• (d) Memory as storage, retention and retrieval of information.

• All information entering the brain passes through sensory memory and enters short-term memory. Information is then transferred to long-term memory (LTM) or discarded.

• (i) Sensory memory — lasts a few seconds and retains all of the visual or auditory input.

• (ii) Short-term memory (STM).

• To include memory span, the serial position effect, maintaining items by rehearsal and loss of items by displacement and decay. Improvement of STM by ‘chunking’.

• (iii) Long-term memory (LTM).

• The transfer of information from STM to LTM due to rehearsal, organisation and elaboration. Information is encoded using shallow encoding or elaborative encoding. Retrieval is aided by the use of contextual cues.

• BBC the human mind (50 mins) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xhseKDn90ps

• Horizon- battle of the brains:

• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uJXz2Z3RLdw

• BBC origins of us: development of human brain http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n3wp_c41A4A

• Design and carry out an investigation to determine the memory span for letters or numbers.

• Carry out an investigation on increasing memory span of STM by ‘chunking’

• Carry out an investigation on the serial position effect.

• Carry out an investigation on the factors which improve retrieval from LTM.

• Case study on a memory disorder (eg Alzheimer’s, stroke/brain injury, Aphasia, Amnesia, Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome).

Memory

• How do you remember things????

Stages of Memory

• Encoding – sensory image must be converted into a form that the brain can process and store.

• Storage – retaining the information over a period of time.

• Retrieval – recovery of the stored material from either the short-term or long-term memory.

Memory

• Memory includes past experiences, knowledge and thoughts. The process involved three stages:

• Encoding – sensory information must be converted into a form that the brain can process and store.

• Storage – retaining the information over a period of time.

• Retrieval – recovery of the stored material from either the short-term or long-term memory.

Memory

1. Sensory memory

Sensory memory lasts a few seconds and retains all of the visual or auditory input.

All information entering the brain passes through sensory memory before being passed onto the short term memory (STM).

Short term memory

• Write numbers 1 to 10 in your jotter.

• You are about to see 10 objects.

• Look at them, remember the order of them and then when told to do so write them down in order next to the appropriate number.

Answers

1. Horse

2. Books

3. Light bulb

4. Earth

5. Bread

6. Tree

7. Tractor

8. Microscope

9. Snowman

10. Aeroplane

2. Short term memory

• Memory span is the number of pieces of information that can be held within STM. STM has a limited capacity of about 7±2 pieces of information, retained for around 30 seconds.

• Within a longer list of pieces of information, the ones at the start and end are more likely to be remembered than the ones in the middle. This is called the serial position effect.

Improvement of STM by Chunking

• Short-term memory span can be increased using a method of chunking.

• Dividing information up into smaller groups

• E.g. 0131337598 0131 337 598

10 pieces of info 3 pieces of info

Rehearsal

• Rehearsal involves repeating a piece of information over and over again to yourself

• This extends the time a piece of information is held in the STM

2. B Short term memory

Items may be maintained within the STM by rehearsal where information is repeated over and over again. STM can be improved by chunking, where larger pieces of information are divided up into smaller groups, for example dates and telephone numbers.

Items may be lost from STM by displacementfrom later items or by decay with age.

Which List is Easier to Remember

• List A

• Summer

• Apple

• Shirt

• Autumn

• banana

• Pear

• skirt

• winter

• jacket

• List B

• Apple

• Banana

• Pear

• Shirt

• Skirt

• Jacket

• Autumn

• Winter

• summer

Explain why

Organisation into Categories

Elaboration

• Elaboration means to make meaning

• The meaning-making process has to do with our belief system and how we choose to make something worth retaining

• Make a story from 5 random objects given to you

• Watch Robert Winston ‘Get smart’ film!

3. Long term memory

Long term memory (LTM) has no limit to size or length of time held. The transfer of information from STM to LTM is aided by:

1. Rehearsal – repeating items over and over2. Organisation – of items into organised groups e.g. colours /

food groups

3. Elaboration – making the items more meaningful e.g. by linking to previous memories/ making a story

Encoding

• Is the conversion of one or more nerve impulses into a form that can be received and held by the brain and retrieved later from the short or long term memory.

Types of encoding

• Shallow encoding- is information encoded by repetition

• Elaborative encoding – is information encoded by linking it to previous memories

Retrieval of information by contextual cues

• A memory whose encoding in the LTM is accompanied by an unusual, emotional or dramatic event possess powerful contextual cues that enables the experience to be retrieved and recalled clearly throughout life.

• Can you think of any examples?

3. Long term memory

Information must be turned into a form which can be stored within the LTM - this is called encoding. There are two forms of encoding:1. shallow encoding - by rehearsal2. elaborative encoding - by elaboration

Retrieval of information from LTM is aided by thinking of the surroundings or emotions at the time of encoding. These are called contextual cues.

• (iv) Location of memory in the brain.

• Episodic and semantic memory are stored in the cortex. Procedural memories (skills) are linked to the motor cortex. Emotional memories involve links between the cortex and the limbic system. Spatial memory is located in the limbic system.

• Analyse data on the mode of action of memory enhancing drugs (smart drugs).

Location of Memory in the Brain

Episodic

Memory

• The memory of events and experiences

• Recall of personal facts

• The record of facts and concepts

• Recall of general knowledge, non-personal facts and abstract ideas

Semantic

Memory

Storage of Memories

• Episodic and semantic memories are stored in the temporal region of the cerebral cortex

Procedural Memories

• Contain information needed to perform

• motor skills

• Mental skills

‘How to’ information

Procedural skills are linked to the motor area of the cerebral cortex

Spatial Memories

• Hold information that can be recalled about a person’s environment and its spatial orientation

• Eg the relationship of one object to another in a room

Spatial Memories• Spatial memory is located in the limbic system

Emotional Memories

• Involve emotions / feelings

• Storage involves links between the cerebral cortex and limbic system

Types of memory and locationType of memory Description Location in the brain

Episodic events and experiences Cerebral cortex

Semantic facts and knowledge (i.e. K.U.)

Cerebral cortex

Procedural Skills ( i.e. PS and sports) Motor cortex of cerebrum

Spatial Environment and spatial orientation

Limbic system

Emotional Emotions and feelings Links between cerebral cortex and limbic system