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Midlife Employees & Work:
A Focus on the Management of Midlife Career Adjustment and Strategies for Engaging Midlife Talent
by
Teresa A. Daniel
2979 Terrace Lane
Ashland, KY 41102
606-922-3384
“The challenge today is not just retaining talented people, but fully engaging them, capturing their minds and hearts at each stage of their work
lives.”
-- E. Gubman (2003)
I. Introduction
Given the nature of the global economy in which we live, there is a race to attract and
retain talented employees. Research shows that the future of organizational success
depends on the effective engagement of employees—the failure to do so means losing
them to the competition. It is estimated that actively disengaged employees cost the
American economy up to $350 billion per year in lost productivity (Bartlein, 2006).
The results of a recent Corporate Leadership Council report (2004) indicate that of more
than 50,000 employees at 59 organizations worldwide, employee engagement has a
“significant impact on both employees’ level of discretionary effort and their intent to
leave (or stay with) an organization”. This survey shows that increased employee
engagement may result in as much as a 57% increase in discretionary effort and as much
as an 87% reduction in the desire to leave a company. This survey also reveals the
ambivalence of the workforce regarding their jobs. For example, 11% of employees
demonstrate a “very strong” commitment, distinguished by their productivity and
performance, yet 13% of employees exhibit “very little commitment” and are four times
as likely to leave as the average employee. Surveys by the Society for Human Resource
Management (Burke & Collison, 2004), the Gallup Organization’s Engaged Workers
Index (2003) and the Towers Perrin Talent Report (2003) confirm similar results.
2
It is the group in the middle—the 76% of employees who are only modestly committed to
their organizations—that companies need to understand and engage in order to reap
significant benefits. Individuals aged 55 – 64 currently account for 12% of the nation’s
workforce (Uchitelle, 2003, p. A1). By 2010, nearly one in three workers is expected to
be at least age 55 (Rix, 2002). As a result, it is apparent that companies need to focus on
“midlifers” in an effort to keep a large portion of their aging workforces engaged and
productive.
A number of factors are contributing to the increase in older adults in the workforce,
including: demographics, financial concerns, changing concepts of retirement, longer and
healthier life spans, and a demand for the knowledge and skills possessed by the current
generation of older workers (Goldberg, 2000; Montenegro et al, 2002; Rix, 2002;
Uchitelle, 2003). This trend of older individuals continuing to work longer is only
expected to strengthen in future years (Rix, 2002).
This paper will explore the issues of midlife career adjustment, change and development,
with a specific focus on the unique issues associated with keeping employees productive
and engaged in their middle years and beyond.
3
II. Defining Employee Engagement
According to Hewitt (2004), employee engagement has been defined as the state by
which individuals are emotionally and intellectually committed to their organizations or
group, as measured by three primary behaviors:
Say: the employee consistently speaks positively about the organization to co-
workers and refers to potential employees and customers;
Stay: the employee has an intense desire to be a member of the organization,
despite opportunities to work elsewhere; and
Strive: the employee exerts extra effort and exhibits behaviors that contribute to
business success. (See Lockwood, 2005).
The Towers Perrin Report on Talent Management in the 21st Century (2006) defines
engagement as “the willingness and ability to contribute to the organization’s success”
(p. 8). The Towers Perrin study measured employee engagement with a set of nine items
that they believe best capture the way employees connect to their jobs, both emotionally
and rationally. These nine factors include: competitive base pay, work/life balance,
challenging work, career advancement opportunities, salary increases linked to individual
performance, learning and development opportunities, competitive retirement benefits,
competitive health-care benefits, and coaching/mentoring (p. 10). According to Towers
Perrin, employees’ scores across the nine items are believed to determine the extent of
4
their engagement and how willing they are to give discretionary effort and “go the extra
mile” on the job.
III. Theoretical Perspectives on Midlife Career Adjustment
A. Midlife Career Adjustment
Midlife career adjustment can be conceptualized in a number of ways—job stress, job
dissatisfaction, burnout, midlife crises that lead to a mid-career change, and re-entry into
the job market for homemakers have all been examined as indicators of midlife career
adjustment in the popular press (Lofquist & Dawis, 1984).
