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Brew, Angela, Boud, David ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6883-2722, Lucas, Lisa andCrawford, Karin (2018) Academic artisans in the research university. Higher Education, 76 (1) .

pp. 115-127. ISSN 0018-1560 [Article] (doi:10.1007/s10734-017-0200-7)

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Accepted version of Brew, A., Boud, D., Lucas, L. and Crawford, K. (accepted for publication 25 Sept 2017). Academic artisans in the research university, Higher Education DOI:10.1007/s10734-017-0200-7

Academicartisansintheresearchuniversity

AngelaBrew,DavidBoud,LisaLucasandKarinCrawford

AbstractInthechangingcontextofuniversities,organisationalstructuresforteachingandresearchproblematizeacademicroles.ThispaperdrawsonacriticalrealistanalysisofsurveysandinterviewswithacademicsfromuniversitiesinEnglandandAustralia.Itidentifiesimportantacademicwork,notcapturedsimplyindescriptionsofteachingorresearch.Itshowsthatmanyacademics,whoarenotresearchhighflyersnoraward-winningteachers,carryoutthisessentialworkwhichcontributestotheeffectivefunctioningoftheiruniversities.Thatworkisreferredtoasacademicartisanalworkandthepeoplewhodoitasacademicartisans.Characteristicsandexamplesofacademicartisansarepresentedandthenatureofartisanalworkisexplored.Implicationsforhighereducationmanagementandforfuturestudiesarediscussed.Thepaperpointstoanurgentneedtobetterunderstandthecomplexnatureofacademicwork.

Keywords:Academicwork,academiccareer,teaching-onlycontracts,academicperformance

IntroductionInthechangingcontextofhighereducation,universitieshavebeenchallengedbytheneedtoestablishnewtechnicalandspecialistoccupationsandtoredefinetraditionalacademicteachingandresearchroles.Newpressures,newdemandsandnewfunctionsrequireneworganisationalstructures(Henkel2016).Nevertheless,structuresandfundingmechanismstendtoexistforresearchandteachingseparately.Indeed,inrecentdecadesafocusonoutputsandeffectivenessofbothresearchandteaching,hasledtoincreasingpolarizationandcodificationofthesetwoaspectsofuniversityfunctioning.Ononeside,thereisresearchwithitsdistinctpracticesledbynationaldemandsforproductivityand,inmanycases,assessmentexercises(McNay,2009).Ontheotherside,isseparatelyfundedandorganizedteaching,whichhasmoreorlessdistinctpracticesanddemands.Thisemphasisonresearchandteachingnotonlycreatesdiscoursesofseparatemeasurementsofeffectiveness,italsoallowsdifferentialvaluingofaspectsofacademicwork;researchcommonlybeingvaluedmorethanteaching(cf.Boyer,1990).

Thisbifurcationconstructsacademicworkasbeingeitherteachingorresearchwith“service”or“communityengagement”athirdpoorcousin(Macfarlane,2007).Academics’contractshavetraditionallyfocusedonteachingandresearchand,giventheemphasisoneffectiveness,

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separateevaluationsarealsoappliedtoindividualsthroughpromotionandprogression.Therefore,inshapingtheiracademicjobs,individualshavetobalancethesedifferentactivities(Brew,Boud,Crawford&Lucas,2017;ChurchmanandKing,2009).However,theacademicroleischangingasthenatureofresearchandmasshighereducationdemandnewexpertise.Oftenthisisdonewithoutempiricalevidenceofhowacademicsthemselvesthinkabouttheirworknorevidenceofhowtheycancreatecareertrajectoriesthataddressinstitutionalrequirements,whileatthesametimemeetingtheirpersonalgoals(Brew,etal,2017).

Inuniversitieswherethereisahighlevelofresearchactivityandsubstantiallevelsofsupportforresearch,significantnumbersofqualifiedandcapableacademicsdonotappeartoengageinresearch,conformtotheexpectedlevelsofresearchoutputsorrespondtoinjunctionstodoso.Someacademicsengageinresearchbutfindthatwhennationalresearchassessmentisintroduced,eithertheirresearchisnotattheexpectedlevel,orthatitisnottherightkindofresearch,orsimplythatitdoesnotfittheirdepartment’sresearchnarrative(Lucas2006;Lucas,inpress).Insomeresearch-intensiveinstitutions,suchacademicsaretreatedasiftheydonotorcannotexistandaremovedtoteaching-onlycontracts(Locke,Whitchurch,Smith&Mazenod,2016).

Thereisawiderangeofacademicworkneededtomakeuniversitieseffective,whichis,strictlyspeaking,neitherresearchnorteaching.Whileresearchandteachingareseparateandvisible,othernecessaryaspectsofacademicworkarerenderedinvisibleorarerelegatedtoalessimportantcategory(e.g.service).Wesuggestthatthoseacademicswhoprincipallycarryoutthisworkhavetendedtoberenderedinvisibleindiscoursesofuniversityfunctioningandevaluation.

