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Memory
All learning requires memory Three stages of memory phenomena
Acquisition Retention Retrieval
Taxonomy of Human Memory
Procedural Declarative
Working and Reference Memory
Episodic and Semantic Memory
Motor Skills
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
automatic, incremental,unconscious
effortful,conscious
Reference versus Working Memory
• Reference memory– long term retention of events, relationships, and
procedures– associations, rules, skills.
• Working memory- short term retention, typically relevant only to the current trial, includes information retrieved
Working Memory in Animals
Hunter (1913)
food
Working Memory or Body Orientation?
food
Delayed Matching to Sample (DMTS)
SampleComparison Comparison
Delayed Matching to Sample (DMTS)
PECK
FOOD
PECK
NOFOOD
Symbolic Matching to Sample
Symbolic Matching to Sample
PECK
FOOD
PECK
NOFOOD
NOFOOD FOOD
What is Learned in DMTS?
a) General Matching RulePigeon = No! (with few samples)Cumming & Berryman (1965)
- Trained on Red, Green, Blue- Failed to transfer to Yellow
b) Specific “If-Then Rules”Symbolic Matching-To-Sample
- Learned as rapidly as Standard DMTS
Memory Coding
a) Retrospective = Backward Looking
b) Prospective = Forward Looking
Retrospective Code: IF , Remember
Prospective Code: IF , Remember
Roitblat, 1980
Confusion Errors? 1. between samples 2. between comparisons
Confusions:Comparisons > Samples
Therefore: Prospective Coding
Serial List Learning
Present list of items to subject one at a time
A B C D E F
Recall in any order
Ask subject to recall or recognize a single item
A B C D E F
Acc
ura
cy
Primacy effect Recency effect
Serial List Learning
Humans:
Testing after a delay produces a primacy effect
A B C D E F
Acc
ura
cy
Testing immediately after list produces a recency effect
A B C D E FA
ccu
racy
What about in other animals?
Radial Arm Maze
How Solved? Random Choice Odour Trail Patterned Responding Memory*
12-Arm Radial Maze
Choices Prior to First Error
0
2
4
6
8
1 3 5 7 9 11 13
Trial
Mea
n C
ho
ices
12-Arm Radial MazeTotal Number of Errors
0
2
4
6
8
10
1 3 5 7 9 11 13
Trial
Mea
n E
rro
rs
Can rats switch from retrospective to prospective memory?
12
11
3
2
1
9
10
6
5
4
7
8
Cook et al. (1985)
Rats removed after making 2, 4, 6, 8, or 10 choices
Shifting from retrospective to prospective midway produces the lowest memory load (inverted U-shaped error curve)
Cook et al. (1985)
RememberPlaces Visited
RememberPlaces Not Visited
Memory Coding
a) Active = rehearse relevant information
b) Passive = gradual fading of a memory trace
Human Forgetting Curve With No Rehearsal
Pigeon Forgetting Curve
Roberts, 1972
Directed Forgetting
ITI
Sample
Comparisondon’tpeck
peck
Remembercue
Forgetcue
peck peck peck
Forgetcue
Delay
Least More Most
Human Reference Memory Duration (relatively long-term) Capacity (relatively large) Forgetting (details lost, gist remembered) Requires Consolidation
Retention of Fear Conditioning
Clark’s Nutcracker
Food Storing Bird About 5,000 Caches 20 x 20 KM Area 9-month Buried Under Snow
Sarah Shettleworth
Results Birds recovered previously cached seeds and
made few errors Didn’t find seeds hidden by experimenter Didn’t return to the same site if first storing
episode is followed by a second storing episode
Summary of Animal Memory
Working Memory
Prospective and Retrospective
Active and Passive
Reference memory
Duration and Capacity
Forgetting and Consolidation
Do Animals have Episodic Memory?
Episodic Memory Conscious Recollection Dated Personal Memory (what, when, and where)
Western Scrub-Jay (Nicola Clayton)
Clayton’s Results
Metamemory in Rats? Knowledge of the state of one’s own memory
for example, memory strength Foote and Crystal (2007)
Duration of noise sample, 2.00 to 3.62 = Left Duration of noise sample, 4.42 to 8.00 =Right Choice to continue → memory test, large reward Choice to bail-out → no test, small reward
Foote and Crystal (2007) Procedure
Foote and Crystal (2007) Results
Problems Only 2 of 3 rats showed positive results (5
others always bailed or always decided) Maybe they learned to bail with feedback on
the “close” duration values?