Metacognition and learning in adulthood - Lectica · Metacognition and learning in adulthood Prepared in response to tasking from ODNI/CHCO/IC Leadership Development Office by Dr

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Metacognition and learning in adulthood

Prepared in response to tasking from ODNI/CHCO/IC Leadership Development Office

by Dr. Theo L. Dawson1, Developmental Testing Service, LLC

Saturday, August 23, 2008


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Metacognition and learning in adulthood

Contents


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Metacognition and learning in adulthood1

What is metacognition? Metacognition is thinking about thinking. Metacognitive skills are usually conceptualized as an interrelated set of competencies for learning and thinking,

and include many of the skills required for active learning, critical thinking, reflective judgment, problem solving, and decision-making. Adults whose

metacognitive skills are well developed are better problem-solvers, decision makers and critical thinkers, are more able and more motivated to learn, and are more likely to be able to regulate their emotions (even in difficult situations), handle complexity, and cope with conflict. Although metacognitive skills, once they are well-learned, can become habits of mind that are applied in a wide variety of contexts, it is important for even the most advanced adult learners to “flex their cognitive muscles” by consciously applying appropriate metacognitive skills to new knowledge and in new situations.

According to Flavell (1979), who coined the term, metacognition is a regulatory system that includes (a) knowledge, (b) experiences, (c) goals, and (d) strategies. Metacognitive knowledge is stored knowledge or beliefs about (1) oneself and others as cognitive agents, (2) tasks, (3) actions or strategies, and (4) how all these interact to affect the outcome of any intellectual undertaking. Metacognitive experiences are conscious cognitive or affective experiences that concern any aspect of an intellectual undertaking. Knowledge is considered to be metacognitive (as opposed to simply cognitive) if it is used in a strategic manner to meet a goal. According to Sternberg {, 1986 #14899) it is "figuring out how to do a particular task or set of tasks, and then making sure that the task or set of tasks are done correctly" (p. 24).

Some of the concepts commonly associated with the metacognition literature are shown in Table 1.

1Theo L. Dawson, Ph.D. (UC Berkeley, 1998), is a respected cognitive developmental psychologist. Her work focuses on the description of learning sequences—the actual pathways through which people learn complex concepts and skills—and the design of developmental assessments of these skills. She has worked closely with members of the IC since 2002, when she, along with her colleague Dr. Kurt Fischer (Harvard Graduate School of Education), conducted a study of the sequences through which critical thinking, leadership reasoning, and decision making skills develop in adulthood. Since then, her work with the IC has involved assisting with the design of leadership curricula, evaluating the extent to which curricula support leader development, and helping to define skill levels for a range of leadership and analyst standards.


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Table 1: Metacognition concepts Concept Description

Metacognitive knowledge about persons

Includes a person’s beliefs about intra-individual differences, inter-individual differ-ences, and universals of cognition

Metacognitive knowledge about tasks

The information available to apply to a cognitive activity and an individual’s knowl-edge about the task demands of a given situation

Metacognitive knowledge about strategies

Awareness of and beliefs about available strategies

Level of conscious aware-ness of metacognitive knowledge

Retrieval and construction of metacognitive knowledge can be either conscious or unconscious

Limits of metacognitive knowledge

Can be accurate or inaccurate, may not be activated when needed, may not have much influence when it is activated, and may not have a beneficial effect when it is influential

Duration of metacognitive experiences

Can be momentary or lengthy, as when we are consciously grappling with a chal-lenging problem

Occurrence of metacogni-tive experiences

Most likely to occur when one is engaged in intentional, reflective intellectual activi-ties such as problem-solving and learning

Effects of metacognitive experiences

Can lead one to establish new goals and to revise or abandon old ones, can cause one to add to one’s existing metacognitive knowledge base, and can activate strategies that would otherwise have remained inactivated

Memory-monitoring, self-regulation, meta-reasoning, consciousness/awareness, and auto-consciousness/self-awareness

Other terms for metacognition

Transfer Using a metacognitive skill learned in one context to solve a problem in another context.

Cognition A general term for thinking, sometimes distinguished from metacognition, which is thinking about thinking.

Ill-structured problems Ill-structured problems are open-ended, with unclear goals, multiple solutions, and no “right” answers—like many of the problems we face in the workplace

Double loop learning Learning how the way one defines and solves problems can be a source of prob-lems (Argyris, 1991).

