firms. They result from an increase in the scale

of output of a firm and cannot be achieved unless output increases. 4ence internal

economies depend solely upon the si3e of the firm and are different for different

firms.

%ternal economies are those benefits, which are shared in by a number of firms or

industries when the scale of production in an industry or groups of industries

increases. 4ence eternal economies benefit all firms within the industry as the si3e

of the industry epands.

+auses of internal econoies:

5nternal economies are generally caused by two factors

  . 5ndivisibilities . Dpeciali3ation.

0. Indivisibilities

any fied factors of production are indivisible in the sense that they must be used

in a fied minimum si3e. ?or instance, if a worker works half the time, he may be

paid half the salary. Kut he cannot be chopped into half and asked to produce half 

the current output. Thus as output increases the indivisible factors which were being

used below capacity can be utili3ed to their full capacity thereby reducing costs.

Duch indivisibilities arise in the case of labour, machines, marketing, finance and

research.

1. Speciali2ation.

Livision of labour, which leads to speciali3ation, is another cause of internal

economies. Dpeciali3ation refers to the limitation of activities within a particular field

of production. Dpeciali3ation may be in labour, capital, machinery and place. ?or

eample, the production process may be split into four departments relation to

manufacturing, assembling, packing and marketing under the charge of separate

managers who may work under the overall charge of the general manger and

coordinate the activities of the for departments. Thus speciali3ation will lead to

greater productive efficiency and to reduction in costs.

Internal conoies:

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5nternal economies may be of the following types.

 A). Technical Economies.

Technical economies arise to a firm from the use of better machines and superior

techni$ues of production. #s a result, production increases and per unit cost of 

production falls. # large firm, which employs costly and superior plant and

e$uipment, enHoys a technical superiority over a small firm. #nother technical

economy lies in the mechanical advantage of using large machines. The cost of 

operating large machines is less than that of operating mall machine. ore over a

larger firm is able to reduce it:s per unit cost of production by linking the various

processes of production. Technical economies may also be associated when the large

firm is able to utili3e all its waste materials for the development of by-products

industry. Dcope for speciali3ation is also available in a large firm. This increases the

productive capacity of the firm and reduces the unit cost of production.

B). Managerial Economies:

These economies arise due to better and more elaborate management, which only

the large si3e firms can afford. There may be a separate head for manufacturing,

assembling, packing, marketing, general administration etc. %ach department is

under the charge of an epert. 4ence the appointment of eperts, division of 

administration into several departments, functional speciali3ation and scientific co-

ordination of various works make the management of the firm most efficient.

C). Marketing Economies:

The large firm reaps marketing or commercial economies in buying its re$uirements

and in selling its final products. The large firm generally has a separate marketing

department. 5t can buy and sell on behalf of the firm, when the market trends are

more favorable. 5n the matter of buying they could enHoy advantages like

preferential treatment, transport concessions, cheap credit, prompt delivery and finerelation with dealers. Dimilarly it sells its products more effectively for a higher

margin of profit.

). !inancial Economies:

The large firm is able to secure the necessary finances either for block capital

purposes or for working capital needs more easily and cheaply. 5t can barrow from

the public, banks and other financial institutions at relatively cheaper rates. 5t is in

this way that a large firm reaps financial economies.

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E). "isk #earing Economies:

The large firm produces many commodities and serves wider areas. 5t is, therefore,

able to absorb any shock for its eistence. ?or eample, during business depression,

the prices fall for every firm. There is also a possibility for market fluctuations in aparticular product of the firm. Jnder such circumstances the risk-bearing economies

or survival economies help the bigger firm to survive business crisis.

!). Economies of "esearch:

# large firm possesses larger resources and can establish it:s own research

laboratory and employ trained research workers. The firm may even invent new

production techni$ues for increasing its output and reducing cost.

$). Economies of welfare:

# large firm can provide better working conditions in-and out-side the factory.

?acilities like subsidi3ed canteens, crches for the infants, recreation room, cheap

houses, educational and medical facilities tend to increase the productive efficiency

of the workers, which helps in raising production and reducing costs.

