Mexico

Mesa MartorellAndrus KangurMoriah Shapiro

Historical, Cultural, and Social Factors of the Modern State

Mexico’s Historical and Cultural History

Molded from Mesoamerican native cultures that date back over 40,000 years

First people to settle in Mexico encountered a climate far milder than the current one, enabled the people to thrive and cultivate the land.

The Mesoamerican had the concept of god and religion, but were very different from western concepts.

The Mesoamericans had a belief where everything, every element of the cosmos, the earth, the sun, the moon, the stars, which mankind inhabits

The Pre-Hispanic Era

This entire period prior to Spanish conquest is called the pre-hispanic era.

The native Indian cultures continued to evolve during those centuries into the Aztec empire which existed from the 1300’s until 1521 and the beginning of Spanish rule.

What the Aztec initially lacked in political power, they made up for with ambition and military skill.

In 1325, they established the biggest city in the world at that time, Tenochtitlan.

At their peak, 350,000 Aztec presided over a wealthy tribute-empire comprising 10 million people, almost half of Mexico's estimated population of 24 million.

Their empire stretched from ocean to ocean, and extended into Central America.

Spanish Conquest

From 1521, the Spanish conquest of the Aztec empire incorporated the region into the Spanish empire, with New Spain its colonial era name and Mexico City the center of colonial rule.

It was built on the ruins of the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan and became the capital of New Spain.

During the colonial era, Mexico's long-established Mesoamerican civilizations mixed with European culture.

It was built on the ruins of the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan and became the capital of New Spain.

During the colonial era, Mexico's long-established Mesoamerican civilizations mixed with European culture.

Mexico Seeks Independence After a major struggle (1810-1821) for independence,

New Spain became the sovereign nation of Mexico, after the signing of the Treaty of Córdoba.

A brief period of monarchy (1821–23), called the First Mexican Empire, was followed by the founding of the Republic of Mexico, established under a federal constitution in 1824.

Racial categories were eliminated, abolishing the system of castes.

Slavery was not abolished at independence in 1821 or with the constitution in 1824, but was eliminated in 1829.

Mexico continues to be constituted as a federated republic, under the Mexican Constitution of 1917.

Period of Santa Anna

The Age of Santa Anna is the period of the late 1820s to the early 1850s that was dominated by criollo military man turned President Antonio López de Santa Anna.

In 1846, the Mexican American War was provoked by the United States, ending two years later with Mexico ceding almost half of its territory via the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo to the United States.

Even though Santa Anna bore significant responsibility for the disastrous defeat, he returned to office.

Liberal Reform

The Liberal Reform began with the overthrow of Santa Anna by Mexican liberals, ushering in La Reforma beginning in 1854.

The Mexican Constitution of 1857 codified the principles of liberalism in law, especially separation of church and state.

The Reform sparked a civil war between liberals defending the constitution and conservatives, who opposed it.

The War of the Reform saw the defeat of the conservatives on the battlefield, but conservatives remained strong and took the opportunity to invite foreign intervention against the liberals in order to forward their own cause.

The Mexican Revolution

The Mexican Revolution is the chaotic period between 1910 and 1920 when Mexicans fought to determine future after the end of the Díaz era.

Although little had been done for the nation's poor, the sparking forces of the Mexican Revolution were elite leaders outside Díaz's inner circle.

The fraudulent election of 1910 keeping 80-year-old Díaz in power brought opposition elements together, unleashing a 10-year civil war known as the Mexican Revolution (1910–1920).

The war killed a tenth of the nation's population and drove many northern Mexicans across the U.S. border to escape the fighting.

The Revolution ended the system of large landed estates, or haciendas that had originated with the Spanish Conquest.

Constitution of 1917

A new legal framework was established in the Constitution of 1917, which reversed the principle established under Porfirio Díaz that gave absolute property rights to individuals.

Northern revolutionary generals Alvaro Obregón and Plutarco Elías Calles each served a four-year presidential term following the end of the military conflict in 1920.

