Memory “Learning is the process by which

we acquire knowledge about the world, while memory is the process by which that knowledge is encoded, stored and later retrieved.” Eric Kandel

Computer-based model

Memory “Learning refers to the process by which

experiences change our nervous system and hence our behaviour. We refer to these changes as memory… Experiences are not ‘stored’, rather they change the way we perceive, perform, think and plan. They do so by physically changing the structure of the nervous system, altering neural circuits that participate in perceiving, performing, thinking and planning.” Neil Carlson

Learning and Memory Task Verbal Paired Associates

Get a piece of paper and pen. Write 1 to 8 down the left side.

Modal Memory Model (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968)

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Atkinson and Shifrin’s model

receptors

Iconic/Echoic

Sensory registers

recoding STM LTM

rehearsal

~1s 1-~5s unlimited

Sensory Memory Short-Term/Working Memory

Short-Term Memory

Declarative(Explicit)

Nondeclarative(Implicit)

Long-Term Memory

Memory

STM is Limited

I’m going to read 16 numbers out loud. After listening to the numbers, you will be asked to recall as many as you can in the correct order.

STM is Limited

1 8 6 7 1 8 1 2 1 4 9 2 2 0 0 3

STM is Limited

Now I’m going to read four dates out loud, saying each number individually. The first three years (12 numbers) are important dates in history and the last year is the current year. After listening, you will be asked to recall as many of the numbers in the correct order as possible.

STM is Limited

Memory span. Only about 7 items (plus or minus 2) can be reported in sequence (Miller, 1956).

Learn these:

MTY

Rapid decay

Count backwards from 108 in 7’s

What were the three letters?

MTY

STM is Limited

Memory span. Only about 7 items can be reported in sequence (Miller, 1956).

Peterson & Peterson (1959). Rapid decay of memory for short lists if rehearsal prevented. For example, phone numbers are “lost” if

interrupted while rehearsing

Serial position effect

Learn this list

Serial position effect

Limes, eggs, crackers, vanilla, radish, ketchup, soup, cereal, peas, syrup, cheese, potato, pork, carrots

Serial position effect

Write down as many as you can remember.

Serial position effect How many students included:

Limes ____

Eggs _____

Crackers _____

Vanilla ______

Radish ______

Ketchup ______

Soup _____

Cereal _____

Peas _____

Syrup _____

Cheese _____

Potato _____

Pork _____

Carrots _____

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STM is Limited

Memory span. Only about 7 items can be reported in sequence (Miller, 1956).

Peterson & Peterson (1959). Rapid decay of memory for short lists if rehearsal prevented.

Recency in free recall. This is eliminated after 30s of interference (Glanzer & Cunitz, 1966).

 

STM is Limited

Memory span. Only about 7 items can be reported in sequence (Miller, 1956).

Peterson & Peterson (1959). Rapid decay of memory for short lists if rehearsal prevented.

Recency in free recall. This is eliminated after 30s of interference (Glanzer & Cunitz, 1966).

 All these measures suggest that a limited amount of

recent information can be stored temporarily.

Acoustic Similarity on STM

Learn this list:

D V E T G P C

Acoustic similarity on STM

Write down the sequence

Acoustic similarity D V E T G P C

Memorize this sequence:

K R T H D S W

Acoustic similarity Which was more difficult?

DVETGPCor

KRTHDSW

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Long-term memory Not capacity limited Different types/divisions such as

implicit versus explicit

Events(Episodic)

Facts(Semantic)

Declarative(Explicit)

Nondeclarative(Implicit)

Long-Term Memory

Sensory Memory Short-Term/Working Memory

Short-Term Memory

MemoryType title here

Specific personalexperiences from

a particulartime and place

Events(Episodic)

world knowledgeobject knowledge

language knowledge

Facts(Semantic)

Declarative(Explicit)

Nondeclarative(Implicit)

Long-Term Memory

Sensory Memory Short-Term/Working Memory

Short-Term Memory

MemoryType title here

Specific personalexperiences from

a particulartime and place

Events(Episodic)

world knowledgeobject knowledge

language knowledge

Facts(Semantic)

Declarative(Explicit)

Procedural Perceptualrepresentation

system

ClassicalConditioning

Nonassociativelearning

Nondeclarative(Implicit)

Long-Term Memory Short-Term Memory

MemoryType title here

Specific personalexperiences from

a particulartime and place

Events(Episodic)

world knowledgeobject knowledge

language knowledge

Facts(Semantic)

Declarative(Explicit)

Skills(Motor andCognitive)

Procedural

Perceptualpriming

Perceptualrepresentation

system

Conditionedresponse toconditioned

stimulus

ClassicalConditioning

Habituationsensitization

Nonassociativelearning

Nondeclarative(Implicit)