Job Stability
Much has been written about midlife crises that lead to career change. According to
Campbell and Heffernan (1983), “midlfe crises refers to the questioning of values,
attitudes, lifestyles, and generally a re-assessment of personal goals during the midyears
[between] 35 – 55. As a result of this re-assessment, many people have undergone
significant changes, especially in their vocational behavior. Jobs that were once
satisfying no longer seem to be attractive. Generally, crisis is understood to be a period
of restlessness in personal life and career status” (p. 225). As a result, one operalization
of midlife career adjustment is job stability. Those individuals who hold their jobs for a
considerable length of time are generally considered well-adjusted when compared with
those individuals who hold many different jobs during that same period of time.
5
Job Satisfaction
Job satisfaction is an additional operalization of midlife career adjustment for two
reasons. First, from a theoretical standpoint, career or work adjustment exists when the
worker is satisfied with the work situation. For example, in their theory of work
adjustment, Lofquist and Dawis (1984) advocate work satisfaction as the primary
indicator of work adjustment. Second, the restlessness experienced by those undergoing
a midlife crisis—with respect to values, attitudes, lifestyles, and goals—may not be
directly reflected in their vocational behavior given that a lack of alternative jobs for
which the individual is qualified may prevent the individual from translating their
feelings and thoughts into action.
B. Midlife Career Change and Development
Empirical Evidence
Britton (1970) estimated that about one-half of the U.S. labor force was over 45. In
addition, both Kelleher (1973) and Saben (1967) reported that 40 percent of job changers
were over 35 years of age. Middle-aged individuals constitute a substantial portion of the
career or job changers. In fact, career change is so common among midlifers that the
majority of the studies on second careers have focused on what has come to be referred to
as the “midlife career change” (Thomas, 1975; Work in America Institute, 1978).
There is, however, an apparent scarcity of research studies. Holland, Magoon and
Spokane (1981), in their review of the literature, observed that “interest in mid-career
6
change has become strong, but this interest has not been associated with an equally strong
research interest” (p. 290).
Although not extensive, empirical studies of midlife career changers are beginning to
emerge in the career development literature (Bartol, 1981; Fretz & Leong, 1982; Garbin
& Stover, 1978; Swanson, 1992). The available literature typically addresses one of two
major questions. First, a recurring debate about the midlife career crisis concerns
whether it is an unavoidable developmental stage or a personal experience that is by no
means universal (Farrell & Rosenberg, 1981; Levinson, 1978). Second, various studies
have been conducted to discover what motivates individuals to make major career
changes at midlife (Herr & Cramer, 1988). Some of these focus on the environment as
the focus of motivation for midlife career problems (Hall & Associates, 1986), while
others focus on the individual (Osherson, 1980).
What do these studies tell us about midlife career development? Levinson et al (1974), in
a four-year study of the lives of forty middle-aged men, found that their subjects shared
common concerns such as anxiety over aging and death, a questioning of the basis of
their lives, and a need to be re-affirmed by society through success in their careers. The
men also underwent a common experience of taking stock of their lives, of realizing and
accepting the disparity between their early goals and their present achievements. Finally,
around age 45, they entered a new stage of stability and began to emphasize those things
7
in their lives that were fulfilling and became reconciled to those that were not (See Brim,
1976 for a similar stage model).
Horrocks and Mussman (1970) examined responses to a questionnaire from over 1,000
teachers and other employees of a school district and discovered that individuals in their
early forties shared a general feeling of dissatisfaction with life and exhibited a marked
drop in self-concept which revived again in the late forties. Thomas investigated the
issue in an all-male study and uncovered a trough of “boredom” in the lives of his
subjects between the ages of 40 and 50 (as cited in Bischof, 1969). The men in this study
expressed a longing for a change in their lives but were fearful of the consequences of
such a change to others close to them.