The assassination of president-elect Obregón in 1928 led to a crisis on succession and the creation of a party structure in 1929.

Post Revolution Mexico

The post-revolutionary era is generally marked by political peace whereby conflicts are not resolved by violence.

This new period has been marked by changes in policy and amendments to the 1917 Mexican Constitution to allow for neoliberal economic policies.

Following the formation in 1929 of the precursor to the Partido Revolucionario Institucional (PRI), this single party controlled national and state politics after 1929, and nationalized the oil industry in the 1930s.

Mexico emerged from World War II with wealth and political stability and unleashed a major period of economic growth, often called the Mexican Miracle.

It was organized around the principles of import substitution industrialization, with the creation of many state-owned industrial enterprises.

The population grew rapidly and became more urbanized while many others moved to the United States.

Modern Mexican Era

A new era began in Mexico following the fraudulent 1988 presidential elections.

The Institutional Revolutionary Party barely won the presidential election, and President Carlos Salinas de Gortari began implementing sweeping neoliberal reforms in Mexico.

Mexico's economy was further integrated with the U.S. and also Canada after the North American Free Trade Agreement or NAFTA agreement began lowering trade barriers in 1994.

Seven decades of PRI rule ended in the year 2000 with the election of Vicente Fox of the Partido Acción Nacional (PAN).

In the face of extremely violent drug wars, the PRI returned to power in 2012, promising that it had reformed itself.

Representation and Political Participation

Background on the Political Organization of Mexico Political organization sounds very familiar…with 3

branches of government, sets of checks and balances. Federalism defines relationships between national, state

and local governments Made up of 31 states and 1 Federal District Legislative:

182 senators elected, 3 from each of 31 states & Federal District, and 32 elected nationally by proportional representation

500 members of the Chamber of Deputies are elected from 300 electoral districts—300 by simple majority vote and 200 by proportional representation

President, governors and senators are elected for 6 years (sexenio)

Reelection is not permitted

Background on the Political Organization of Mexico cont. Constitution (differences: easily amended, and

more expansive): incorporates many a human rights, from freedom of speech to economic and social rights such as the right to a job and the right to health care

Until 1990 presidential candidate is selected by incumbent president President came with his own ‘crew’ and built political

infrastructure Parastatal sector – state owned corporations (e.g.

state owned oil companies) Military sector – marginalized from centers of

political power Judiciary – very formal, weakest branch of

government

Early 20th Century Milieu of Mexican Politics & Society: Breeding Grounds of Corruption

Constitution of 1917 – From the get go, not a true democracy, but representation through government mediated organizations

Institutional Revolutionary Party PRI– ‘a perfect dictatorship’ starting in 1929 Formed from consolidated power of powerful

contenders for leadership singular political power

Ejidos, encouraged unionization, agrarian reform Patronage machine, cogs were CTM, CNC, &

Popular Sector Political self-realization: Rubber stamp institution:

de facto political power and national party

Early 20th Century Milieu of Mexican Politics & Society: Breeding Grounds of Corruption cont. Initially a corporatist state—interest groups were

institutionalized as part of the state structure Interest groups institutionalized, power of clientelism Breeding grounds of corruption -- trade of allegiance

for access to public resources State Capitalism – capitalistic w/ governmental

ownership Lack of taxation, subsidized, ‘reciprocal players’ of

politics and economics Centralized power that exploited corruption, bossism, centralized control and lack

of effective participation

An Interesting Time To Look Upon Mexico’s Polis…Electoral Evolution!

Mexico is in a transitional state: redefining, renegotiating and reforming the state-society organization, and the balance between civil, corporate and governmental society/the state

From authoritarian political system under the ‘dictatorship’ of the PRI to more participatory polity of democracy, truly Federal Republic

From nominal ‘multiparty’ political structure (i.e. forgone conclusion of PRI’s election), to true multiparty competitive elections Political liberalization Voting has thus acquired a new meaning Electoral reforms – ‘leveling of the playing field’ More effective citizenship political participation – true

democracy?

