Metabolism and Nutirion Physiology

8/8/2019 Metabolism and Nutirion Physiology

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Human Anatomy and Physiology

II

Biology 1414

Unit 8Metabolism and Nutrition


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Objective 1

Define metabolism and differentiatebetween catabolism and anabolism. Be

able to apply the latter two terms to

various metabolic reactions.

Unit 8 - Objective 1


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Definition of Metabolism

Metabolism is defined as the sum total ofall chemical reactions that occur in the

body.



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Catabolism

Catabolism is that part of metabolism that

involves the break down oflarge, complex

molecules into smaller, more simplified

products. This occurs during digestion,

removal of hydrogen (dehydrogenation),

carboxyl groups (decarboxylation) andamino groups (deamination), oxidation,

etc.Unit 8 - Objective 1


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Anabolism

Anabolism is that part of metabolism that

involves the synthesis of larger, more

complex molecules from small, simple

reactants. Examples of anabolism wouldinclude the synthesis of glycogen from

glucose, protein from amino acids, fat

from glycerol and fatty acids andconstruction of new antibodies and new

enzymes.Unit 8 - Objective 1


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Objective 2

Indicate the location of , diagram and describe

the majormetabolic pathways involved in the

catabolism of glucose to carbon dioxide and

water. Indicate where hydrogens are given off,

where ATP is made where oxygen is utilized,

where water is produced and identify keyassigned intermediates.



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Glucose Catabolsm

Glucose Catabolism is one of the primary

metabolic events that occurs during cell

metabolism. The portion of cell metabolismthat breaks down glucose is generally called

cellular respiration. Cellular respiration has

three major events; glycolysis, the Krebscycle and the electron transport system

(ETS).



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Location of the Major Metabolic

Pathways

Metabolic Pathway Location

Glycolysis Cytoplasm

Krebs Cycle Mitochondria

(matrix)

Electron Transport Mitrochondria

System (cristae)



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Events ofGlycolysis

In phase one, Glycolysis takes in glucose as afuel and transforms it into a super active

intermediate compound called Fructose-1,6-

Diphosphate (F-1,6-DP). This is accomplished

by using two ATP molecules to phosphorylate

the sugar at carbons 1 and 6. In phase two, the

F-1,6-DP sugar then splits (lysis) into two, half

sized sugar fragments which becomeGlyceraldehyde Phosphate and

Dihydroxyacetone Phosphate.



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Events ofGlycolysis

In phase three, the two half sized intermediatesare oxidized down to two pyruvic acid

molecules. During this process, inorganic

phosphate is added from the substrate of the

cytoplasm to each intermediate, hydrogen along

with its electrons are removed from each

intermediate, NAD picks up the hydrogens for

transport and all of the phosphate is removed (4total) from the intermediates. This phosphate is

added to ADP to form four ATP molecules.



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Events ofGlycolysis

The removal of hydrogen is calleddehydrogenation and is an oxidation process.

When NAD picks up hydrogen, a reduction

process occurs. The addition of phosphate iscalled phosphorylation and results in the net

production of two ATP molecules ( two used up

in phase one minus four produced in phase three).

The overall transformation ofglucose into twopyruvic acids is also an oxidationprocess.



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Events ofGlycolysis

Examine the following slide in order to visualizethe event ofGlycolysis.



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Summary ofGlycolysis


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Events of The Krebs Cycle

The Krebs cycle is named after Hans Krebs andis a metabolic event that follows glycolysis. This

process occurs in the fluid matrix of the

mitochondrion, uses the pyruvic acid from

glycolysis and is aerobic. To begin the Krebs

cycle, pyruvic acid is converted to acetyl COA.



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Conversion of Pyruvic Acid to

Acetyl COA

The conversion of pyruvic acid to acetyl COA is a three step

process:

1. First, each of the two pyruvic acids are

decarboxylated . At this point, two carbondioxides are produced and diffuse to the

blood. This event yields two acetyl groups.

2. Next, hydrogen is removed from each

acetyl group and added to NAD.The removal of hydrogenis called dehydrogenation which is an oxidation process.

The addition of hydrogen to NAD is a reduction process.