ThisgroupofpeopleappeartobecharacterizedbydeSousaSantos’(2013)notionofthesociologyofabsences.Hesuggeststhatagroupthatappearsnottoexist,mayinfactbesociallyconstructedasnotexisting;that“non-existenceisproducedintheformofnon-productiveness”which,whenappliedtolabourconsistsof“discardablepopulations,laziness,professionaldisqualification,lackofskills”(DeSousaSantos,2013,p.2:18).Thisdescribesacademicsnotwellpublishedinresearch,forexample,whohavebeenoverlookedindiscussionsofresearcherproductivity(Brew,Boud,Namgung,Crawford&Lucas,2015)and,withinself-identifiedresearch-intensiveinstitutionshavetendedtobeconstructedasdeficient,lackingthenecessaryskillsordrivetoengageinresearch.

Thispaperarguesthattoconsideracademicseitherasfocusedmainlyonteachingoronresearchistomis-representthenatureofacademicwork.Itsaimistocounteractdeficitmodelsofacademicswhoarenottheresearchhighflyersorawardwinningteachers,arguingthatthereareimportantaspectsoftheworkofacademicsthathavegoneunnoticedandunrewarded;thataretherebyabsentinacademicdiscourse.Thepaperdrawsimplicationsfromthesefindingsforuniversityfunctioningandspecificallythewaysinwhichuniversitypolicyneedstoshiftifpeoplewhodonottakearesearchproductivepathcanbefullyrecognisedasmakingimportantcontributionstotheoverallacademicenterpriseoftheuniversity.

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Thepaperdiscussesthechangingcontextofacademicworkintroducingtheideaofacademicartisanalwork.Itthenpresentsthemethodsofinvestigation.Thisleadstoadiscussionofthefindingsfromquantitativeandqualitativeanalyses.Threeexamplesofhowacademicscarryoutartisanalworkarepresentedbeforediscussingmorefullythecharacteristicsofsuchwork.Thediscussionfurtherexamineschallengesraisedbytheidentificationofacademicartisansandrelatesthistoissuesraisedintheliteratureonacademicwork.

BackgroundThechangingnatureofacademicworkhasbeencommenteduponextensivelyinthelasttwodecades(seee.g.Blau,1994;Gornall,Cook,Daunton,Salisbury&Thomas,2013)withsimilarchangesbeingnotedincomparativestudiesacrossdifferentnations(seee.g.Fumisolietal,2015;Teichler&Höhle,2013).Thepressuresofacademicworkandtimeconstraintshasbeenaparticularcauseforconcern(e.g.Gibbs,Ylioki,Guzman&Barnett,2015).

Althoughassumptionsaboutacademicsretaining“researchandteaching”contractspersist,thereisagrowingliteratureexploringnewtypesofacademicandquasi-academicroles(seee.g.Macfarlane,2011;Szekeres,2004;Whitchurch,2008a).Ithasbeenrecognisedthatpeopleon“professionalstaff”contractsareincreasinglyperformingteachingandresearchfunctions.Macfarlane(2011,p.59)referstothisasthe“unbundling”ofacademicwork.Whitchurch(2008a,p.378)highlightstheroleofextendedprojectsthatarecreatingwhatshecalls“athirdspace”inwhichprofessionalstaffareconducting“quasi-academic”functionsin“blendedroles”workinginsituationsandacrossprofessionsinwaysthatexemplifyNowotny,ScottandGibbons’(2001)notionofMode2knowledgeconstruction.Thereis,Whitchurch(2008b,p.387)suggests,evidencethatstaffareconstructingnewformsofauthorityviatheinstitutionalknowledgesandrelationshipsthattheycreateonapersonal,day-to-daybasis.Whilediscoursesofuniversityfunctioningcontinuetoconstructthemasteachingandresearchinstitutions,whatliesinbetweenishidden.Szekeres(2004)describesadministrativestaffinuniversitiesaslargelyinvisiblearguingthattheirworkisdisregardedinuniversitydiscourses.ShequotesMcInniswhosuggeststhatpreviously“administrativestaffwereconsideredpowerlessfunctionaries”buttheynow“increasinglyassumehigh-profiletechnicalandspecialistrolesthatimpingedirectlyonacademicautonomyandcontroloverthecoreactivitiesofteachingandresearch”(McInnis,1998,p.166,inSzekeresp.18).Newmanagerialistpracticeshavebroughtwiththemanincreaseinadministrativework(Szekeres,2004).Indeed,USstatisticsshowthatfacultyspendmoretimeonadministrationthantheydoonteachingandresearch(Snyder&Dillow,2012).

Courtney(2012)arguesthatmanyofthesechangesinacademicworkareadirectresponsetochangesintheenvironment,suchaschangesintechnology,newformsofknowledgeproductionandincreasingburdensofauditingandmanagerialism.Otherchangesareindirect,comingaboutlargelyduetocost-cuttingpressures.Theseincludeincreasesincasualisation,andtheadoptionofnon-standard,part-time,temporary,andfixedtermcontracts.Indeed,

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Ryan,Burgess,ConnellandGroen,(2013)reportedthat25percentofacademicsinAustraliawerecasualstaffwhocarriedaround50%oftheteachingload.

