MKT201 - Week 8

Attitudes (Ch. 7)

The Power of Attitudes

• Attitude:– A lasting, general evaluation of people (including oneself),

objects, advertisements, or issues– Anything toward which one has an attitude is called an

object (Ao).– Attitudes are lasting because they tend to endure over time

and general because it applies to more than a momentary event

• Attitudes help us make all forms of choices such as:– Very product-specific behaviors (Crest Vs Colgate), and more general

consumption-related behaviors (how often in brushing teeth)

The Functions of Attitudes• Functional Theory of Attitudes:

– To explain how attitudes facilitate social behavior– Attitudes exist because they serve some function for the

person (i.e., they are determined by a person’s motives)

• Attitude functions identified by Daniel Katz (explain why an attitude is held):

1. Utilitarian function 2. Value-expressive function3. Ego-defensive function4. Knowledge function

The Functions of AttitudesThe Functions of Attitudes

1. UtilitarianReward and Punishment

(Coke – good taste)

4. KnowledgeNeed for Meaning,Order & Structure

(new product)

2. Value-ExpressiveConsumer’s Values

or Self-Concept(lifestyle – AIOs)

AttitudeFunctions

3. Ego-DefensiveProtect Person From Threats

(deodorant)

By Identifying the Dominant Function a Product Serves for Consumers - What Benefits it Provides - Marketers Can Emphasize These Benefits in

Communications & Packaging.

Addressing Smoking Attitudes

• This Norwegian ad addresses young people’s smoking attitudes by arousing strong negative feelings. The ad reads (left panel) “Smokers are more sociable than others.” (Right panel): “While it lasts.”

The ABC Model of Attitudes

• Affect:– The way a consumer feels about an attitude object

• Behavior:– Involves the person’s intentions to do something

with regard to an attitude object

• Cognition:– The beliefs a consumer has about an attitude object

• Hierarchy of Effects:– A fixed sequence of steps that occur en route to an

attitude

Three Hierarchies of Effects

Figure 7.1

Attitude Hierarchies

(1) The Standard Learning Hierarchy:– Consumer approaches a product decision as a problem-solving

process

(2) The Low-Involvement Hierarchy:– Consumer does not have strong initial preference– Consumer acts on limited knowledge– Consumer forms an evaluation only after product trial– The less important the product is to consumers, the more

important are the marketing stimuli (ad, packages, jingles)

(3) The Experiential Hierarchy:– Consumers act on the basis of their emotional reactions

(towards ad, brand name, packaging)

(3) The Experiential Hierarchy (cont’d):• Emotional Contagion:

– Emotions expressed by the communicator of a marketing message affect the attitude toward the product

• Debate:(a) Cognitive-Affective Model:– Argues that an affective judgment is the last step in a series

of cognitive processes VS

(b) Independence Hypothesis:– Takes the position that affect and cognition involve two

separate, independent systems (affective responses do not always require prior cognitions)

Smith and Wollensky

• This ad for New York’s famous Smith & Wollensky restaurant emphasizes that marketers and others associated with a product or service are often more involved with it than are their consumers.

Product Attitudes Don’t Tell the Whole Story

• Attitude Toward the Advertisement (Aad):– A predisposition to respond in a favorable or unfavorable

manner to a particular advertising stimulus during a particular exposure occasion

• Ads Have Feelings Too:– Three emotional dimensions:

• Pleasure, arousal, and intimidation/frightening

– Specific types of feelings that can be generated by an ad• Upbeat feelings: Amused, delighted, playful

• Warm feelings: Affectionate, contemplative/deep thought, hopeful

• Negative feelings: Critical, defiant, offended

Ads Have Feelings Too

• Commercials evoke emotion– Pleasure– Arousal– Intimidation

Attitudes Toward the AdvertisementAttitudes Toward the Advertisement

The Attitude Toward the AdvertisementAttitude Toward the Advertisement is Defined as a Predisposition to Respond in a Favorable or Unfavorable Manner to a Particular Advertising

Stimulus During a Particular Exposure Occasion.

Determinants Include:

Attitude Toward

Advertiser

Mood Evoked by

the Ad

Degree to Which the Ad Affects

Viewers’ Arousal LevelsEvaluations

of the Ad Execution

Itself

Evaluationsof the

Ad ExecutionItself

Example of an Ad With a “Warm” Feeling

• Sexually suggestive scenes like the one depicted in this ad for Union Bay clothing can generate feelings that affect brand attitudes.