3. Finally, COA is added to each acetyl group.Unit 8 - Objective 2


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AcetylCOA which results from the conversion of pyruvic acid

then reacts with oxaloacetate using an enzyme called citrate

synthase. This results in the first major product of the Krebs cycle

called citric acid. Because of this, the Krebs cycle is sometimescalled the citric acid cycle. The citric acid is then systematically

decarboxylated and dehyrogenated in order to use up the acetyl

groups that were attached to the oxaloacetate. This allows

oxaloacetate and COA to be used in the next cycle.



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The conversion of citric acid back to oxaloacetateinvolves three dehydrodenations that form three

reduced NAD (NADH2) molecules, one

dehydrogenation that forms one reduced FAD

(FADH2), two decarboxylations that form two

carbon dioxides and one substrate

phosphoporylation that forms an ATP molecule.

When two acetylCOAs are utilized, two cyclesoccur and the above output is doubled.



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Output of The Krebs Cycle

1. Six CO2 molecules

2. Eight reduced NAD molecules (NADH2)

3. Two reduced FAD molecules (FADH2)

4. Two ATP molecules



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Examine the following slide in order to visualizethe events of the Krebs Cycle.



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Summary of the Krebs Cycle


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Events of the Electron Transport

System (ETS)

The electron transport system can also be calledthe electron transport chain. This metabolic

process uses the reduced NAD and FAD that is

produced by glycolysis and the Krebs cycle. The

ETS takes place in the cristae of the

mitochondrion and uses oxygen directly

(aerobic). This system contains respiratory

enzyme complexes that include iron compoundscalled cytochromes. The cytochromes accept

hydrogen from NAD and FAD.



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System

After receiving hydrogen, the cytochromes split

hydrogen into an electron and a hydrogen ion.

Electrons from hydrogen are passed through the

chain to oxygen. Hydrogen ions are passed intothe space between the inner and outer membane

of the mitochondrion where they accumulate and

create an elevated hydrogen potential. The highpotential causes the hydrogen ions to pass

through an ATP synthase protein portal.



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System

The hydrogen from NAD will yield 3 ATPs and

the hydrogen from FAD will yield 2 ATPs. The

ETS will process 10 reduced NADs from

glycolysis and the Krebs cycle to yield 30

ATPs.The ETS will also process 4 reduced

FADs from the Krebs cycle to yield 4 ATPs.

The hydrogen ions that pass back into themitochondrial matrix then combine with the

oxygen that has gained electrons to form water.



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Summary of the Electron

Transport System

When hydrogen loses electrons in the ETS, this iscalled oxidation. When Oxygen accepts those

electrons, it is called reduction. When ATP

synthase adds phosphate to ADP when it passes

hydrogen ions to reduced oxygen, this process is

called oxidative phosphorylation. The addition of

hydrogen ions to oxygen creates enough water to

yield a net of 6 waters for the process of cellularrespiration. Make note of this when you observe

the slide for Objective 3.



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Summary of the Electron

Transport System

Examine the following slides in order to visualizethe events of the electron transport system.



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Processing Reduced NAD in the

ETS


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Processing Reduced FAD in the

ETS


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Oxidative Phosphorylation


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Summary of Total ATP

Production

Examine the following slide in order to view thesummary of total ATP production in Glycolysis,

the Krebs cycle and the Electron Transport

System.



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Objective 3

Write the general balanced equation that shows

the catabolism of glucose to carbon dioxide and

water. Include in the equation the formation of

ATP from ADP and phosphate and oxygen

utilization.



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General Equation for Cellular

Respiration

C6H12O6 + O6 + 36 ADP + 36 PO4

6CO2 + 6H2O + 36 ATP + Heat



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Objective 4

Diagram and describe how lipids and proteins are

catabolized into carbon dioxide and water.

Unit 8 - Objective4


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Catabolism ofLipids

Lipids such as triglycerides are broken down to

fatty acids and glycerol. Fatty acids are broken

down to acetylCOA through a process of beta

oxidation. AcetylCOA is then taken into theKrebs cycle and converted into carbon dioxide,

reduced NAD and FAD and ATP. Glycerol is

converted intoG

lyceraldehyde phosphate ordihydroxyacetone phosphate in Glycolysis and

converted into reduced NAD , ATP and pyruvic

acid.Unit 8 - Objective 4


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LIPID METABOLISM


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Catabolism of Proteins

Proteins are broken down to amino acids. Amino

acids are deaminated and converted into

metabolic fragments. For example, glycine is

converted into an acetyl group that can become

acetyl COA. AcetylCOA is then broken down in

the Krebs cycle as discussed in the slide beforelast. The amine group from glycine is then used

as part of urea formation.