Models of metacognition The term metacognition is both a general term for “thinking about thinking,” and a term used by a particular group of researchers to describe their field. There are numerous models of metacognition, far too many to describe here. To complicate things further, metacognition is a central component of several skill sets that are

central to education and the workplace, including (1) reflective judgment, (2) critical thinking, (3) decision making, and (4) problem solving. (Some researchers argue that these are components of metacognition.) Table 1 provides brief descriptions of some of the more prominent metacognitive models.


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Table 2: Models of metacognition Finding Implication Reference

Self regu-lated learning (lower levels)

Self-regulated learners approach educational tasks with confidence, diligence, and resourcefulness; are aware when they know a fact or possess a skill and when they do not; proactively seek out information when needed and take the necessary steps to master it; find a way to suc-ceed even when they encounter obstructions; view learn-ing as a systematic and controllable process; accept re-sponsibility for their achievement outcomes; and monitor the effectiveness of their learning methods or strategies. Self-regulated learning strategies include self-evaluation, organization and transformation, goal setting and planning, information seeking, record keeping, self-monitoring, envi-ronmental structuring, giving self-consequences, rehears-ing and memorizing, seeking social assistance, and re-viewing. (paraphrased from Zimmerman, 1990) In addition to metacognition, motivation and behavior are considered to be components of self-regulated learning.

(J. G. Borkowski & Thorpe, 1994; Como, 1986; Ghatala, 1986; Schloemer & Brenan, 2006; Barry J. Zimmerman, 1990) Note: Watch out for applications of this model that focus exclusively on teaching students more effective ways to memorize facts.


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Finding Implication Reference Critical think-ing (all lev-els)

The Foundation for Critical Thinking (http://criticalthinking.org) This model includes standards of thought (clarity, accuracy, rele-vance, logicalness, breadth, preci-sion, significance, completeness, fairness, and depth), which are ap-plied to the elements of thought (shown on the left), resulting in the development of intellectual virtues. This is an iterative cycle, which is repeated as reasoning increases in complexity over the course of de-velopment. Critical thinking and creative thought are linked in this model (Paul & Elder, 2006).

Reflective judgment

The reflective judgment model is a very well-researched model of the development of thinking about thinking.

(Kitchener & Fischer, 1990; Kitch-ener & King, 1990; P. K. Wood, 1997)

Double loop learning (up-per levels)

Argyris brings metacognition to the workplace by highlight-ing the importance of becoming conscious of the conse-quences of one’s actions. He uses real-life examples from the workplace to demonstrate methods for teaching upper level managers to think effectively about their thinking.

{Argyris, 1991 #14906; Argyris, 1982 #14625;


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Metacognition research

Table 3: Metacognition and learning Finding Implication Reference

Metacognitive skills develop. They can be learned. (Baer, Hollenstein, Hofstetter, Fuchs, & Reber-Wyss, 1994; Brown, Bransford, Ferrara, & Cam-pione, 1983; John H. Flavell, 1979; Ruth Garner & Alexander, 1989)

Adults often fail to monitor their thinking.

Adults can benefit from metacogni-tive training.

(J. H. Flavell, 1981; Ruth Garner & Alexander, 1989; Glenberg, Wilkin-son, & Epstein, 1982)

Students who have been taught metacognitive (self-regulated learn-ing) skills learn better than students who have not been taught these skills.

It is possible to produce better learners by teaching metacognitive skills.

(J. Borkowski, Carr, & Pressely, 1987; Bransford, Sherwood, Vye, & Rieser, 1986; Carr, Kurtz, Schnei-der, Turner, & Borkowski, 1989; R. Garner, 1990; Hascher & Oser, 1995; Mace, Belfiore, & Hutchinson, 2001; Pressley & Ghatala, 1990; B. J. Zimmerman & Schunk, 2001)

Students with good metacognitive skills are better critical thinkers, problem-solvers, or decision makers than students who are not.

It is possible to produce better criti-cal thinkers, problem-solvers, and decision makers by teaching meta-cognitive skills.

(Bransford et al., 1986; Ewell- Kumar, 1999; Heath, 1983)

People whose thinking is more complex tend to have better meta-cognitive skills.

Metacognition and cognitive com-plexity are related.

(Swanson & Hill, 1993; Vukman, 2005)

In most people, the development of cognitive complexity progresses at different rates in different knowledge domains, depending upon experi-ence and learning in particular do-mains.

