MemoryUnit 6

What is memory?

• The ability to remember the things that we have experienced, imagined, and learned

• Explained using Information Processing Model • Sensory Register- entry points for raw

information from the senses• Processes far more than we can “selectively

attend” to• Short Term/Working Memory- “selective

attention”• Long Term Memory- limitless memory bank

Sensory Registers • Iconic Memory• We hold images that we see very briefly in our

sensory register• Stare forward then quickly close your eyes-

image will remain in mind and then fades quickly• Sperling and the 12 letters• Wait one second before asking a subject to recall

letters and they remember 1-2 rather than 3-4• Asked subjects to remember one line- Were able to

(shows that we actually see all letters, but don’t have enough time to repeat them all back)

• “Masking” happens when we get new sensory information

A D XF R UP B LQ C V

Q C VA D XF R UP B L

Sensory Registers

• Echoic Memory• Auditory information echoes in our ears for a

short period of time• For a few moments, we can recover what we

just heard even if we didn’t consciously process it

• Fades more slowly than iconic memory

Short-Term Memory

• We can only “selectively attend” to a small amount of sensory information

• The important information that we want to process then enters our Short Term, or Working Memory

• Stores information briefly in order to “work on it”

• We also retrieve information from long-term memory and process it in working memory

Short-Term Memory

• Is very limited- When you focus, you need to shut other stimuli out so your STM doesn’t get “crowded”

• Capacity:• As much information that can be repeated or

rehearsed in 1.5 to 2 seconds• 7 bits of information plus or minus 2

Demonstration: STM

• CXW•MNKTY• RPJHBZS• GBMPVQFJD• EGQWJPBRHKA

STM Capacity: 7 +/- 2 (5-9 bits)

6129643

9736129643

Demonstration: STM and Chunking

TFIJFKBYMCAV

Demonstration: STM and Chunking

TV FBI JFK YMCA

Demonstration: STM and Chunking

Memorize these numbers:

1945181217762012

Did you chunk ‘em????

1945 1812 1776 2012

Demonstration: STM and Chunking• Swan, Goat, Cardboard, Boat, River, Bird, Music• The swan tugged the goat in a cardboard boat

across the river while the bird sang sweet music from above.

• This is also considered “semantic encoding”.. Or “visual” if you pictured it!!

?????

Encoding• Many memories are encoded as nonverbal• i.e. shapes, sounds, tastes, smells, visual

• Some memories are verbal• i.e. if you have memorized the National Anthem,

“Pledge of Allegiance”, words to a song, etc.

• Most are encoded according to meaning (Semantic)• i.e. when you hear lectures, you would never be able

to remember it verbatim; instead, you remember the key concepts of it

• “The angry rioter chucked a pebble at the window”• “The fish sank its teeth into the scuba diver”

Encoding• How can we make sure we are thoroughly

processing information in short term memory?• Dual Encoding: Hear the words, then imagine a

mental picture of what you are trying to learn, and apply deeper meaning.• Thomas Jefferson was the third President.• On the table of elements, gold is represented as the

symbol Au

• Bottom line: APPLY AS MANY MEANINGS AS POSSIBLE TO INFORMATION YOU NEED TO ENCODE!

Encoding, then keeping it there!!!!

• To hold information in STM, we can use rote rehearsal- repeating information over and over again• Rote rehearsal:• A, B, C, D, E, F, G…. A, B, C, D, E, F, G…• MVEMJSUNP

• Even better than this is elaborate rehearsal- applying meaning, then rehearsing.• Every Good Boy Deserves Fun• Apple, Banana, Carrot, Dog, Elephant, Frog, Goat• My Very Excellent Mother Just Served Us Nine Pizzas

Homework: Remember these words.

• Ladybug, Orange, Sweater, Grass, Bicycle, Planet, Iguana, Lake, Pencil, Laughter

Do Now

• Write down the words from ANY list that we attempted to learn yesterday!!!!!!!!