Unit 8 - Objective4


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Amino Acid Metabolism


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Summary ofLipid and Protein

Catabolism

View the following slide for a summary of lipid

and protein catabolism



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Catabolism ofLipids and Proteins


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Objective 5

Describe what is meant by the following: beta

oxidation, deamination, glycerol catabolism,

ketone body formation, fatty acid catabolism,

amino acid catabolism.



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Beta Oxidation

Beta oxidation is a catabolic process that breaks

down fatty acids two carbon units at a time.

The two carbon units become acetyl groups that

are converted into acetyl COA. An acetyl COA isthen used in the Krebs Cycle to make one ATP ,

3 NADH2 and 1 FADH2. If a fatty acid has 18

carbon units, then 9 acetyl COA units would bemade. Think how much extra ATP and reduced

NAD And FAD can be made because of this!



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Deamination

Deamination is a catabolic process that removes

an amino group from an amino acid in

preparation for its use in the Krebs Cycle or a

similar metabolic pathway.



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Glycerol Catabolism

When fat is digested it is broken down to glycerol

and fatty acids. Glycerol is then converted to

glyceraldehyde phosphate (GALP) and used at a

mid point in glycolysis (see Glycolysis inObjective 2). The GALP is then broken down to

form ATP, reduced NAD and pyruvic acid.



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Fatty Acid Catabolism

When fat is digested it is broken down to glycerol

and fatty acids. The fatty acids are then broken

down by the process of beta oxidation to produce

acetyl COA as discussed in a previous slide.



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Ketone Body FormationIf a person is not getting enough glucose through

the diet (rare!) because of fasting, starvation, etc.

or if glucose is not being transferred from the

blood to body cells (as in diabetes mellitus), then

oxaloacetate from the Krebs Cycle is convertedto new glucose. Without oxaloacetate, Acetyl

COA cannot be used and accumulates. The liver

then converts excess acetyl COA into ketones

(acetone, acetoacetate, etc.). These ketones are

acidic and as they accumulate, they cause

ketoacidosis.Unit 8 - Objective 5


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Amino Acid CatabolismIf more amino acids accumulate than can be used

in the synthesis of new proteins, then they can be

catabolized or broken down by a process called

deamination. Deamination removes amino groups

from the amino acid to yield a fragment that canbe used in the Krebs Cycle.



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Role ofLDL in Cholesterol

Metabolism

LDL stands forlow density proteins made in the

liver. These metabolic units contain small

portions of phospholipids an triglycerides and

large quantities of cholesterol. The LDL is

designed to transport its stored material from

the liver to cells and tissues. Cholesterol fromLDLs can be transported to blood vessels and

stored aspart of plaque deposits



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Role of HDL in Cholesterol

Metabolism

HDL stands for high density lipoprotein which is

made in tissues during increased activity. This

metabolic unit transports phospholipid,

triglyceride and cholesterol from tissues,including blood vessels, back to the liver.

The cholesterol that is transported back to the

liver is converted into Bile which is excreted andstored in the gall bladder. This is a good way to

eliminate cholesterol from the body.



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Summary ofLipoproteins

Observe the following slide for the lipid

composition of lipoproteins.



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Comparison ofLDL, HDL,

Triglycerides and Cholesterol


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Objective 7

Define the following as they relate to

metabolism: oxidation, reduction,

decarboxylation, dehydrogenation,

oxidative phosphorylation, celllar

respiration, glycolysis, pyruvic acid,

coenzyme A, Krebs cycle, electron

transport system (ETS), glycogenesis,

glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesisUnit 8 - Objective 6


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Cellular Respiration

Cellular respiration is a group of catabolic

reactions in the cell that breaks down food fuels

such as glucose. These reactions can be grouped

into metabolic processes called glycolysis, the

Krebs cycle and the electron transport system. The

main purpose of cellular respiration is to provide aconstant supply of ATP for various cell activities.