Since cognitive complexity and metacognition are related, we might expect metacognition to be more advanced in more developed knowl-edge domains.

(Fischer & Pruyne; Fischer, Yan, & Stewart)

Cognitive development involves both knowledge acquisition and (largely unconscious) knowledge structuring. (If there is no knowledge to organize, then there is no devel-opment.)

Because metacognitive skills in-volve the conscious structuring of knowledge, they are likely to be more developed in areas of greater knowledge.

(Bransford et al., 1986)

Content knowledge is more easily accessed in real-world situations if students learn how new concepts and procedures can function as tools for solving relevant problems.

Learning environments should in-clude opportunities for students to reflectively apply new concepts and tools in real-world contexts.

(Glaser, 1984)

Both content knowledge and meta-cognitive skills are essential for learning.

Learning may be enhanced when instruction (1) provides explicit con-tent knowledge while (2) asking students to use metacognitive skills to operate on that knowledge.

(Bransford et al., 1986; Perkins, 1987)

Metacognitive training can increase students’ self-confidence and sense of personal responsibility for their own development.

Increased self-confidence and a sense of increased personal re-sponsibility may provide motivation for learning.

(McCombs & Marzano, 1990; Schunk, 1990)


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Finding Implication Reference Metacognitive training can increase students’ motivation to learn.

Training in metacognitive skills may enhance students’ sense of self efficacy, thus increasing their moti-vation to learn.

(Bandura, 1986; Hofer & Yu, 2003; Sperling, Howard, Staley, & DuBois, 2004)

Moving adult learners to a point of acknowledging that old routines no longer work as well as new, instructed ones takes time and many demonstrations of the superi-ority of the new routines.

Metacognitive strategies should be embedded in assignments and classroom activities across the cur-riculum at every level of instruction

(Ruth Garner & Alexander, 1989)

“Intelligent novices” can use general metacognitive skills to figure out how to obtain knowledge in an un-familiar domain.

Once adults have gained expertise and learned how to use a range of metacognitive skills in one domain, they can use some of their meta-cognitive skills to more rapidly learn in another domain.

(Bruer, 1993; Mathan & Koedinger, 2005); Garner, 1989 #14918}

Students receiving intelligent novice feedback acquire a deeper concep-tual understanding of domain princi-ples and demonstrate better transfer and retention of skills over time than students who do not receive such feedback.

Teachers or “intelligent tutors” can support the use of existing meta-cognitive strategies in new knowl-edge areas by providing feedback that reminds students to employ metacognitive strategies they have used in familiar knowledge areas.

(Mathan & Koedinger, 2005)

When students perceive an empha-sis on mastery goals in their class-room, they report using more meta-cognitive learning strategies.

Classrooms in which “covering the content” is emphasized over under-standing can deprive students of the opportunity to learn and master learning skills.

(Ames & AfIher, 1988)

Use of concept maps helped adult students develop thinking skills, promoted growth in understanding their learning processes, and fos-tered understanding of knowledge construction.

Concept mapping, used well, is a useful metacognitive skill.

(Daley, 2002)

Repeated experiences of dyadic discussions within the classroom improved reasoning skills (over con-trols).

Active engagement in thinking about a topic enhances the quality of reasoning about that topic.

(Kuhn, Shaw, & Felton, 1997)

Informal learning is enhanced in managers who employ a wide range of metacognitive strategies.

Training in the use of metacognitive strategies may increase informal learning in less metacognitively so-phisticated managers.

(Enos, Kehrhahn, & Bell, 2003)

Students in problem based learning classrooms have been found to have higher levels of intrinsic goal orientation, task value, use of elabo-ration learning strategies, critical thinking, metacognitive self-regulation, effort regulation, and/or peer learning compared with con-trol-group students.

Problem based learning environ-ments may enhance metacognitive skills relative to conventional in-structional environments.

(Sungur & Tekkaya, 2006)


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Finding Implication Reference Gifted learners have been found to employ fewer metacognitive strate-gies than less gifted students.

Gifted learners, because they learn easily, may not need to employ metacognitive strategies to excel. This could result in reasoning defi-cits in later life.

(Dresel & Haugwitz, 2005)

Table 4: Metacognition and critical thinking Concept Resources

Critical thinking is the ability to (1) identify and formulate important questions and problems; (2) gather and assess information; (3) test proposed conclusions against relevant criteria and standards; (4) think within alternative systems of thought, assessing their assumptions, implications and practical consequences; and (5) communicate effectively, without appealing to logical fallacies or manipu-lating others.