Refresher

Long Term Memory

• More or less permanent- If you remember something past three years, most likely it will stick• i.e. what you remember from high school after

college you’ll most likely remember forever

• Contains a seemingly limitless amount of information that we’ve “learned”

Serial Position Effect

• Duck• Bat• Bicycle• Rock• Peacock• Juggler• Table• Notebook

• Glue• Mall• Car• Animal• Lamp• Tree• T-Shirt• Shoe

Serial Position Effect• When we learn a list of words, we are most

likely to remember the first and last on the list. Why???

• First items are the list have been rehearsed and are encoded into long-term memory

• Last items are still fresh in working memory• This gives us evidence that our long-term

and short-term memories work closely together

Serial Position Effect

Maintaining Long-Term Memory

• Rote rehearsal• Practice makes perfect• Alphabet, multiplication tables, phone numbers,

social security numbers, birthdates, names, etc.• Mastering takes automaticity

• Repetition (or continuous exposure to a stimulus) does not imply learning will occur• What does the front of a penny look like?

Pick the right one!

Maintaining Long-Term Memory

• Elaborative rehearsal• Relate new information to things that we already

know• “Method of Loci”• Picture the items you need to remember in familiar

places• “Peg Words”• Connect words with pre-assigned words or numbers

• Other?• Gary: This is my friend Burt• Kurt: Oh Hi, Burt. (To himself: Burt rhymes with Kurt)

Schema and “Contextual Cues”

• Where we are when we hear things affects how we encode them• If we overhear something in a classroom or

meeting, we are primed to remember it• When we hear a conversation on the bus, we’d

be less likely to remember it because we aren’t “prepared” to need to know it

• Contextual Cues (i.e. what we are perceiving around us) can “trigger” memories

Types of LTM: Declarative, Explicit

• Episodic Memories• Memories for personally experienced events• Personal memories, not historical facts• What you ate for dinner on your birthday, your

driver’s test, a performance you gave last year, a big game that you won (or lost)

• Like a daily journal that allows you to go back in time

Types of LTM: Declarative, Explicit

• Semantic Memories• Facts and concepts• Like a dictionary or encyclopedia• What you learn in school • Inventor of the light bulb, first president, first

element of periodic table, 2+2=4

Types of LTM: Implicit

• Procedural Memories• Motor skills and habits• They are NOT memories about these skills and

habits- they are the skills and habits themselves!!

• Knowing how to ride a bike, swim, play guitar, slam on brakes of a car, putting accurate force into hitting a golf ball

Types of LTM: Implicit

• Emotional Memories• Learned emotional reactions to stimuli• Our loves and hates, rational and irrational

fears, feelings of disgust, anxiety

Do Now:

• Yesterday I presented you with two sentences…

• Hint:• Fish• Rioter

• What were they?

Types of LTM: Explicit vs. Implicit

• If a person has brain damage to the hippocampus, they may not be able to form new memories

• However, your cerebellum controls procedural memories and can still function!!!• H.M. could not recall tracing a star, but got

better at doing it every day

• Emotional memories- Amygdala• **Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind?

Types of LTM

Retrieval: Getting the Memories Out

• Recall• Being able to produce an answer without a “hint”• i.e. fill in the blanks on tests• “Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon”- best way to concur

this is to abandon it and it will most likely pop into your head later

• Recognition• Being able to pick out the correct answer after being

given clues• i.e. multiple choice• This is much easier!