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Glycolysis

Glycolysis (= splitting sugar) is an anaerobic

process that occurs in the cell cytoplasm. This

process breaks down glucose into two pyruvic

acids. During this conversion, ATP and reduced

NAD is formed.



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Pyruvic Acid

Pyruvic acid is the end product of glucose

breakdown that occurs in the process ofGlycolysis.



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Coenzyme A

Coenzyme A, which is made using the vitamin

pantothenic acid, is an important cofactor that is

used to transport acetyl groups into the Krebs

Cycle.



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Krebs Cycle

The krebs cycle is a part of cellular respiration

that occurs in the matrix of the mitochondrion.

This process regenerates oxaloacetate during

each cycle which is used to pick up acetyl groupsto form citric acid. As acetyl groups are broken

down during this cycle, ATP and reduced NAD

and FAD are synthesized. Since themitochondrion uses oxygen this process is

considered aerobic.



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Electron Transport System

The electron transport system (ETS) occurs in the

cristae of the mitochondrion and is aerobic. This

part of cellular respiration uses the reduced NAD

and FAD from glycolysis and the Krebs Cycle

and oxygen to generate large quantities of ATP

and water.



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Oxidative PhosphorylationOxidative phosphorylation is a process that

occurs in the electron transport system (ETS) and

involves the addition of phosphate to ADP tomake ATP. ATP production occurs in the ETS

when electrons are removed from the hydrogen

being transported by reduced NAD and FAD.

The electrons from the hydrogen are ultimatelypassed on to Oxygen. Oxygen is the final electron

acceptor in the body!Unit 8 - Objective 7


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Glycogenesis

Glycogenesis is an anabolic process that occurs

mainly in the liver and muscle when there is

excess glucose. This process combines hundredsof glucose molecules to form glycogen. Glycogen

is then stored in the cell as a starch-like

compound .



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Glycogenlolysis

Glycogenolysis is a catabolic process that occurs

mainly in the liver an muscle. This process is

essentially a reversal of glycogenesis (seeprevious slide). During glycogenolysis, stored

glycogen is broken down to release glucose for

use in the body.



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Comparison ofGlycogenesis and

Glycogenolysis


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GluconeogenesisGluconeogenesis is a process that produces new

glucose from non-carbohydrate sources. The

metabolic pathways can convert materials such asoxaloacetate (from the Krebs cycle), lactic acid,

amino acid fragments and fat derivatives into

glucose. Even though gluconeogenesis is

anabolic, other factors in the body aresacrificed to make the new glucose. This can

ultimately cause deterioration.Unit 8 - Objective 7


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Definition of Nutrient

A nutrient is defined as a substance in food

that is used by the body to promote growth,

repair and maintenance.



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Major Classes of Nutrients

1. Carbohydrates

2. Lipids3. Proteins

4. Minerals

5. Vitamins

6. Water



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Objective9

Define the term mineral and give the proper symbol and

function of the following: calcium, phosphorous, iron,

iodine, sodium, potassium, magnesium, zinc.



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Definition of Mineral

A mineral is an inorganic substance made from a

metal and a nonmineral. For exmple, The metalsodium forms a sodium ion in water that can

react with a chloride ion that forms from chlorine

gas that can dissolve in water. This results in

sodium chloride which is an inorganic salt andone of the more abundant minerals in the earth.



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CalciumCalcium ( Ca+2) is a cation that has multiple

uses in the body. Included in the list of uses

are:

1. Assists blood clotting

2. Assists hardening of teeth and bones

3. Assists nerve cell function

4. Helps to initiate muscle contraction



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PhosphorousPhosphorous is used mainly in the form of

phosphate ( PO4-3). This anion can be used

to:

1. Combine with ADP to form ATP

2. Combine with calcium to form

a crystalline bone salt called

calcium phosphate.3. Form buffers for acid-base control



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Iron

Iron ( Fe+2) is a cation that has several uses

in the body. Included in the list are:

1. Used as a cofactor in enzyme

activity2. Used to make cytochromes found in

the ETS

3. Used to form hemoglobin



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Iodine

Iodine ( I-1) is an anion that is used mainly

to form thyroid hormones.



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SodiumSodium (Na+1) is a cation that is used to:

1. Create a positive condition outside

the cell.