Despiteallthesechanges,andtheargumentsaroundtheunbundlingofacademicwork,manyacademicsstillhavebothteachingandresearchresponsibilitiesanditisthesewhoarethefocushere.Locke(2014)reportedthatin2012-13justoverhalfofallUKacademicstaffwereinteachingandresearchroles,justover25%wereonteaching-onlycontractsandnearly23%onlyundertookresearch.Amongthoseonfull-timecontracts,over60%wereonresearchandteachingcontracts,just9%wereonteaching-onlyandnearly30%wereonresearch-onlycontracts.However,in2013-14thenumberofUKstaffonteachingandresearchcontractshaddeclinedandLocke,etal.,(2016)suggestthattheynowrepresent48%.DatafromAustraliaindicatethatin2016,58%ofacademicstaffwereonteachingandresearchcontracts(AustralianGovernment,2016).

Nationalresearchassessmentexerciseshavefocusedattentiononlevelsofresearchoutputsandledtoconcernsthateveninresearch-intensiveinstitutions,considerablenumbersofteachingandresearchacademicsarenotresearch-active.Someuniversitieshaveintroducedstrategiestodismissthemormovethemtoteaching-onlypositions(Henkel,2005;Lucas,2006;Lucas,inpress).

Thereisnonethelessevidencethattodescribeacademicsasteachingandresearchacademicsmaskswhattheyactuallydo.Itservestoexcludethefact,asMacfarlane,(2015,p.108)notes,thatacademicsspendagooddealoftheirtimeengagedintasksthatcouldbedescribedasadministrativeandserviceactivitiesratherthanresearchorteaching.Wearenottalkinghereofsmallnumbers.IntheUK,McNay(2003)reportsthat66%ofacademicsweredefinedbytheiruniversityasnotsufficiently“researchactive”tobeenteredintothe2001RAE.Wecannotassume,asMacfarlane(2011)does,thatthelownumbersofacademicssubmittedtotheUK’sresearchassessmentframeworkmeansthatmostacademicsareprincipallyteachers.Manymaybeengagedinthesamekindsof“thirdspace”tasksdescribedabove.

ChurchmanandKing(2009)pointtothedisjuncturebetweenhowacademicsdescribetheirworkandofficialstoriesthataretold.Thisishighlightedbythewayteachingandresearchareviewedasseparate,butareintegratedintheeverydaypracticesofacademics.MalcolmandZukas(2009)highlightthemessinessofacademicworkandarguethatmoreneedstobeunderstoodabouttheacademyassitesofsocialpractice,wherethereisinterplaybetweentheinstitution,theworkinglivesofacademics,whattheydoandwhattheythink.Whitchurch(2008a,p.378)alsosuggeststhattherehasbeenlittleempiricalworkonthe“crossovers”thatareoccurringwithinthe“newformsofinstitutionalspacethatarebeingcreated”.

Thispaperaddressestheseconcerns.Whilerecognizingthatmanyprofessionalstaffworkwithinthe“thirdspace”thatWhitchurchhasidentified,ourfocusisonwhatacademicsdowithinit.Werefertothatworkasacademicartisanalwork,andthepeopleforwhomsuchworkconstitutesamajorpartoftheireffort,asacademicartisans.

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Likeprofessionalsinmanycomplexorganisations,academicsworkouthowtoshapetheirownjobsinwaysthatsatisfytheirowngoalsandneedswhileatthesametimemeetinginstitutionalrequirements(Brew,etal,2017).Everyonehastobalancewhatisexpectedofthemwithwhattheywanttoachieve;tofindawaytocraftacareerthathascoherenceandasenseofpurpose.Someacademics,clearly,carryouttheirteachingandresearchfunctionsunproblematicallyandaresuccessful.Othersputtogethertasksandresponsibilitiesthatcometohandandshapeacademicjobsinnewways;waysthatcanneitherbecharacterisedasteachingnorasresearch.LeviStrauss(1962)usestheterm“bricolage”todescribetheactofmakingsomethingbyputtingtogetherwhateverisathandinnewways.Thebricoleurmakesdowithwhatisavailableandputsthingstouseforpurposesforwhichtheywerenevermeant.TheJapaneseword“shokunin”meaning"artisan"or"craftsman",seemstocapturesomeofthesenseofthebricoleurbutalso,importantly,thesenseofdoingthebestworkforthecommunitywhichalsoimpliesaprideinone'swork.InthewordsoftheJapanesesculptorandshokuninTashioOdate(1984,p.viii):“shokuninmeansnotonlyhavingtechnicalskill,butalsoimpliesanattitudeandsocialconsciousness...asocialobligationtoworkone’sbestforthegeneralwelfareofthepeople,[an]obligationbothmaterialandspiritual.”Thistakesusbeyondsimplisticideasofartisansasskilledworkers,toexpressasenseofagencyandconscientiousnessinrespondinginwaysthatcontributetothegoodofthewhole.Itisthiswhichexpressesthesenseinwhichweusetheterm“artisanal”toexplaintheworkofacademicsthatsitsbetweenteachingandresearch.

MethodsOurresearchtakesacriticalrealistperspective,whichassumesthatpeoplearesociallyproducedandsubjecttochange,yetasembodiedindividualstheyrespondbothintellectuallyandemotionally,interpretingandmakingdecisionsaboutthemacroandmicrodiscoursesintheirspecificcontexts.SofollowingArcher(2007),weresearchedtheinternalconversationsthatacademicshadabouttheuniversityanditsroleintheirformationasresearchersandteachers.Weexploredhowacademicsnegotiatethecomplexbalancingofresearchandteaching.Thispaperdrawsonanalysesofquantitativesurveydata,qualitativesurveycommentsandinterviewtranscripts.