Gould (1972) questioned 524 male and female subjects aged 19 to 60 in order to
determine their attitude toward life at various ages. He found that those aged 35 – 43
characteristically asked themselves questions such as “Have I done the right thing? Is this
time to change?” Among those aged 44 – 50, however, he found more acceptance of life
as it is—a resignation to reality.
In a related study, Henry (1961) examined a group of 45 male executives for evidence of
change in attitudes, values and self-concept with age. For the group in their thirties,
success was found to be all-important. Thus, identity lay in the company, and inner
feelings and personal desires tended to be denied when they conflicted with the
8
organization. The older group in their forties, however, questioned company policy and
wondered about the value of success. They doubted their choice of career and were
inclined to wish they had chosen work that focused more on interpersonal relations. This
latter group demonstrated the greatest conflicts in values. The executives in their fifties
usually resolved value conflicts in favor of personal needs rather than company
requirements. They tended to be contemplative and to see themselves as a guide for
others.
The reasons for career change are complex. Herr and Cramer (1979) spoke to this
complexity: “Adults are indeed experienced-based. Changes result mainly from life
experiences, and thus there may never be a uniform adult career psychology”. In just a
small sample of corporate “drop-out” career-shifters, Thomas et. al (1976) uncovered a
large number of diverse reasons for career change (pp. 236 – 237). Brim (1976, cited by
Herr & Cramer, 1988) hypothesized that midlife career change is a function of an
aspiration-achievement gap:
“The aspirations in life that men set for themselves are primarily expressed through the institution of work. Over the course of the working life, from entry to the midlife period, it is likely that although aspirations may be adjusted downward on occasion, one usually believes there is enough time left for the desired level of achievement to be reached in future years. But during midlife, most American males must adjust their career aspirations of earlier years downward to fit current reality. A man may be told that he has risen as high as he can go in his place of work; that his present position must be accepted by him as the achievement level for his lifetime”. (Brim, 1976, p. 3)
The same aspiration-achievement gap for many men at midlife is echoed by Hall (1976)
who identified a common set of themes in the midcareer experience: “perceived
9
constriction of career opportunity, organizational maturity (slow growth, no growth, or
decline), ambiguity and uncertainty about one’s future career role, midcareer change
experienced as disjunctive and individualized . . . shift in balance from work roles to
personal roles, increased connectedness between career transitions and life events” (p.
128).
Similarly, Hurrell, McLaney, and Murphy (1990) examined the stresses experienced by
6,000 postal workers in early, middle or late career stages. They found that underuse of
abilities was more strongly related to job dissatisfaction and somatic complaints for the
midcareer workers than for the early and late career workers.
Williams and Savickas (1990) examined the career concerns of workers at midlife in
order to assess career continuity and change. The career concerns generated by the 136
workers presented six factors, three of which closely matched those presented by Super
(1957); that is, keeping up with new developments, struggling to hold on, and shifting
focus. One factor was concerned with “preparing for retirement”, which was also
consistent with Super’s developmental model.
On the other hand, some studies have found that midlife career crises are by no means
universal. For example, Clausen (1981), in his study of the occupational careers of men
at midlife from the classic Oakland Growth Study and the Guidance Study (see Elder,
1983), found that the majority of the men were quite successful occupationally and also
10
quite satisfied with their jobs. Roughly 60% of the men in Clausen’s study (1981) had
achieved occupational positions that were higher than those held by their fathers.
However, social class and personality were found to be significant moderators of
occupational attainment and work adjustment. In a separate study, Kohn and Schooler
(1983) also found that social class significantly influenced the occupational attainment
and work orientation of men.
Taken together, these studies seem to reveal a pattern whereby at least some individuals
in middle age experience some kind of transition in their adjustment to work. Some of
the developmental tasks confronting these individuals included re-examination of values,
career direction, and accomplishments. Individuals within this transition are then
particularly vulnerable to changing careers because of frustration and dissatisfactions.
They are not necessarily abnormal or maladjusted individuals, but are faced with a new
level of challenge with respect to their work. As shown in these studies, this pattern of
midlife transition problems was found across different samples and different occupational
groups, attesting to the generality of the phenomenon, at least for some men. What is not
yet known is whether these patterns reflect ongoing dissatisfaction or whether they are
developmental issues which emerge in middle age—or how women fit into the equation.