2. Assist depolarization of nerve andmuscle cells

3. Osmotically control water in the

extracellular fluid (ECF)



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PotassiumPotassium (K+1) is a cation that is used to:

1. Assist repolarization in nerve and

muscle cells

2. Assist osmotic control of water in theintracellular fluid (ICF)

3. Contribute to synthesis reactions



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Magnesium

Magnesium (Mg+2) is a cation that is used

to:

1. Assist enzymes that are involved in

in the formation of ATP2. Maintain sensitivity in nerve cells


Zi


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Zinc

Zinc (Zn+2) is a cation that is used to:

1. Assist enzymes such as carbonic

anhydrase

2. Contribute to structure of certainproteins e.g. tumor suppressor protein

3. Required for normal growth, wound

healing, taste, smell, sperm

production, prostate activity, etc.


Obj i 10


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Objective 10Define what is meant by the term vitamin

and give or recognize the function (s) of the

following vitamins. Indicate whether each

vitamin is water or fat soluble and discuss

how this characteristic influences vitaminretention: Vitamins A, D, E, K, C, Niacin,

Riboflavin, Thiamine and Pantothenic Acid.


D fi i i f Vi i


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Definition of VitaminA vitamin is a specialized organic

compound that is used to assist enzymes in

various metabolic reactions. For example

the enzyme succinate dehydrogenase

removes hydrogen from succinic acid in theKrebs cycle and then transfers this

hydrogen to FAD which is made from

riboflavin. The hydrogen transfer to FAD iscalled reduction. Reduced FAD then

transports hydrogen to the ETS.Unit 8 - Objective 9


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Vitamin A

Vitamin A is a fat soluble vitamin that can take the form

of retinol or retinal. This vitamin can be stored in fats

and oils, and, if there is excessive storage, toxicity can

result. The functions forVitamin A include:

1. Serves as an antixoidant

2. Assists the formation of light sensitive pigments

in rod and cone cells of the retina.

3. Assists growth of teeth, bones and reproductive

cells.



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Vitamin D

Vitamin D is a fat soluble vitamin that is made in the

skin due to exposure to sunlight, This vitamin can be

stored in fats and oils, and, if there is excessive storage,

toxicity can result. The functions forVitamin D include:

1. Stimulates calcium absorption in the body

2. Assists bone formation, blood clotting and nerve

function.



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Vitamin E

Vitamin E is a fat soluble vitamin that is found in

vegetables. This vitamin can be stored in fats and oils,

toxicity seldom results. The functions forVitamin E

include:

1. Antioxidant

2. Helps protect cell membranes



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Vitamin K

Vitamin Kis a fat soluble vitamin that is found in

vegetables, liver and can be made by bacteria in the

large intestine. This vitamin is not stored in large

amounts in the body. The functions forVitamin K

include:

1. Formation of blood clotting proteins

2. Used as an part of the electron transport system

and assists ATP formation



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Vitamin C

Vitamin C is a water soluble vitamin that is found in

fruits and vegetables. This vitamin cannot be stored in

the body and must be consumed on a constant basis. The

functions forVitamin C include:

1. Antioxidant

2. Assists connective tissue formation

3. Assists formation of serotonin, bile and active

folacin

4. Assists iron absorption



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Niacin

Niacin is a water soluble vitamin that is found in green,leafy vegetables meats and nuts. This vitamin cannot be

stored in the body and must be consumed on a constant

basis. The functions for Niacin include:

1. Assists formation of NAD for use in cellular

respiration

2. Inhibits cholesterol formation

3. Dilates peripheral blood vessels and causesflushing



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Riboflavin

Riboflavin is a water soluble vitamin that is found inlegumes, eggs, milk, yeast, meats and nuts. This vitamin

cannot be stored in the body and must be consumed on a

constant basis. The functions for Riboflavin include:

1. Assists formation of FAD for use in cellular

respiration


Thi i


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Thiamine

Thiamine is a water soluble vitamin that is found in

legumes, eggs,, yeast, meats and green leafy vegetables.

This vitamin cannot be stored in the body and must be

consumed on a constant basis. The functions for

thiamine include:

1. Assists transformation of pyruvic acid to

acetyl COA

2. Assists formation of pentose sugars such as

ribose and deoxyribose. Remember these!