WeconductedanonlinesurveyofacademicsfromresearchintensiveuniversityenvironmentsinsixAustralianandsixEnglishuniversitiestoexplorehowacademicsdevelopasresearcherand/orteacher,whattheyprioritise,andwhatconstrainsandenablestheirinterpretationsoftheacademiccontext,leadingthemtotakeupparticularpositionsfocusingvariouslyonteachingorresearchorotheractivities.Institutionswereselectedsoastoprovideamixofuniversitieswithresearch-intensiveareas(recognisingthatareasofresearchintensityexistevenwhenauniversityasawholeisnotdesignatedresearchintensive).SoAustralianuniversitiesincludedtheGroupofEight(Go8),InnovativeResearchUniversities(IRU)andtheAustralianTechnologyNetwork(ATN),whileEnglishuniversitiesincludedRussellGroup,post-92andredbrickuniversities.Academicssurveyedwerefromthreebroaddisciplinarygroups:

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SciencesandEngineering;SocialSciencesandHumanities;andHealthSciences.Respondentswereidentifiedthroughstafflistsonwebsites.Approximately4000academicsweresurveyedineachcountry.Beforetheanalysis,respondentswhoidentifiedasnotonteachingandresearchcontractswerediscardedaswereresponseswithinsufficientdata.Thisleftatotalof2163usableresponsesfortheanalysis.Thesurveyconsistedofquantitativemeasures,butspacewasprovidedforqualitativecomments.

Respondentswereaskedhowmuchtimetheyspentondifferentactivitiesandinanopen-endedquestionwhatelsetheyspenttheirtimeon.Responsestothisquestionwerecontentanalysed.

Wedeterminedlevelsofresearcherproductivity,fromself-reportsofpublicationlevelsandresearchgrantapplications(Brew&Boud,2009)takingaccountofdisciplinarydifferencesinpublicationpracticesbydetermininglevelsofresearchproductivityatthedisciplinarylevel.Foreachdisciplinarygroup,weconstituteda“highresearchproductive”groupconsistingofrespondentsdesignatedhighonpublicationsandhighongrants;asecond“lowresearchproductive”groupfromrespondentslowonpublicationsandongrants;andathirdmediumgroup.(ForafullerdiscussionofhowthiswasdoneseeBrew,etal,2016).

Semi-structuredinterviewswithtwenty-sevenmid-careeracademicsfromthreeAustralianuniversities(1Go8;1ATN;and1other)andfiveEnglishuniversities2RussellGroup;11964;11984;1new)werecarriedoutandtranscribed.Intervieweeswereidentifiedfromthosewho,inthesurvey,indicatedawillingnesstobeinterviewed.Purposivesamplingwasusedtoselectacademicswith5-10years’experiencebeyondtheirdoctorateinthethreebroaddisciplines.Interviewquestionsfocusedonhowparticipantssawthemselvesasanacademic,howtheybecamethekindofacademictheyare,criticalincidentsintheircareer,perceivedpersonalandstructuralinfluencesintheircurrentrole,whatconstrainsandwhatenablesteachingandresearchdecisions,andtheirfutureaspirations.Theinterviewswhichwerecarriedouttheauthors,lastedaroundonehour.Allintervieweeswereinformedofthepurposeoftheresearchandgaveinformedconsent.

Interviewswerefirstanalysedaccordingtobroadthemes.Indiscussionwiththewholeteam,linkagesbetweenthemeswerethenidentifiedandsummariesofeachtranscriptcreatedaccordingtothethemes.Asecondlevelofanalysistocompareandcontrastthemesacrosstranscriptswasthencarriedoutandvariationsclarified.(SeeBrew,etal,2017forafullerdiscussionoftheanalysis.)

FindingsDatasuggestedthatthe“lowresearchproductive”groupofacademicswerebynomeanslazy,unqualifiedorlackingthenecessaryskillstosucceedinaresearch-intensiveenvironment.Onthecontrary,questionnairedataindicatedthatsuchpeopleworkonaverage41.5hoursperweek,whichrepresentsnearlyonedayperweekovertheircontracted35hours.Suchacademicshavedifferentprioritiestotheirresearch-productivecolleagues.Incontrasttohigh

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productiveresearcherswhotendedtoprioritiseresearch,theytendedtoprioritiseteaching.Itwasfoundthatpeoplewhoprioritiseteachingdolessresearchthanthosewhoprioritiseresearch.Wefoundthattheiractionsfacilitateresearchcapacity,becausetheyundertakealargershareofundergraduateteachingandteachingadministration.Theywereinclinedtospendlesstimeonresearchandsupervisionandaboutthesametimeonadministrationwhichforthemtendedtobefocusedonaspectsthatsmooththefunctionsoftheuniversity,including,forexample,leadingcourses,headingdepartments,takinguppositionsofresponsibility,takingagreaterroleinadvisingstudentsandintroducingcurriculuminnovations.Incontrast,theadministrationdonebyhighlyproductiveresearcherstendedtoberesearchadministration.