• What specific types of feelings or responses can this type of advertisement elicit? How will this scene affect the attitude toward the ad?

Discussion Question

Forming Attitudes

• An Attitude can form in several different ways depending on the Hierarchy of Effects (see Fig. 7.1) and how the attitude is learned.

• It can occur because of (see Ch. 3 - Learning):– Classical Conditioning, e.g. Attitude Object is paired

with a catchy jingle.– Instrumental Conditioning, e.g. consumption of the

Attitude Object is reinforced.– Complex Cognitive Process, e.g. teenager models

behavior of friends and media figures.

Forming Attitudes (cont.)

• Not All Attitudes Are Created Equal– Levels of Commitment to an Attitude

• Compliance

– gaining rewards, avoid punishment; having Pepsi in a nearby shop (rather than for a Coke in far away)

• Identification

– Forming attitude that conforms with another person or group

• Internalization

– Deep-seated attitudes, becoming part of a person’s value system

Forming AttitudesForming Attitudes

Levels of Commitment to an Attitude

InternalizationInternalization

IdentificationIdentification

ComplianceCompliance

De

gre

e o

f C

om

mit

me

nt

The Consistency PrincipleConsumers Value Harmony Among Their Thoughts,

Feelings, and Behaviors, and They are Motivatedto Maintain Uniformity Among These Elements.

Consumers Value Harmony Among Their Thoughts, Feelings, and Behaviors, and They are Motivatedto Maintain Uniformity Among These Elements.

High

Low

Levels of Attitudinal Commitment

• By describing Cadillac as “my company,” the woman in this ad exhibits a high level of attitudinal commitment to her employer.

Forming Attitudes (cont.)

• The Consistency Principle:• Principle of Cognitive Consistency:

Consumers value harmony among their thoughts, feelings or behaviors to be consistent with other experiences

• Beliefs or evaluations should be consistent with one another

The Consistency Principle (leading to different attitude theories)

1. Cognitive Dissonance and Harmony among Attitudes:

– Theory of Cognitive Dissonance: When a person is confronted with inconsistencies among attitudes or behaviors, he or she will take action to reduce the dissonance by changing an attitude or modifying a behavior. e.g. I don’t like Japan and so I don’t like product made in Japan, but I like Sony’s products.

The Consistency Principle (leading to different attitude theories)

2. Self-Perception Theory:– People maintain consistency by inferring that they

must maintain a positive attitude toward a product they have bought or consumed

• Foot-in-the-door technique (based on self-perception theory)– Sales strategy based on the observation that

consumers will comply with a request if they have first agreed to comply with a smaller request

Attitudinal Commitment

• This ad for a magazine illustrates that consumers often distort information so that it fits with what they already believe or think they know.

The Consistency Principle (cont.)

3. Social Judgment Theory:– People assimilate new information about an

attitude object’s (Ao’s) based on what they already know or feel.

– Attitudes of Acceptance and Rejection: People differ in the information they find acceptable or unacceptable.

• Assimilation effect: Messages that fall within the latitude (range) of acceptance tend to be seen as more consistent with one’s position than they actually are

• Contrast effect: Messages falling within the latitude of rejection tend to be seen as being farther from one’s position than they actually are

The Consistency Principle (cont.)

3. Social Judgment Theory (cont’d)– People assimilate new information about an

attitude object’s (Ao’s) based on what they already know or feel.

– A box is heavy or not? Depending on the weight of other boxes you have just lifted.

– E.g., Julie has a +ve attitude toward women playing football, then she would have a favorable attitude toward ads promoting female athletic participation.

Social Judgment Theory Social Judgment Theory

Latitudes of Acceptance and RejectionLatitudes of Acceptance and Rejection

Latitudes of RejectionLatitudes of Rejection

Attitude AnchorAttitude Anchor

AssimilationAssimilation

ContrastContrast

Latitude of Acceptance

Latitude of Acceptance

The Consistency Principle (cont.)

4. Balance Theory:– Considers relations among elements a person might

perceive as belonging together

Triad:– An attitude structure consisting of three elements

(1) A person and his/her perceptions of(2) an attitude object, and(3) some other person or object

The Consistency Principle (cont.)