3. Assists the formation of acetylcholine

4. Assists the oxidation of alcoholUnit 8 - Objective 10

P t th i A id


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Pantothenic Acid

Pantothenic Acid is a water soluble vitamin that is

found in legumes, eggs,, yeast, meats and grains. This

vitamin cannot be stored in the body and must be

consumed on a constant basis. The functions for

pantothenic acid include:

1. Used in the formation of coenzyme A

2. Involved in the synthesis of steriods and the heme

unit of hemoglobin


Objective 11


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Objective 11

Give the source and functions of the

following hormones and indicate the causeand symptoms of the hormonal disorders

listed below: insulin, thyroid stimulating

hormone (TSH), thyroxine, growthhormone (GH), diabetes mellitus,

hypoglycemia, hyperglycemia, cretinism,

giantism, acromegaly, dwarfism


Insulin


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Insulin

Insulin is a hormone produced by the beta

cells of the pancreas. This hormone helpstransfer glucose from the blood into the

body cells and tissues. This hormone also

helps tissues convert glucose into fat anglycogen.


Hypoglycemia


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Hypoglycemia

If an excess of insulin is produced, it can

cause too much glucose to move out of theblood and into the cells and tissues of the

body. This can result in a low blood sugar

condition called hypoglycemia


Hyperglycemia


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Hyperglycemia

If too little insulin is produced, blood

glucose accumulates and does not go intocells and tissues. This results in a high

blood glucose condition called

hyperglycemia.


Diabetes Mellitus


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Diabetes Mellitus

If the beta cells of the pancreas become

diseased and stop producing insulin at anearly age, this results in a pathological

condition called diabetes mellitis. This

disease is sometimes called Type I ,orjuvenile, diabetes because it results in

chronic hyperglycemia that must be

controlled for the life of the individual.Type II diabetes mellitus is due to age and

poor response to insulin.Unit 8 - Objective 11

Thyroid Stimulating Hormone


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Thyroid Stimulating HormoneThyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) is

produced and released from the anteriorpituitary. As the name suggests, this

hormone stimulates the thyroid to release

thyroxine; either in the form T4 or T3.


Thyroxine


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ThyroxineThyroxine is a hormone produced by the

follicles of the thyroid gland and is used toincrease cell metabolism. This function

helps to maintain proper growth, repair and

body temperature. Excess thyroxine leads tohyperthyroidism and very high metabolism.

Below normal thyroxine production leads to

hypothyroidism and very low metabolism.


Cretinism


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CretinismCretinism is a disease of very young

children and occurs when below normalamounts of thyroxine are produced. This

results in very low metabolism, growth and

development. Cretins become severelystunted and retarded.


Growth Hormone


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Growth Hormone

Growth Hormone (GH) is produced and

released from the anterior pituitary. Thishormone increases fat utilization, protein

production and body organ development.

The long bones of the body are especiallystimulated to grow in length.


Giantism


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Giantism

Giantism is a disease caused by excess

secretion of growth hormone (GH). Thisdisease occurs in young, fast growing

children and results in excessive height for

the persons age and genetic background.


Acromegaly


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AcromegalyAcromegaly is a disease also caused by

excess secretion of growth hormone (GH).This disease occurs in adults and results in

overdeveloped body parts such as hands,

feet, forehead, jaw and internal organs.


Dwarfism


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DwarfismDwarfism is a disease caused by below

normal secretion of growth hormone (GH).This disease occurs in young children and

results slow growth and very short height.


Objective 12


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Objective 12Recognize and/or list five products

produced by lipid and protein anabolism


Lipid Anabolism


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Lipid AnabolismLipid anabolism is a constructive metabolic

process that produces new lipids from suchmaterials as glycerol, fatty acids,

phosphates, etc. Products of lipid anabolism

include:

1. Fats (triglycerides)

2. Oils

3. Waxes

4. Phospholipids 5. SteriodsUnit 8 - Objective 12

Protein Anabolism


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Protein AnabolismProtein anabolism is a constructive

metabolic process that produces newproteins from amino acids. Products of

protein anabolism include:

1. New enzymes

2. New antibodies

3. New muscle proteins; actin, myosin, etc.4. New Collagen for the skin

5 New keratin for the hair and fingernails

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Metabolism and Nutirion Physiology