Likemanyuniversitysystemsandpoliciessuchaspromotionsrequirements,committeestructuresetc.,thesurveyhadbeenimplementedontheassumptionthatacademicworkwasdivisibleintofourrelativelydistinctareas:teachingandsupervision;research;administrationandmanagement;andexternalengagement.Soacademicswereaskedhowmuchtimeinatypicalweektheyspentontheseactivities.Theywerethenaskedwhatotheractivitiestheyspenttheirtimeon.Theopen-endedsurveyresponsestothisquestionarerevealinginthecontextofthispaper,becausemanyoftheactivitiesrepresentsubstantialresponsibilities.Whilesomeacademicsmentionedactivitiessuchasteachingpreparationorresearcharticlewriting,manyacademics,bothinAustraliaandEngland,enumeratedavastcatalogueofactivitiesthatwerenotsimplyteaching,researchoradministration(seeFigure1).

Inwardfacing–‘keepingtheshowontheroad’

Forexample,formalcoordinationresponsibilities,curriculumdevelopment,institutionbuilding,resourcemanagement,facultylevelresponsibilities,administrativeactivitiestodowithstudents,othergeneraladministrativework,professionaldevelopment.Englishacademicsalsomentioned;admissionsandsocialactivitieswithstudents

Outwardfacing–universityrelationshipwithsocietyandcommunity

Forexample,promotionandoutreach,consultancy,marketing,commercialisation,Academicorganisationwork,research-relatedprofessionalactivities.Englishacademicsalsomentioned,broadcasting,conferenceandeventorganisation,externalexamining

Figure1.Academicactivitiesnotedbysurveyrespondentsasnotbeingresearch,teachingoradministration

Someoftheseactivitiesfocusinwardtokeeptheuniversityfunctioning.Othersareoutwardfacingandhavetodowithcreatingandmaintaininguniversityrelationshipswithsociety.ThisisinlinewithotherworkprincipallyfromtheUSthatisfocusedonnotionsof“service”

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(Gouldner,1957;Ward,2003)orthescholarshipofengagement(Boyer1996;Diamond&Adam,1996).InaUKcontext,Macfarlane’s(2007,p.265)“servicepyramid”includessimilaractivities.However,itisnoticeableherethatnoneofour2163EnglishandAustralianrespondentsmentioned“service”assomethingtheyspenttheirtimeon.Thissuggeststhatwhileinstitutionsmaycategorisesomeoftheseactivitesasserviceorevenacademiccitizenshiporcommunityengagement,andacademicsmayberequiredtolistsomeofthemundersuchheadingswhenapplyingforpromotion,thisdoesnotappeartocharacterisehowthisworkisconceptualizedbytheseEnglishandAustralianacademics.Someoftheseactivitiesmaycomeundertheheadingofservice,othersdonot.Someareoldrolesmadevisible;othersemanatefromthenewconditionsofacademicworkmentionedabove.However,callingcertainkindsofworkserviceoracademiccitizenshiptellsusnothingaboutwhatsuchworkmeanstoacademics,noraboutthewaysinwhichacademicscarryingoutsuchfunctions,thinkaboutandperformthem.Thisiswhywehavefeltitnecessarytointroducethenotionofacademicartisans(inthesenseof‘shokunin’asmentionedabove).

Sincethislistofactivitieswasderivedfromopen-endedsurveycomments,itisnotpossibletolinktheresponsestoacademics’researchproductivitylevels.Thesesurveyresponsesmerelyhintatthekindsofactivitiesthatcomeundertheumbrellaofartisanalwork.Indeed,artisanalworkcannotbedescribedsimplyintermsofsetsofactivities.Itishowacademicsthinkaboutthem,andthewaysinwhichtheyperformthem;thestepstheytaketoensurethattheyrespondcreativelytoactualneedsandproblemsastheyarise,thattheartisanalnatureofthisworkbecomesclear.Intheinterviews,weseewhatsuchactivitiesinvolveforindividuals,Theinterviewdatasuggeststhattherearemanyacademicsengagedinsubstantialactivitiesofthesekindswhoare,eitherasacauseoraconsequenceofthiswork,unabletomaintainhighlevelsofresearchproductivityasthefollowingthreeexamplesderivedfromtheinterviewsdemonstrate.Theseexamples,werechosenbecausetheyillustratehowindividualsdrawupontheirpersonalskills,qualitiesandintereststoactivelyshapetheirworktomeetinstitutionalrequirements.Theyhavebeengivenpseudonymstopreserveconfidentiality.Linenumbersoftranscriptsareincluded.

Example:KathyKathyisaSeniorLecturerinanAustralianuniversity.Shedescribesherselfashavingateaching/research/adminbalancedposition.Sheisinthemediumresearchproductivitygroup.Sheteachesafirst-yearcoursewithalargeintake(550students).60%ofthestudentsarenotmajoringinhersubject.MostofherteachingisinSemester1,butsheteachesthesamecourseinsession3(thesummerprogram)aswell.Shehasoneofthemajoradministrativeloadsinthedepartment,leadingateamthatcoordinatesalltheundergraduateprograms.Thisinvolvesstudentadvising.Itisabigjobandshedescribesherselfasworkingreallyhard.Sheexhibitsalargedegreeofresilienceinthefaceofchallengesinboththeteaching,adminandresearchareas.