3ternal conoies.

Kusiness firm enHoys a number of eternal economies, which are discussed below!

 A). Economies of Concentration:

0hen an industry is concentrated in a particular area, all the member firms reap

some common economies like skilled labour, improved means of transport and

communications, banking and financial services, supply of power and benefits from

subsidiaries. #ll these facilities tend to lower the unit cost of production of all thefirms in the industry.

B). Economies of Information

The industry can set up an information centre which may publish a Hournal and pass

on information regarding the availability of raw materials, modern machines, eport

potentialities and provide other information needed by the firms. 5t will benefit all

firms and reduction in their costs.

C). Economies of %elfare:

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#n industry is in a better position to provide welfare facilities to the workers. 5t may

get land at concessional rates and procure special facilities from the local bodies for

setting up housing colonies for the workers. 5t may also establish public health care

units, educational institutions both general and technical so that a continuous supplyof skilled labour is available to the industry. This will help the efficiency of the

workers

). Economies of isintegration:

The firms in an industry may also reap the economies of speciali3ation. 0hen an

industry epands, it becomes possible to spilt up some of the processes which are

taken over by specialist firms. ?or eample, in the cotton tetile industry, some firms

may speciali3e in manufacturing thread, others in printing, still others in dyeing,

some in long cloth, some in dhotis, some in shirting etc. #s a result the efficiency of 

the firms speciali3ing in different fields increases and the unit cost of production

falls.

Thus internal economies depend upon the si3e of the firm and eternal economies

depend upon the si3e of the industry.

DIS+%)%/IS %F !("G S+(! P"%D'+TI%)

5nternal and eternal diseconomies are the limits to large-scale production. 5t is

possible that epansion of a firm:s output may lead to rise in costs and thus result

diseconomies instead of economies. 0hen a firm epands beyond proper limits, it is

beyond the capacity of the manager to manage it efficiently. This is an eample of 

an internal diseconomy. 5n the same manner, the epansion of an industry may

result in diseconomies, which may be called eternal diseconomies. %mployment of 

additional factors of production becomes less efficient and they are obtained at a

higher cost. 5t is in this way that eternal diseconomies result as an industry

epands.

The maHor diseconomies of large-scale production are discussed below!Internal Diseconoies:

 A). !inancial iseconomies:

?or epanding business, the entrepreneur needs finance. Kut finance may not be

easily available in the re$uired amount at the appropriate time. +ack of finance

retards the production plans thereby increasing costs of the firm.

B). Managerial diseconomies:

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There are difficulties of large-scale management. Dupervision becomes a difficult

 Hob. 0orkers do not work efficiently, wastages arise, decision-making becomes

difficult, coordination between workers and management disappears and production

costs increase.

C). Marketing iseconomies:

#s business is epanded, prices of the factors of production will rise. The cost will

therefore rise. Raw materials may not be available in sufficient $uantities due to

their scarcities. #dditional output may depress the price in the market. The demand

for the products may fall as a result of changes in tastes and preferences of the

people. 4ence cost will eceed the revenue.

). Technical iseconomies:

There is a limit to the division of labour and splitting down of production pCrocesses.

The firm may fail to operate its plant to its maimum capacity. #s a result cost per

unit increases. 5nternal diseconomies follow.

E). iseconomies of "isk&taking:

#s the scale of production of a firm epands risks also increase with it. 0rong

decision by the management may adversely affect production. 5n large firms are

affected by any disaster, natural or human, the economy will be put to strains.

3ternal Diseconoies:

0hen many firm get located at a particular place, the costs of transportation

increases due to congestion. The firms have to face considerable delays in getting

raw materials and sending finished products to the marketing centers. The

locali3ation of industries may lead to scarcity of raw material, shortage of various

factors of production like labour and capital, shortage of power, finance and

e$uipment:s. #ll such eternal diseconomies tend to raise cost per unit.

QQQQQQQQQ