Balance Theory:Triads – refers to a person’s attitude structure

People desire relations among the 3 elements in a triad to beharmonious or Balanced.• Balanced (perception changed to restore balance, if not harmonious)

Elements can be perceived as:• Unit relation: An element is seen as belonging to or being part

of the other (e.g. married couple – 1 element being part of the other)

• Sentiment relation: Two elements are linked because one has expressed a preference for the other (e.g. dating couple – 2 elements are linked)

Balance TheoryBalance Theory

Considers Relations Among Elements a Person Might Perceive as Belonging Together and Desires the Relations Among the Elements in a Triad to be

Harmonious, or Balanced.

Considers Relations Among Elements a Person Might Perceive as Belonging Together and Desires the Relations Among the Elements in a Triad to be

Harmonious, or Balanced.

A Person and His/ Her Perceptions (+ or - )

An Attitude Object

Some Other Person or

Object

Marketers May Use Celebrities to Endorse Products to Achieve Balance.

Triad

Figure 7-2: Alternative Routes to Restoring Balance in a Triad

Alex (Alejandro) has +ve sentiment relation with Larry, but she has –ve sentiment relation with men’s earring.

Larry has +ve unit relation with the earring.

Balance Theory (Cont’d)

• Marketing Applications– “Basking/satisfying in

reflected glory”

– Unit relation with popular product = positive sentiment relation in other people’s triads

– Celebrity endorsers of products (+ ve sentiment relation)

Discussion

• Think of a behavior someone does that is inconsistent with his or her attitudes (e.g., attitudes toward cholesterol, drug use, or even buying things to make him or her stand out or attain status)– Ask the person to elaborate on why he or she does

the behavior, then try to identify the way the person has resolved dissonant elements

• Consumer researchers understand that consumers like to “bask in the reflected glory” of successful college athletic programs by wearing merchandise adorned with logos like the ones on the right.

• How do the different attitude theories explain this consumer phenomenon?

Discussion Question

Attitude Models• Attitude Models:

– Specify the different elements that might work together to influence people’s evaluations of attitude objects (Ao)

• Multiattribute Models:– Model that assumes a consumer’s Ao will depend on the

beliefs he or she has about several attributes toward the object

• Multiattribute Models Specify 3 Elements:– Attributes– Beliefs– Importance Weights

The Fishbein ModelThe Fishbein Model

The Fishbein ModelFishbein Model is the Most Influential Multiattribute Model and It Measures Three

Components of Attitudes:

1. Salient Beliefs About

the Object ThatAre Considered

During Evaluation

1. Salient Beliefs About

the Object ThatAre Considered

During Evaluation

2. Object-Attitude Linkages, or The Probability That a

Particular Object Hasan Important

Attribute

2. Object-Attitude Linkages, or The Probability That a

Particular Object Hasan Important

Attribute

3. Evaluation of Each of the

Important Attributes

3. Evaluation of Each of the

Important AttributesAssuming people will go through the specific evaluation process.

The Fishbein Equation

• The Basic Formula:

Aijk = ΣβijkIik– Where:

• i = attribute• j = brand• k = consumer• I = the importance weight given attribute I by consumer k• β = consumer k’s belief regarding the extent to which

brand j possesses attribute I• A = a particular consumer’s (k’s) attitude score for brand j

The Basic Multiattribute Model

Strategic Implications of the Multiattribute Model

Strategic Implications of the Multiattribute Model

(1) Capitalize onRelative Advantage

Emphasize on active social life and varied experience

(1) Capitalize onRelative Advantage

Emphasize on active social life and varied experience

(2) Strengthen PerceivedProduct / Attribute

Linkages

Running informational campaign to improve the perceptions

(2) Strengthen PerceivedProduct / Attribute

Linkages

Running informational campaign to improve the perceptions

(4) Influence Competitors’

Ratings

Having comparative advertising, e.g. about cheaper tuition fee

(4) Influence Competitors’

Ratings

Having comparative advertising, e.g. about cheaper tuition fee

(3) Add a New Attribute or product feature

Emphasize on unique aspects, e.g., internship program

(3) Add a New Attribute or product feature

Emphasize on unique aspects, e.g., internship program

Assuming your are the Marketing Director for Northland College:

Using Attitudes to Predict Behavior

• In many cases, knowledge of a person’s attitude is not a very good predictor of behavior

• Questionable link between attitude and behavior– Consumers love a commercial, but don’t buy the product