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so when there’s identification that maybe a process needs looking at, orthinkingabout,orwhatever, that’swhen Iwillcome inand liaisewithotherpeopletotryandstreamlinestuff,Iguess,iswhat’smyrole.That’showmyrolehas developed…. The role continues to develop so that’s the direction I’msteeringitinatthemoment,‘causethat’swhatIseeastheneed.(Kathy,L.285-90)

Kathytakesonamajoradministrativeloadwhichcouldbeframedas“service”inapromotionapplication,buthereshedemonstrateshowsheshapesthisparticularrolebyidentifyingtheactualrequirementsandrespondingcreativelytothem.

Example:SidneySidneyisaLectureratanAustralianuniversity.OriginallyfromtheUK,hehasaminoritybackground.Heisclearthatthefirst-yearmodulethatheteachesisstrategicallyimportant,bringinginsignificantstudentnumbersandbeingamain“pull”forthedepartment;hevalidateshiscontributioninthisway.Heundertakespedagogicalresearchandenjoystheopportunitytodevelophisteaching,despiteincreasedteachingloadsandtheworkthisallcauses.Hesaysthathisresearchisjusttickingalongatabout30%ofwhatitcouldbe.

Thecoreofmyteachingrolehereiswithalargefirstyearcriticalthinkingclassthatwehave.…it'sabigrevenuestreamforthedepartmentandit'soneofthemainwaysinwhich…weattractstudents…Soitbearsquitealotofresponsibility,andconsequently,…it'sverytimeconsuming….AndIoverseeitsteachingatsatellitecampuses…andagiftedandtalentedprogramme.…Sowhilstmyresearchhaskindoftickedalong,…it'sgivenmetheopportunitytopursueresearchintoteachingandtoexploreavenues…andconnectionswithpeopleinlearningandteachingthatIreallycherishandthinkarereallyvaluable.…It'sdiminishedtheamountofresearchIcando.….[but]I'mhappyabouttheopportunitytodowhatIhavedone(SidneyL.10-115).

Sidneydemonstrateshowhecreativelyputstogetherarangeofactivitiesthatappeartohimtogotogetherincludingcarryingoutresearchonlearningandteachingtomakeauniquecontribution.

Example:SophieSophieworksinanEnglishdepartmentofeducation.Shehasbeeninpostfor14years.Whenshebeganshehadaverystrongbackgroundinteachingandcounselling,butnotverymuchresearchexperience.Sheseesherselfas:“somebodywhocaresaboutthestudentsbutwhoalsowantstobeaccessibletopeople”(L250-1).Shesays:“anythingtodowiththestudentswouldcomefirstforme”(L42).Sophieseesformalstructuresassomethingthatcanbeusedtoinfluencethestudentexperience,e.g.inchairingafacultylevelqualitycommittee.SheisdirectorofteachingandlearningwithinthedepartmentaswellascoordinatinganoffshoreMasters.Shehadrecentlybeenpromotedtoreader.Wecharacteriseheraslowtomedium

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researchproductivity,butitisclearthatalthoughshelikeswriting,carryingoutresearchisnotapriorityforher.

when[chairingthefacultyqualitycommittee]cameuptwoyearsagothat’swhenIdecidedIwouldgoforit.…I’dstartedtofeelIwasbecomingabittooinsularandI’vealways,reallyeversinceI’veworkedintheuniversity[I]gottoknowpeople…andgotasenseofthedifferentculturesofthedifferentdepartmentsandI’dstartedtofeelIwasn’tdoingthatanymore,sothatwasoneofthereasonsIwantedtobeoutandaboutinthefacultyandgettingtoknowpeopleandtheotherreasonwasbecauseIdofeelstrongly,howeveryoudefineit,qualityinlearningandteachingandIthinktherearemorepeoplewhofeelthosethingsareimportantnow,inthisuniversity,thandidinthepastandIfindthatreallyencouraging.(Sophie,L505-514)

Sophietookonadefinablerolebutinthisextractsheillustrateswhatthatmeanstoherintermsofthewaysinwhichitenableshertointeractwithpeopleacrossthewholeuniversity.

DefiningtheacademicartisanTheactivitiesinFigure1andtheexamplesheretendtobeperformedbyacademicswhoarenotjustteachers,butmanageandorganizethingsformallyandinformally.Theyarerespondingtothesituationstheyareintomakepositivecontributionsthatdeveloporsupportthemissionoftheuniversity.Aswesawintheexamples,researchmaysufferasaconsequence.