Long-Term Memory Short-Term Memory

MemoryType title here

Explicit vs implicit memory

Techniques for investigation Explicit

Free recall Cued recall (e.g. paired associates) Recognition

Implicit (vs incidental) Skills (savings on relearning)

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Semantic vs Episodic memory (Tulving)

‘LTM’ Landauer and Freedman, 1968; Collins and Quillian,1969

Bird (has feathers, can fly)

Canary (can sing)

Animal (breathes, moves)

Alsatian (large, fierce)

Dog (has fur, barks)

Typicality

Is this a bird?RobinSparrowDuckOstrichAeroplane Good exemplars are quicker

Negative exemplars

Is this a fruit?CherryCarrotBrick Usually slower than positive

exemplars Slowest if share common attributes

Proximity to boundary

Typical(Robin)

Borderline(Aeroplane)

Close negative(Rabbit)

Atypical(Ostrich)

Distant negative(House)

Rea

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me

Proximity to boundary

Typical(Robin)

Borderline(Aeroplane)

Close negative(Rabbit)

Atypical(Ostrich)

Distant negative(House)

Rea

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me Schizophrenic patients

Is this a bird?

3 Processes of LTM Encoding: information is processed prior to

storage Storage: the information is preserved in

some form Retrieval: the information is recovered and

reported Forgetting may be due to deficiencies in

any of the these three key processes

Encoding Encoding is an active process

Selective attention “next-in-line effect”

Levels of processing Qualitative differences in how people

attend to information Three progressive levels (Craik &

Lockhart, 1972)

Encoding: Levels of Processing Shallow processing

Structure encoding “Is the word written in capital letters?”

Intermediate processing Phonemic encoding “Does the word rhyme with weight?”

Deep processing Semantic encoding

Encoding: Levels of Processing

Deep processing Semantic encoding Elaboration

Linking stimulus to other information at time of encoding

Examples that illustrate an idea

Encoding: Levels of Processing

Deep processing Semantic encoding Elaboration

Linking stimulus to other information at time of encoding

Examples that illustrate an idea Visual imagery

Encoding: Levels of Processing

Deep processing Semantic encoding Elaboration

Linking stimulus to other information at time of encoding

Examples that illustrate an idea Visual imagery Self-referent encoding

Deciding how or whether the info is personally relevant

Levels of Processing Theory

The deeper the level of processing, the longer and more durable the memories will be.

Problems How do we define “level”? How do we determine whether one

level is deeper than another?

Visual Imagery: dual code theory

 

Paivio (1971) proposed that imagery and verbal memory were two independent ways of remembering an item. This is supported by the fact that: Concrete words are remembered better than abstract words Pictures are remembered better than words.

Suppose you wanted to remember the following list Elephant Flower Desk Cold Key Duck Boat

HighTeaGloves

MnemonicsOne is a bunTwo is a shoeThree is a treeFour is a doorFive is a hiveSix is sticksSeven is heavenEight is a plateNine is a mine

One is a bun

elephant

Two is a shoe

flower

Three is a tree

desk

Four is a door

cold

Five is a hive

key

Six is sticks

duck

Seven is heaven

boat

Eight is a plate

high

Nine is a mine

tea

Ten is a hen

gloves

How many can you remember?

One is a bunTwo is a shoeThree is a treeFour is a doorFive is a hiveSix is sticksSeven is heavenEight is a plateNine is a mineTen is a hen

Mnemonics

Storage “bare bones” not “exact replica” of

event

Storage How is knowledge represented and

organized in memory?

Storage How is knowledge represented and

organized in memory? clustering

Storage How is knowledge represented and

organized in memory? Clustering

Tendency to remember similar or related items in groups

Storage How is knowledge represented and

organized in memory? Clustering Conceptual hierarchy

Storage How is knowledge represented and

organized in memory? Clustering Conceptual hierarchy

Multilevel classification system based on common properties among items

Example of A Conceptual Hierarchy

Specific personalexperiences from

a particulartime and place

Events(Episodic)

world knowledgeobject knowledge

language knowledge

Facts(Semantic)

Declarative(Explicit)

Skills(Motor andCognitive)

Procedural

Perceptualpriming

Perceptualrepresentation

system

Conditionedresponse toconditioned

stimulus

ClassicalConditioning

Habituationsensitization

Nonassociativelearning

Nondeclarative(Implicit)

Long-Term Memory Short-Term Memory

MemoryType title here

Storage How is knowledge represented and

organized in memory? Clustering Conceptual hierarchy Schemas

Storage How is knowledge represented and

organized in memory? Clustering Conceptual hierarchy Schemas

Organized cluster of knowledge about a particular object or event abstracted from previous experience

More likely to remember things consistent with your schema

Professor Smith’s Office Write down what you saw

in the office.