An Interesting Time To Look Upon Mexico’s Polis…Electoral Evolution! cont.

Electoral Evolution!: Oppositional victory of Vincente Fox of PAN, elected in 2000! – marked end of PRI regime, political stalemate and economic stagnation

New Governmental transparency, government required to acknowledge and educate citizens about their rights and access to services Civilian Scrutiny: new political power of civic

body Disenfranchised speak out

Three Parties of Mexico’s Polis PRI PAN – NATIONAL ACTION PARTY (Founded 1939)

Established upon ideology of the necessity of opposition Organized to defend electoral choice as a means to

achieve political goals Running beliefs: regional autonomy, less government

intervention in economy, reduced regulation of business, clean and fair elections, rapprochement with the Catholic Church, and support for private and religious education

Associated with Catholic Church, more right/conservative PRD – 1989 ‘workers party’, left wing

Populist, nationalist and leftist alternative to PRI Agrarian reform, against bossism within unions, welfare of

poor

Governmental Venues for Citizen Participation Past and Present

Informal means of interaction: i.e. clientelism Clientalism was widespread, even in poorest, classical

manner of political participation Pragmatic accommodation of interests

Electoral participation: singular means of political participation, re-strengthened

Now electoral representation Voter turnout: 1934 – 53.6%; 1946 - 42.6%; 1970 –

63.9%, 1976 – 29.6%; 1988 – 49.4%; 1994 – 77.16%; 2000: 64% ; 2006 – 58.55%

As politics and elections become more open and competitive, roles of public opinion and mass media become crucial

More vibrant associational life in Mexican civil society

NGO’S & Other Forms of Political Participation Gorilla Action & Civil Resistance Zapatista Army of National Liberation (EZLN):

Revolutionary leftist political and militant group based in Chiapas 1994 – 3000 indigenous Mayan Indian guerillas came down

from mountain of chiapas and declared war against the Mexican government

Strategy of civil resistance –formed many autonomous municipalities independent of government

“Here the people command and the government obeys” – putting the will of the people into practice; “obedient authority”

A struggle “For all Mexicans”; Championed: Indigenous rights, women’s lib, (“Women’s Revolutionary Law”) gender equality, LGBT rights, welfare of poor A fight against “all injustice, all marginalization, all the

poverty, and all the exploitation”

NGO’S & Other Forms of Political Participation cont. “All opponents of oppression are Zapatistas” Civic organizations that operate at

community and local levels with considerable independence from politics When welfare was cut in 1980s, e.g., urban low

and modest income groups mobilized, grassroots movements▪ Elections provide these groups with significant

opportunities to press parties and candidates to respond to their needs

Peaceful, civic, guerilla action and political reform Power of protest participation, civil society

and societal accountability…

Civil Society & Societal Accountability in Face of Violence Violence and bribery of Organized Crime Groups in Mexico:

tools of political reorganization Collusion between public officials and organized crime

Electoral participation amid violence: How does violence shape electoral behavior? Depresses electoral turnout, destabilizes electoral democracy Threats and violence against political candidates, public officials and

voters▪ When the results of an election are settled by default (by OCGs), voting loses

any meaningful purpose Criminal violence and victimization also stimulates protest

participation Social mobilization protest – tool of political participation through

activism, marches, sitins, demonstrations, labor strikes, etc. (pressuring, own civil pressure groups)

Civil society as a means of political accountability and attaining justice “The key to making societal accountability work effectively,

despite ongoing violence, is likely to be the development of a strong and vibrant civil society.”

Politics in Transition

Preexisting Ideals

Mexico confronts a world of increasing interdependence among countries

Mexicans define themselves through its troubled relationship with United States

In 1970’s, were encouraged to see themselves as leader of Third World countries in arguing for enhanced bargaining positions

More recent perspectives favor benefits of an internationally oriented economy

Migration to U.S.

Country’s sense of national identity is affected by international migration

Many Mexicans enter U.S. as workers, some return home with new perspective of outside world but many stay in U.S. (where Hispanics have become largest ethnic minority)

Most citizens still believe Mexican culture is favorable to American but they are still strongly influenced by U.S. mass culture

Inability of Mexican economy to create jobs pushes Mexicans to seek work in U.S.