Only longitudinal data will address this issue.
What the literature on midlife career development does suggest is that individual
differences play a significant role in determining whether a person experiences career
adjustment difficulties in midlife. Different authors have identified various personality
11
differences as significant moderators of these difficulties (e.g. Clausen, 1981; Kohn &
Schooler, 1983).
Gender Issues
Traditionally, research focusing on midlife career development and change has tended to
ignore the experiences of wormen. If women are included in a mixed sample of workers,
little attention has been given to the fact that the kinds of career patterns and changes
characteristic of women present another level of complexity. As a result, what little is
known about women’s work adjustment is often contradictory (see Betz & Fitzgerald,
1987).
Such complexities stem from the quite different experiences of men and women in the
work environment. In the past, women’s lives tended to be organized around events in
the family life cycle, so that their careers were often interrupted and then resumed or
terminated (James, 1989). Super (1957), in his Career Pattern Study, formulated the
following classification system of different career patterns among women: stable
homemaking career, conventional career, stable working career, double-track career,
interrupted career, unstable career, and multi-trial career.
Not only do women interrupt careers to take care of children, but they may also do so
when they find themselves being passed over for advances by less-experienced men
12
(Gerson, 1985). That is, sex discrimination affects the career advancement of women
(Swanson & Tokar, 1991) and thus their career development and change patterns.
Betz & Fitzgerald (1987) made the following observation about women’s work
adjustment:
“In most objective senses, employed women as a group are less successful than employed men. They make considerably less money and are concentrated on the lower end of the organizational hierarchy. Often they must cope with the attitudinal bias of co-workers, superiors and subordinates, which creates barriers to their organizational achievement” (p. 185).
Moreover, women’s reasons for working may differ from those of males which may
impact the frequency and pattern of career changes for men and women. In particular, in
the past women may have been more constrained than their male counterparts from
seeking jobs that fulfilled their interpersonal needs or mastery needs rather than monetary
needs (Leong & Boyle, 1997, p. 419).
Finally, the lack of longitudinal studies of women’s career development adds another
layer of complexity to this picture. Specifically, because of the broad social revolution in
expectations and norms for women’s behavior (in terms of both work and non-work),
longitudinal studies are sorely needed to allow researchers to pinpoint change due to
developmental effects alone (Stewart, Lykes & LaFrance, 1982).
13
IV. Key Engagement Strategies for Employers
It is evident from the research that the issues facing employees at midlife create unique
and different issues for organizations seeking to engage this group. As a result, the
strategies employed must be as unique and separate as are the developmental issues
facing this age cohort.
Following are several types of organizational programs and interventions particularly
geared to appeal to the midlife employee:
Mentoring Programs
The Dalton, Thompson & Price (1977) Four-Stage Career Development Model provides
a compelling view of the various issues that arise throughout a typical employee’s career.
The model is based upon more than a decade of research of faculty members and
professional engineers to determine why some individuals continue to contribute and be
productive throughout their careers while the productivity and contributions of others
diminished over time.
In this model, a career is conceptualized as a progression through developmental stages
that are independent of organizational structure or hierarchy. Stage 1 individuals or
protégés take on the role of learners, performing fairly routine tasks and taking direction
from more experienced mentors. In Stage 2, protégés have developed some independent
skills and abilities and are starting to demonstrate initiative and creativity. By the time
14
individuals have moved to Stage 3, they have become mentors with the responsibility of
developing others and have broadened their interests by contributing through others.
Finally, in Stage 4, the individuals have been able to shape the culture and direction of
the entire organization and are formulating policy and making decisions that affect the
company.