The Foundation for Critical Thinking (http://criticalthinking.org)

Table 5: Metacognition and reflective judgment Description Implications Source

Reflective judgment is metacogni-tion.

(Hofer, 2004)

Beliefs about learning significantly impact the quality of learning strate-gies and learning outcomes in gen-eral.

Students whose reflective judgment skills are more developed are likely to be better learners.

(B. K. Hofer, 1999; Barbara K. Hofer, 2000; Paulsen & Feld-man, 2005; Schommer, 1990, 1993; Schommer, Crouse, & Rhodes, 1992)(Bråten & Stromso, 2005; Muis, 2007; P. Wood & Kardash, 2002)


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Figure 1: Model of metacognitive skills and conditions for their development and use


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Table 6: Metacognition and problem solving Finding Implications Source

Effective problem solving depends on the nature and organization of the knowledge available to individu-als.

Students whose reasoning skills are more de-veloped are likely to be better learners.

Bransford, 1986 #6747; Chi, 1988 #982}

Psychological biases interfere with problem-solving

Psychological biases may be ameliorated through metacognition

(Duchon, Ashmos, & Dunegan, 1991)

Table 7: Metacognition and psychological biases Unconscious knowledge structuring takes place every time we learn something. These natural structuring processes have limitations that (1) are ineffective in some situations or (2) produce cognitive biases. Metacognition can be employed to counter these biases.

Note: Although it is clearly part of the subtext of much research in metacognition (especially critical thinking), the subject of psychological bias is rarely raised explicitly.

Bias Implications Source Overestimate explanatory knowledge

People tend to overestimate the depth of their explanatory knowl-edge (how well they understand concepts), which can produce deci-sion errors.

(Mills & Keil, 2004)

Table 8: Metacognition and mindfulness Finding or comment Source

“Mindfulness begins by bringing awareness to current experience—observing and at-tending to the changing field of thoughts, feelings, and sensations from moment to moment—by regulating the focus of attention. This leads to a feeling of being very alert to what is occurring in the here-and-now. It is often described as a feeling of being fully present and alive in the moment.” (p. 232) “Mindfulness is further defined by an orienta-tion to experience that …[involves] making a commitment to maintain an attitude of curiosity about where the mind wanders.” (p. 233)

(Bishop et al., 2004)

Mindfulness can be thought of as creating an optimally receptive state for new learning and experience, increasing the likelihood that appropriate metacognitive skils will be selected and employed.

(Garland, 2007; Tho-mas, 2006)

Mindfulness practice requires the activation of metacognitive knowledge, monitoring, and control.

(Wells, 2005)


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Figure 2: Metacognitive skills are an important component of interpersonal intelligence


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Teaching and learning metacognition

Figure 3: Learning model for the workplace, emphasizing motivation, assessment, and metacognition (adapted from http://www.bbi.school.nz/philosophy/learningtolearn.html)

Table 9: Teaching and learning metacognitive skills: The research Finding Reference

Metacognitive skills can be taught. (J. Borkowski et al., 1987; Bransford et al., 1986; R. Garner, 1990; Hascher & Oser, 1995)

Metacognitive skills learned in one context are not automatically transferred to another context.

(Ericsson, Chase, & Faloon, 1980)

Metacognitive skills are learned and applied more effectively in supported active learn-ing contexts than in direct instruction contexts.

An application of metacognition to diversity issues. Could be useful as a starting place for discussion.

(Byars-Winston & Fouad, 2006)

The role of formative assessment in self-regulated learning. (Nicol & MacFarlane-Dick, 2006)


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Table 10: Teaching and learning metacognitive skills: Activities Activity Description Resource

Identifying cogni-tive errors

When students monitor their learning, they can become aware of potential problems, including errors in encoding, operations, and goals. Errors in encoding include missing important data or not separating relevant from irrelevant data. Errors in operations in-clude failing to select the right sub-skills to apply or failing to divide a task into subparts. For example, some math students will jump right to what they think is the final calculation to get the desired answer. Errors in goal seeking include misrepresenting the task and not understanding the criteria to apply. Problems with cognitive load include being unable to handle the number of sub-skills necessary to do a task, or not having enough automatic, internalized sub-skills. A good way to discover what kind of errors managers are making in their thinking processes is to have them unpack their thinking by explaining, step by step, how they are approaching a given task. This not only allows the instructor to diagnose possible errors, it provides managers with an opportunity to describe their thinking processes, which, by itself, develops their metacognitive abilities.