Cash sent home to their families are now almost as important source of income for Mexico as oil sales

Post 9/11 caused US officials to tighten up the borders Mexican officials try to convince U.S. government that allowing

more migrants to cross border legally would enhance U.S. security by reducing number of unauthorized crossings

Whether or not the U.S. government approves, difference in wages between U.S. & Mexico will persist which means that migration will also

On International Integration There is disagreement of how to respond to economic

challenges Mexico faces Integration into a competitive international economy

would mean final abandonment of Mexico’s sovereignty, & is basis on which future prosperity would be built

Those who oppose foreign integration argue that investors come to Mexico solely for low-wage labor for their industrial empires and won’t hesitate to leave to another cheaper country

They see little benefit in industrial development resulting in more assembly industries such as maquiladoras that import foreign parts, are assembled by Mexican laborers, then exported elsewhere

Those who favor foreign integration have pride in the Mexican work force saying it is well-educated with capacity to absorb modern technology & a large international market for industrial goods

Democracy in Mexico

Mexico provides testing ground for democracy in a state with long history of authoritarian rule

Currently, Mexico is struggling to make political institutions more democratic

Efforts to bring greater transparency to political system make it hard for people to believe a truly open, democratic political culture is being created

Centralization

Mexico is trying to revise centralization of power and decision-making

Other countries recognize solutions to policy problems lie at regional and local levels

While Mexican government has introduced decentralizing activities and services, state and municipal are struggling to meet demands of citizens (competence, responsiveness, accountability)

Social Differences

Improving social conditions is important challenge for Mexico

Elites: luxurious lifestyles, education at best U.S. universities for children, travel around globe

Majority of Mexican citizens: ill-educated, poor health care, no security in knowing basic needs & employment will be met

Solutions to Social Differences Best solutions to these problems are economic

growth and expanded employment One group of people believe achievement of

prosperity through involvement in global economy will benefit everyone in long run

Education will have to improve and be made more appropriate for developing a well-prepared work force

Improved education will come about when local communities have more control and parents have option between public/private schooling

Solution to poverty and injustice is clear: more and better jobs and improved education

Solutions to Social Differences cont. For others the solution is not so simple Must understand diverse causes of poverty: lack of jobs

and poor education, geographic isolation, discriminatory laws and practices, & disruptive impact of migration, urbanization, and tensions or modern life

In past, Mexicans looked to government for social welfare benefits but provision was deeply flawed by inefficiency and political manipulation: government consistently used social services to increase political control & limit citizens to demand equal treatment

Although many believe its government’s job to ensure citizens are well educated, healthy, able to make most of potential, population is unsure of government’s ability to provide these conditions fairly and effectively

Social Groups

Mexico troubling to adapt new democratic institutions to reflect ethnic and religious diversity and provide economic and political equality for women

Past decade has seen emergence of more organized and independent ethnic groups

Roman Catholic Church (largest organized religion in Mexico) losing members to Protestant sects because they appeal to everyday concerns of poor citizens

Women (32 percent of work force) becoming more organized but still have long way to go before they have equal wages & equal voice in political and economic decisions

Comparative Perspective

Mexico faces many same challenges as other countries: creating equal and effective democratic

gov. becoming integrated in global economy responding to complex social problems supporting increasing diversity without

losing national identity Confronts these challenges with

unique historical and institutional evolution

Politics for the Future

Mexico has long tradition of strong institutions; will not fall into sustained political instability

Factors to be considered in predicting political consequences of democratization, economic integration, & greater social equality: tradition of constitutional government strong presidency political system that has wide range of interests little military involvement in politics deep sense of national identity

Politics for the Future

Mexico represents prime case of political and economic transition for the developing world

If government can complete following will set model for other countries that face similar challenges: move from centralization to effective

local governance regional weakness to global

interdependence control of few to participation of many

THE END