Professor Smith’s Office What did you see?

Desks Chairs Books Filing cabinets Wine bottle Picnic table

Storage How is knowledge represented and

organized in memory? Clustering Conceptual hierarchy Schemas Scripts

A kind of schema Organizes what people know about

common activities

Script

“The procedure is actually quite simple. First arrange things into different bundles depending on make-up. Don’t do too much at once. In the short run this may not seem important, however, complications easily arise. A mistake can be costly. Next, find facilities. Some people must go elsewhere for them. Manipulation of appropriate mechanisms should be self-explanatory. Remember to include all other necessary supplies.

Script cont.

“Initially the routine will overwhelm you, but soon it will become just another facet of life. Finally, rearrange everything into their initial groups. Return these to their usual places. Eventually they will be used again. Then the whole cycle will have to be repeated.”

Storage How is knowledge represented and

organized in memory? Clustering Conceptual hierarchy Schemas Scripts Semantic networks

Nodes representing concepts that are joined

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Retrieval: Getting Info Out Encoding specificity principle

(Tulving) Any stimulus that is encoded along with

the experience can later trigger memory Context cues

State-dependent memory Match between internal states during

encoding and recall Semantic network

Retrieval Memories are reconstructions of

the past May be distorted

To fit with own established schemas May include details that did not

actually occur

Retrieval

Memories are reconstructions of the past May be distorted

To fit with own established schemas May include details that did not actually

occur Source monitoring errors

(misattributions) Mix up fictional info from movies and novels

with factual information from news reports and personal experience

Retrieval

Memories are reconstructions of the past May be distorted May include details that did not actually

occur Source monitoring errors (misattributions)

Reality monitoring errors Memories based on external or internal sources “Did I turn off the stove or did I imagine doing it?”

Retrieval

Memories are reconstructions of the past May be distorted May include details that did not

actually occur Source monitoring errors

(misattributions) Schema/scripts

Retrieval

Memories are reconstructions of the past May be distorted May include details that did not actually

occur Source monitoring errors (misattributions) Schema/scripts Categorization – limited attention to

details

Retrieval Memories are reconstructions:

May be distorted May include details that did not actually

occur Source monitoring errors

(misattributions) Schema/scripts Categorization – no attention to details suggestibility

Say each word out loud:•Nice

•Honey

•Soda

•Chocolate

•Heart

•Cake

•Tart

•Tooth

•pie

•Sour

•Candy

•Sugar

•Bitter

•Good

•Taste

Write down the words you remember

Did you remember: Candy? Honey? Tooth? Sweet? Pie?

Memories are reconstructions:

May be distorted May include details that did not

actually occur Source monitoring errors

(misattributions) Schema/scripts Categorization – no attention to

details

AP/Wide World Photos

Memories are reconstructions:

May be distorted May include details that did not actually

occur Source monitoring errors (misattributions) Schema/scripts Categorization – no attention to details Suggestibility Memory bias

To be consistent with current beliefs or attitudes

Repressed Memories

Some recovered memory incidents have been substantiated by independent witnesses or belated admissions of guilt from the accused.

Vast majority have vehemently denied allegations of abuse and independent corroboration not available.

Repressed Memories

Sexual abuse is more widespread than most people realize.

Common for people to bury traumatic incidents.

Misinformation effect Hypnotic pseudomemory Suggestibility Source-monitoring errors

Caused by deficiencies in encoding, storage, retrieval or some combination Ineffective coding

Shallow encoding absentmindedness

Pseudoforgetting Lack of attention

Interference

Forgetting

Interference Blocking Proactive interference

Prior info prevents learning of new info Retroactive interference

New info interferes with ability to remember old info

Forgetting

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The Physiology of Memory Biochemistry of memory Neural circuitry of memory Anatomy of memory

Biochemistry of memory Alterations in synaptic transmissions

Increase or decrease in release of neurotransmitters

Epinephrine Induces state of arousal Acts through glucose

Opiates and alcohol Depress neuronal activity Interferes with memory

Neural Circuitry of memory Long-term potentiation creates

localized neural circuits

Anatomy of memory Amygdala

“emotional memory” Alteration of hormonal and

neurotransmitter release due to stress Hippocampus

“consolidation” Functions to bind together individual elements

of a specific memory which are stored in widely distributed areas of the cortex

Contextual learning Spatial memory

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Hippocampal Formation

Anatomy of Memory Frontal lobes

Working memory Hold information in working memory

(“on-line”) to allow comparisons, problem solving, follow conversations etc.

Temporal sequences Which event happened first

Anatomy of Memory Hemispheric differences

Left hemisphere Verbal information

Right hemisphere Non-verbal information