Within this model, there is an implicit assumption that we all have a need to be both
mentored and to mentor at some point in our career. Early work in adult development
(Levinson, Darrow, Klein, Levinson & McKee, 1978; Erickson, 1978) supports the
notion that early on in life we each need nurturance and guidance from those more
experienced to provide us with positive role models and that later on in life we develop a
need for generativity (Newman & Newman, 1991). One can argue that this later need for
generativity—which can be described as a desire to improve life conditions for the next
generation—can readily be expressed through mentoring a more junior and inexperienced
colleague. Further, since the four stage model is not necessarily built or reliant upon
hierarchy or job level, one could conceivably move through all four stages without
ascending to the top of the organization and engage in informal mentoring relationships
that are not proscribed by job function.
Entering into a developmental relationship with a young adult provides an opportunity at
midlife to re-direct one’s energies into creative and productive action that allow the
midlife employee to influence the next generation and avoid job stagnation (Otto, 1994).
The polarity of this life stage—generativity versus stagnation—suggests the potential
15
value of a mentor relationship (Kram, 1983). Through enabling others, the midlife
individual satisfies important generative needs (Erickson, 1963, 1968, 1978) and also has
the opportunity to review and re-appraise the past by participating in a younger adult’s
attempts to face the challenges of early adulthood. As a result, individuals may feel
“challenged, stimulated, and creative in providing mentoring functions as they become
‘senior adults’ with wisdom to share . . . .” (Kram, p. 609).
Offer Workshops to Explore Midlife Issues
Employees at midlife face numerous and serious challenges—including re-negotiating
marital relationships after the children leave home, dealing with the “empty nest”,
developing new relationships with adolescent and adult children and new in-laws, and
often taking on more responsibility for aging parents.
Dealing with these types of issues would be difficult in a vacuum, but they can be
especially stress-producing since they most frequently take place at a time when
promotions and increasing responsibilities at work place greater demands on one’s time,
energy and attention. Many of the tensions and strains of middle adulthood result largely
from difficulties in balancing conflicting and competing roles, while at the same time
navigating predictable as well as unexpected role transitions (Elder, George & Shanahan,
1996).
16
Although it is not possible to completely prepare employees for unanticipated life events,
preliminary research suggests that the proactive development of plans that precede high
probability developmental tasks and events can reduce the stress, improve coping, and
induce or encourage favourable outcomes (Parker, Vaitkus, Call, Aldwin & Barko, 2000).
As a result, workshops that help to prepare individuals for the predictable developmental
tasks of midlife and which allow employees to explore their inner feelings and needs can
significantly enhance their feelings of loyalty and commitment to the organization
(Hewitt, 2004).
Paid Sabbaticals
A recommendation to require employees to take paid time-off to explore their outside
hobbies and interests or to pursue a new direction in their careers through training or
education may seem counter-intuitive; however, when employees feel comfortable and
satisfied with their work, they are less likely to regard work as a burden, thereby
improving their loyalty and commitment to their company (Nathanson, 2006).
V. Conclusions
As the workforce continues to age, it includes more employees at mid-career and later
career stages—employees who are often among the most productive, skilled, trained and
dedicated in an organization. Successful corporations of the future will focus on the
“soft” side of management to help midlife employees find more fulfilment, meaning and
satisfaction in their work. Helping employees to discover that their work is about more
17
than a pay check is what will make all employees, particularly those in midlife, more
productive.
In order to remain competitive and continue to attract and retain talent at all ages and
stages, companies must understand what drives employees at midlife and focus on
strategies to engage and retain employees in their middle years and beyond. If midlife
employees continue to feel excluded or isolated by the current work environment, it can
be anticipated that the exodus of talent from the corporate world will escalate in the
future as midlifers contemplate alternatives that will allow them to lead a life that is more
consistent with their personal needs and desires. This corporate “brain drain” will cause
significant holes in the talent pool of today’s corporations that will not easily be plugged.
In addition, those employees who do elect to begin the corporate climb will find a
scarcity of mentors of examples of successful older employees to emulate, possibly
leading them to conclude that the company for which they work is not friendly to older,
longer-term workers after all.
Successful corporate management teams of the future will need to expand their thinking
to ensure that they are really being inclusive of all individuals. A true effort to maximize
the talents of all employees—by focusing on their developmental needs and personal
desires at each age and stage in their career—will be an increasingly critical competitive
advantage for corporations in the future.
18
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