Academicartisansdonotjustcraftpositionsforthemselvestomeettheirownneeds.Thebulkofwhattheydoisfocusedonprovidingaservicetotheinstitutionbygoingbeyondnecessarytasksandcontributingtoabiggerwhole.Tocharacterizethisworkasartisanalistodrawattentiontohowsuchacademicsdemonstrateasenseofresponsibilityandagencyforworkwhichcomestheirway.Theyalsodemonstratecommitmenttotheinstitution,totheircolleaguesand/ordepartmentandtostudents;notjusttheirownstudents,butstudentsmorebroadly.Theydisplayconscientiousnessaboutfixingthingsthattheyperceivetoneedfixing.Theytendtobegoodcorporatecitizenswhoarecommittedtothecollective,oftencaringaboutstudentengagementandwellbeing,abouthowcolleaguesworktogetherandensuringefficientfunctioningoftheirworkgroup.Suchpeoplemaynotbeparticularlyproductiveinthetypicalresearchsense,butareessentiallykeepingtheuniversitygoing.Theworkoftheacademicartisanisoftenforgotten;oritisassumedthatwhattheydoareminorelementsofnormalteachingandresearchcontracts,ormaybedismissedas“service”.

Ourdatasuggestartisanalworkrequiresawiderangeofprofessionalskills.Intervieweescarryingoutsuchworkdemonstratedindustriousness,hard-workingandskilledcoordinationandadministration.Theyalsoappearedtohavetheabilitytoworkwithcolleaguesandtomobilisethem.Oftentheworkoftheacademicartisandoesnotappearontheirpositiondescription,oronlysketchily.Theycreatetheirownjob,accordingtotheneedsoftheinstitution,work-groupordisciplineastheyperceivethem(Brew,etal.,2017).

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Itisimportanttobeclearaboutwhatartisanshipisnot.Wearenotreferringtothoseacademicswhojustfocusontheirownteachingand/orlookingaftertheirownstudents,orwhojusthavelotsmoreteachingthantheircolleagues.Academicartisansarenotthepeoplewhoareusingstudentsasanexcusenottodoresearch.Neitherarewereferringtoacademicswhojustfocusonbeingonlotsofuniversity/facultycommittees.Alsowearenotreferringtoacademicsjustdoingaparticularroleandnothingmoree.g.headofdepartment,neitherarewetalkingaboutacademicswhoaredoinganadministrativejob,ortakingonatasktofillouttheirworkload.Attimes,itmaybedifficulttodistinguishacademicartisansfromsuchacademics.Thisisoneoftheproblemsandperhapsareasonwhytheyhithertohavebeenabsentinuniversitydiscourse.

Whilstfurtherresearchisneededtoverifythis,itisclear,aswehaveargued,thatthefocusofattentionoftheacademicartisanistheorganisation(includingthefaculty,department,orworkgroup)andwhereitisgoing.Theyappeartobeawareofthesocialstructuresandhowtheyareplayedoutaroundthemselves.Thisleadsthemintocoordinationroles,mobilizingcolleagues,managingthings,andtheycrafttheserolesinuniquewaysrespondingcreativelytotheactualneedsandrequirementsastheyarise.Theirorientationmayariseduetotheirawarenessofajobthatneedstobedone,andthiscanleadthemtotakeupaformalrolein,forexample,coursecoordination,curriculumdevelopment,marketingoroutreach.

Theacademicswhoperformtheserolesarethereforebynomeansdeficient—thoughtheymayappearsoonsimplisticmetricsusedtojudgeperformance.Rather,theirworkprovidesthegluethatholdstheuniversitytogether.Iftheywerenotdoingthisworkthenotherswouldnotbeabletodotheirs.Indeedironically,academicartisansfacilitateuniversityresearchcapacitybynottakingpartinit.

DiscussionOurtaskinthispaperhasbeentohighlightacademicartisansasaforgottenor“absent”groupofacademicswhotendnottofigureindiscoursesofacademicwork.Wehavesuggestedthatuniversitiesorganizedaroundthecontextofresearchandteachingrenderinvisiblethein-betweenspacesthatacademicartisansoccupy.Yettheworkthattheydoisvitalforuniversityfunctioning.

Thereismoreresearchtobedonetoexploretheworkandidentitiesofpeoplewhooccupyacademicartisanalrolesinuniversities.Wehavesketchedsomedimensionsoftheserolesasdemonstratedbyacademicsinourdataandhintedatothers.However,oursurveyandourinterviewswereallbasedontheassumptionthatacademicsmayfocusprimarilyonresearchoronteaching.Werecognisethatsomeacademicsdojustdothis.However,itisonlyinanalyzingourdataasawhole,thatwehavecometorecognisethatmuchacademicworkfallsbetweenthetwoandthatforsubstantialnumbersofacademicsonteachingandresearchcontractswhatfallsbetweenteachingandresearchisthemainfocusandraisond’êtreoftheiracademicworkandcareers.

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Whiletherehasbeenconsiderabledebateabouttherelationshipbetweenresearchandteaching,considerablediscussionaboutacademicidentity,anddiscussionsofacademicfreedomarelongstanding,whatismeantby‘academic”;thenatureandextentofacademicworkandhowthisischanginghasreceivedlittleattention.