(Nickerson, Perkins, & Smith, 1985)

Strategic learning Working in groups, have students generate questions about the content being learned and attempt to answer them. Have students produce written or verbal summaries of course texts. Require students to create examples, make analogies, and explain relationships between concepts. Then, engage students in the use of organizing strategies like concept maps, network representa-tions, and other graphic organizers.

(Simpson & Nist, 2000)

Self-regulatory metacognitive questions

These questions are designed to follow instruction on a particular topic and precede instruction on the next topic: (a) "What did I learn about this topic?" (monitoring) (b) "With what did I have difficulty?" (monitoring) (c) "What types of things can I do to deal with this diffi-culty?" (problem solving-planning) (d) "What specific action(s) am I going to take this week to solve any difficulties?" (planning) Before assigning this task for the first time, instructors should work through an example with the group.

(McInerney, McInerney, & Marsh, 1997)


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Activity Description Resource Cromley summa-rizes the research findings, then translates them into practical ac-tivities for the classroom. This is an excellent re-source for adult educators.

Skills need to be taught in the context in which they will be used. For example, if students are learning to lead in a high security situa-tion, they need to practice confronting the kinds of issues that come up in high security situations, not just "general" skills. Reading skills are subject-specific—understanding what you read in a technical report does not guarantee that you will read well in an-other subject area. Problem-solving skills in one subject area are different from those in other areas. Problem-solving skills need to be taught separately for each subject. Since problem-solving skills do not automatically transfer from one subject area to another, instructors need to show students how to transfer these skills and give them lots of practice. Students need more and better mental models of the world in order to learn and master new information and skills. Thinking skills, such as inferring unstated facts, need to be taught explicitly in the classroom; they do not develop on their own (except in a very few students). These strategies need to be practiced over and over again. Most adult learners have a very limited number of strategies for understanding new material or solving problems. Teaching them more strategies can help them learn much better. Learning lasts when the student understands the material, not just memorizes it. Information needs to be presented in small chunks so that working memory can process it. Students need immediate practice to move information from work-ing memory to long-term memory. It is impossible to remember without associating new information with what you already know.

(Cromley, 2000)

Authors provide an overview of scaffolding and its effects on learn-ing.

(From the abstract) This paper proposes an expanded conception of scaffolding with four key elements: (i) scaffolding agency – expert, reciprocal, and self-scaffolding; (ii) scaffolding domain – conceptual and heuristic scaffolding; (iii) the identification of self-scaffolding with metacognition; and (iv) the identification of six zones of scaffolding activity; each zone distinguished by the matter under construction and the relative posi-tioning of the participant(s) in the act of scaffolding.

(Holton & Clarke, 2006)


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Figure 4: Model of formative assessment and self-regulated learning


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Table 12: Metacognition fads

Fad Claim Comments Source

Learning styles

Different people have different learning styles (that can be measured with survey-type instru-ments) and these have an impact on learning.

Adjusting teaching style to accommo-date different learning styles has not been shown to impact learning. Moreo-ver, catering to learning preferences may limit versatility, having a negative effect on learning over time.

(Cromley, 2000; Curry, 1990; Stahl, 2002)

Emotional intelligence

Bringing intelligence to bear upon emotion.

“Much of the data necessary for demon-strating the unique association between EI and work-related behavior appears to reside in proprietary databases, pre-venting rigorous tests of the measure-ment devices or of their unique predic-tive value. For those reasons, any claims for the value of EI in the work setting cannot be made under the scien-tific mantle ” (p. 411)

{Landy, 2005 #14980}

Resources

Table 11: Metacognition curricula Resource Description Level Resources

IDEAL problem solving: Identify, Define, Explore, Act, and Look, and Learn.

The IDEAL problem solving system is “based on evidence that successful problem-solvers actively attempt to (a) identify problems that others may have overlooked; (b) develop at least two sets of contrasting goals for any prob-lem and define them explicitly; (c) explore strategies and continually evaluate their relevance to their goals; (d) an-ticipate the effects of strategies before acting on them; and (e) look at the effects of their efforts and learn from them.” (p. 3)

Pre-management

(Bransford, Hay-nes, Stein, Lin, & NashvilleRead, 1998)

TV411—a na-tional television series aimed at adult learners

Focuses, in part on helping adults manage their own learn-ing using metacognitive skills.