Forgetting

• Do we need to forget?• A.J., aka Jill Price, remembers every day of her

life since age 14 with detail and clarity

• Why do we forget?• Decay Theory- Argues that the passage of

time causes forgetting• Applies to short term memory- memories “fade”

Other causes

• Hippocampus converts memories to long term

• Brain damage caused by accidents, surgery, poor diet, disease is most likely cause of severe memory loss

• Deterioration can lead to disruption, especially in the elderly

• Alzheimer's patients show diminished hippocampus

• Korsakoff’s Syndrome caused by alcoholism

Amnesia

• Retrograde Amnesia• Often caused by head injuries• Memory loss of events shortly prior to injury• Perhaps memories aren't anchored yet, much like a

computer will lose data that wasn’t saved in the event of a power outage

• Anterograde Amnesia• Inability to create new memories• Dory from “Finding Nemo”• Memento

Role of Neurotransmitters

• Acetylcholine has role in memory• Rats with damage to cells that produce this

had significant memory problems• Alzheimer's patients also display low levels

Encoding Failure• Perhaps forgetting isn’t just about “losing”

memories, but rather inadequately learning memories in the first place

• “Selective attention” means there must be “selective inattention” • if we are not consciously aware of what we are

doing, it never becomes encoded• i.e. if you miss place your phone when you’re

looking for something else, you won’t remember where it is because you weren’t paying attention in the first place

Encoding Failure

• Inadequate rehearsal can also prevent memories, even if we were trying to remember• i.e. STUDYING improperly• If you simply “memorize” information, it won’t

become meaningful enough to be encoded = F on test

• Trying to remember your locker combo “17-21-4” will be easier if rather than repeating it you assign meaning• “I’m 17 now, I’ll be 21 in 4 years”- Semantic

(Elaborative) vs. Rote

Interference

• Retroactive Interference• When trying to recall older information, new

material that you’ve learned gets in the way• i.e. when you try to remember your

kindergarten teacher’s last name, you have many new teachers’ names in the way

• Study tip: If you are studying for a test, do not present any new material after your study time… Make sure studying for the test is the last thing you do at night after your other homework

Interference

• Proactive Interference• When older information gets in the way of

remembering new information• i.e. when you are trying to learn a new

language and your first language interferes… “casa blanca” vs. “blanca casa”

• Similarity of competing items exaggerates interference

• Explains why it’s harder to change old habits than to learn new habits

Factors that Matter

• Contextual Factors• We use cues from the situations that we learn

material in to remember it• Contextual cues such as background music,

odors also affect recall• i.e. if you learn about a historical topic in the

classroom, it may be harder for you to recall if someone asks you at practice or in the gym

• Crime scene investigators will often bring a victim back to the scene of the crime to assist in their recall of events.

Factors that Matter

• State-Dependent Memory• We remember information best when we are in

the same state that we learned them in• A person may forget a conversation they had

while intoxicated, but will remember it again next time they are under the influence

• However, drugs do not enhance memory (as we already know)… Sober-sober recall is obviously best

Factors that Matter

• Expectations• We often rewrite our memories based on what

we expect• If people hint that something has happened

enough times, we may start believing it

• Source confusion• We may hear a story that someone else

experienced during childhood and will attribute that story to our own lives

How to Reduce Forgetting

• Develop motivation• Practice memory skills• Be confident in your ability to remember• Minimize distractions and stay focused• Make connections (mnemonics)• Use mental imagery• Use retrieval cues• Rely on more than memory (to-do lists)

Special Topics in Memory

• Childhood Amnesia• Our earliest memories date back to between

the ages of 3 and 4 years• Hippocampus does not fully form until the age of

two• Children do not clearly possess a sense of self• Language skills are not present to consolidate

experiences

Extraordinary Memories

• Eidetic memory• A highly developed photography memory

entailing sharp and detailed images of something they have seen (picture, scene, words on a page)

• Steven Wiltshire – eidetic memory

• Mnemonists- people with highly developed memory skills• Russian Journalist “S”• Had a limitless short term memory• Used visual imagery to encode

Flashbulb Memories

• A vivid memory of a certain event and the incidents surrounding it even after a long time has passed

• Often happens with events that are shocking or highly significant

• Examples: Death of a family member, birth of a child or sibling, wedding day, graduation.

Eyewitness Testimony