Thereis,then,aneedforstudiestodifferentiatechangingunderstandingsofthenatureofacademicwork.Weareoftheopinionthatmuchartisanalworkinuniversitiesistrulyacademicbecauseitreliesontheartisanmakingcomplexacademicjudgementsandrespondingincreativeways.However,animportantquestionraisedbysomeoftheartisanalworkwehaveidentifiedistheextenttowhichthisworkisacademicwork,orwhetheritis“academicrelated”,or“quasiacademic”astheliteraturesuggests.Cost-savingdecisionstoemployprofessionalstafftoperformfunctionsusuallyperformedbyacademicstaffareincreasinglybeingmadebyuniversitymanagers(Whitchurch,2008b;Macfarlane,2009),soahealthydebateonthenatureandscopeofacademicworkislongoverdue.

Withoutnuancedresearch-basedunderstandingsofwhatismeantbyacademicwork,itislikelythattherewillcontinuetobeconfusionconcerningtheroleandstatusofartisanalworkintheuniversity.Withoutthisknowledge,inappropriatedecisionsaboutindividuals’contractswillcontinuetobemadebyuniversitymanagers,forexample,employingprofessionalstaffinacademicroles,shiftingacademicsontoprofessionalstaffcontractsandrequiringsometeachingandresearchacademicstomovetoteaching-onlyroles.However,teaching-onlypositionsdonotsubstituteforacademicartisans,becausetheironlyfocusisteaching;notthewiderrolesthatartisansperformnorthespiritinwhichtheydoit.Todothisistotreatacademicartisansasiftheydonotexist.

Giventhatartisanalroleshavebeentreatedasabsentinuniversities,andthatthisworkhasbeenundervalued,thereareproblemsforacademicswhooccupytheseroleswhenitcomestopromotionandprogression.Manyacademicartisansasdemonstratedbytheexamples,deliberatelychoosethispath.Othersmaynotbegivenachoice.Theymaybeencouragedinearlycareertotakeonanartisanalroleintheexpectationthatitmayleadtocareeradvancement.Ifajunioracademicissuccessfulinsucharole,theymaybeofferedfurthersimilarones.Theycanthenbecomestrandedwithintheartisanalspacefailingtodevelopsufficientresearchoutputtoapplyforpromotion.Althoughtheymayengageinimplementingmajorteachinginnovations,theymaynotobtainawardsforteaching.Althoughfurtherresearchisneededtosubstantiatethis,thereappearstobeatendencyforacademicartisanstobecomesidelinedintermsofpromotion.Wheninstitutionalpolicychangese.g.whenallacademicsarerequiredtobehighlevelresearchers,theremaybeseriousproblemsforindividuals.

Universitiesthereforeneedtore-evaluatewhatsuchacademicsbringtotheacademicenterpriseandtorecognisethiswork.Atonelevelthismaybetore-evaluatetheroleof“service”or“academiccitizenship”(Macfarlane,2007)seeingthisasvitaltouniversityfunctioning.However,thisdoesnotgofarenoughbecausetorecognisetheroleandexistence

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ofacademicartisanshipistobreakdowntraditionaldistinctionsbetweenresearchandteachingandexaminethewaysinwhichacademicsrespondtoinstitutionalconditionsincreatingtheirjobs.Thisaffectstheorganisationoftheuniversity,theworkacademicsdo,notionsofacademiccareersandindeed,ideasabouthowuniversitiesfunctionandwhattheyarefor.

Recognitionofacademicartisansthereforeisimportant.Inthispaper,wehavedrawnattentiontosomeoftheworkthatacademicartisansdo.Investigationisneededtodelineatedifferentartisanalrolesandtheirfeatures,andtoexplorecareerprofilesofacademicartisans.Universities’attitudestoartisanalrolesalsoneedtobeinvestigated.Researchisneededtoexplorewhytheytendtobeinvisible.Webelievethatitwasourfocusonteachingandresearchformationthatmeanttheywerenotimmediatelyapparentinoursample.Sostudiesarenowneededbasedontheassumptionthattheydoexist.

Theexperiencesofacademicartisansandtheirunderstandingsoftheiracademicrolealsoneedfurtherexploration.Thisisimportanttoinformuniversitypolicyandstrategybecauseacademicartisanswhofocustheirworkandcareersontheneedsoftheinstitutionarelikelytobeimportantinimplementingstrategicinitiatives.

ConclusionThispaperbeganwithadiscussionofresearchfindingsinrelationtothoseacademicswhoforonereasonoranotherdonot,orchoosenotto,doresearchorwhohavenotdevelopedacceptedresearchprofiles.Drawingonsurveyandinterviewdataapicturehasbeenpaintedofthosepeopleintermsofwhattheyprioritise,howmuchworktheydoandwhatkindofwork.Wehavearguedthat“academicartisans”asagrouptendtohavebeen“forgotten”or“absent”indiscoursesabouttheuniversityandtheacademicworkneededtosustainit.Suchpeoplemakeimportantcontributionstouniversityfunctioning.

Ourstudyisindicativeandsuggestive.Nodoubtthechoiceoftheterm“academicartisans”willbedebated.Ourdatahaspointedtothewaysinwhichacademicsthinkaboutandperformworkthatfallsaroundandbetweenteachingandresearch.Thisgrouphashithertonotbeenconsideredasaseparategroup.Soaseriousdiscussionaboutacademicwork,isoverdue,especiallyasitisdifficulttoenvisagehowanyuniversitycanoperateeffectivelywithoutthosewhoexhibitartisanalcharacteristicsandtakeonartisanalroles.

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