Pre-management

(D'Amico & Capehart, 2001)

Curricula to en-hance students higher order cognitive skills

A handbook offering a number of activities designed for adult learners. Many of these are appropriate for pre-managers, especially if they are contextualized (free from Eric).

Pre-management

(Carman & Askov, 1994)

Cognitive Strat-egy Instruction (CSI)

An instructional approach that has been shown to enhance learning by emphasizing the development of thinking skills and processes. The objective is to enable all students to become more strategic, self-reliant, flexible, and productive learners.

Pre-management

(Scheid, 1993)

Using critical thinking to gain knowledge and understanding

A useful resource for students of critical thinking in the workplace.

Pre-management

http://www.unisanet.unisa.edu.au/Resources/nursing/Critical%20thinking/Critical%20thinking.htm


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Resource Description Level Resources Designing meta-cognitive activi-ties

Several research-based suggestions for creating learning activities with a strong metacognitive component

(Lin, 2001)

Table 12: Metacognition measures Resource Description Resources

Lectical Reflective Judgment Assessment (LRJA01)

An online assessment of reflective judgment skill (for man-agers). Provides reliable developmental scores in ¼ level increments, as well as personalized feedback, including developmentally informed learning suggestions. Intended for personal use, coaching, and course evaluations.

http://devtestservice.com

Reasoning About Cur-rent Issues Test (RCI)

The RCI is an online assessment of the capacity to recog-nize and endorse statements that reflect the attributes of reflective thinking. It is not an assessment of reflective judgment skill, and it is not intended as an assessment of individuals, but can be used to assess group trends.

http://www.umich.edu/~ref-judg/reasoningaboutcurrentissuestest.html

International Critical Thinking Basic Con-cepts and Understand-ing Online Test

An assessment of students’ knowledge about critical think-ing concepts—the extent to which they have learned these concepts as they are presented in Elder and Paul’s model. It is not an assessment of critical thinking ability. Reliability information is not provided.

http://www.criticalthinking.org/courses/critical_thinkg_test1.cfm

International Critical Thinking Test

A pen and paper assessment of critical thinking skill that can be adapted to any subject area. Scoring is done by instruc-tors, and is based on rubrics.

http://www.criticalthinking.org/assessment//ICAT-info.cfm

Motivated Strategies for Learning Question-naire (MSLQ)

Based on the idea of self-regulated learning (SRL), this self-report instrument is “designed to assess motivation and use of learning strategies by college students. The motivation scales tap into three broad areas: (1) value (intrinsic and extrinsic goal orientation, task value), (2) expectancy (con-trol beliefs about learning, self-efficacy); and (3) affect (test anxiety). The learning strategies section is comprised of nine scales which can be distinguished as cognitive, meta-cognitive, and resource management strategies. The cogni-tive strategies scales include (a) rehearsal, (b) elaboration, (c) organization, and (d) critical thinking. Metacognitive strategies are assessed by one large scale that includes planning, monitoring, and regulating strategies. Resource management strategies include (a) managing time and study environment; (b) effort management, (c) peer learning, and (d) help-seeking.” (abstract)

(Pintrich, Smith, Garcia, & Mckeachie, 1993)


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Resource Description Resources Structure of Observed Learning Outcomes (SOLO)

Method for evaluating learning/reasoning outcomes that involves 5 levels of learning. Is often used to scaffold the development of scoring rubrics. Rubrics are high inference and inter-rater agreement is difficult to maintain. Nonethe-less, when inter-rater agreement is properly controlled, the rubrics are reliable enough for course evaluations (not usu-ally for individual evaluation). 1. Pre-structural Learners acquire bits of unconnected information, which have no organization and make no sense. 2. Uni-structural Learners make simple and obvious connections, but show little evidence that their significance has been grasped. 3. Multi-structural Learners make a number of connections, but meta-connections between them are missed, as is their signifi-cance for the whole. 4. Relational Learners appreciate the significance of the parts in relation to the whole. 5. Extended abstract Learners make connections both within and beyond the sub-ject area, showing they are able to generalize and transfer the principles and ideas.

(Biggs & Collis, 1982)


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Metacognition and learning in adulthood - Lectica · Metacognition and learning in adulthood Prepared in response to tasking from ODNI/CHCO/IC Leadership Development Office by Dr