• The Extended Fishbein Model– Called the Theory of Reasoned Action

– Contains several important additions to the original, which improve its ability to predict behavior

The Theory of Reasoned Action• Intentions Versus Behavior

– Theory of Reasonable Action extends to measure intentions (rather than attitude), though the prediction of actual behavior is still affected by uncontrollable factors

• Social Pressure: (the Theory acknowledges the power of other people in influencing behaviour, i.e. subjective norm)– 2 factors of Subjective Norm (SN)

• Normative Belief (NB): Belief that others believe an action should or should not be taken

• Motivation to Comply (MC): Degree to which consumers take into account anticipated reactions

• Attitude Toward Buying:– Attitude toward the act of buying (Aact):

• Knowing how someone feels about buying due to the perceived consequences of a purchase. E.g. condoms – positive attitude objects (Ao), but negative Aact

Using Attitudes to Predict BehaviorUsing Attitudes to Predict Behavior

IntentionsVersus

Behavior

IntentionsVersus

Behavior

SocialPressure(affecting

by others/public)

SocialPressure(affecting

by others/public)

AttitudeToward Buying

(rather than attitude toward

product)

AttitudeToward Buying

(rather than attitude toward

product)

The Extended Fishbein Model is Called the “Theory of Reasoned Action” and Includes

the Following Modifications:

Aims to measure behavioral intentions, recognizing that certain uncontrollable factors inhibit prediction of actual behavior.

Obstacles to Predicting Behavior in the Theory of Reasoned Action Obstacles to Predicting Behavior

in the Theory of Reasoned Action

Obstacles to Predicting BehaviorObstacles to Predicting Behavior

DesignDesign

Locus of ControlLocus of Control

Basic AssumptionsBasic Assumptions

CorrespondenceCorrespondence

Time-FrameTime-Frame

Attitude AccessibilityAttitude AccessibilityBehavior = f (immediate perception of attitude object)

Measure-ment

Involvement of other party Become invalid

Not specific enough

Happen soon

Indirect experience (through ad) is not so strong and predictive

Cultural Roadblocks to the Theory of Reasoned Action

• Roadblocks that diminish the universality of the theory– Model was designed to predict voluntary acts– The relative impact of subject norms varies across

cultures– The model assumes that consumers are actively

thinking ahead and planning behaviors– A consumer that forms an intention claims that he or

she is in control of his or her actions

Trying to Consume• Theory of Trying to Consume

– States that the criterion of behavior in the reasoned action model should be replaced with trying to reach a goal

• Sample issues that might be addressed (whether someone would try to lose weight):– Past frequency– Recency– Beliefs (such as healthier if lost weight)– Evaluations of consequences (girl/boy friend would be happier)– The process (any uncomfortable or depressed)– Expectations of success and failure– Subjective norms toward trying (social pressure, approved by

others)

Theory of Trying (TT)

Figure 7.3

Joan has been trying to quit smoking for quite some time now. She has tried 4 programs in the past 2 years, and she is just now starting her 5th. Go through the various issues of the Theory of Trying and discuss each one as it relates to Joan’s efforts.

Discussion

• Construct a multi-attribute model for a set of local restaurants– Based on your findings, suggest

how restaurant managers can improve an establishment’s image via the strategies described in this chapter

Tracking Attitudes over Time

• Attitude-tracking program:– An single-attitude survey is a snapshot in time

– A program allows researchers to analyze attitude trends during an extended period of time

• Ongoing Tracking Studies– Attitude tracking involves administration of a survey at

regular intervals (e.g. Gallup Poll, Yankelovich Monitor)http://www.galluppoll.com/ http://www.yankelovich.com/products/monitor.aspx

– This activity is valuable for making strategic decisions

Gallup Poll

Attitude Tracking Programs Allow Researchers to Analyze Attitude Trends Over an Extended Period of

Time. Some Dimensions To Include in Attitude Tracking Programs Include:

Changes in Different Age GroupsLifecycle, Cohort and Historical Effects

Changes in Different Age GroupsLifecycle, Cohort and Historical Effects

Scenarios About the FutureFuture Plans and Confidence in the Economy

Scenarios About the FutureFuture Plans and Confidence in the Economy

Identification of Change Agents

Identification of Change Agents Facilitators and

inhibitors, such as legal system, professionals, etc.