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HSCModern History Study Notes
Concepts
• Autarky: Self-sufficiency
• Autocracy: System of government in which supreme power is placed on an individual.
• Absolute Monarchy: System of government where a single royal leader has supreme power of a nation.
• Bureaucracy: A system in which there is many facets of hierarchy in administration.
• Capitalism: System of economy in which private ownership and business’ compete to result in profit.
• Communism: A system of economy where the people work for the collective improvement of the nation, unable to have private ownership.
• Decolonisation: Where an imperialist nation removes or is removed from the nation they invaded.
• Democracy: A system of government where the nation’s people have freedom of speech and a right to vote.
• Feminism: An ethical movement for the empowerment of women.
• Globalisation: The spread of foreign concepts, markets and culture around the world.
• Imperialism: The conquest of foreign territory and controlling it through a ‘mother’ country.
• Industrialisation: The increase of mass production through mechanic means.
• Internationalism: A belief of better relations with foreign countries.
• Liberalism: A philosophy based around equality.
• Monarchy: A system of government where a royal family have control of a country.
• Nationalism: Patriotism
• Racism: An ethical stance which includes ideologies of racial supremacy, discrimination and stereotypes.
• Revolution: A movement of people where the primary objective is to overthrow a group, person or situation causing mass uprising.
• Sectarianism: A type of hatred between two or more divisions of a group, such as Irish Catholics and Protestants.
• Self-determination: The belief that an individual or group have the ability to make their own decisions for their best interests.
• Socialism: A political philosophy in which advocates the empowerment of the people to control their economy, rather than elite groups.
• Terrorism: An act of intellectual or physical torment in order to invoke fear or a message to the inflicted.
• Totalitarianism: A political system where the government controls every aspect of life without any democratic justification.
Magonet lineFrench plans to break stalemate
Part 1: World War One 1914-1919In investigating to the source-based study, students shall develop knowledge
and skills to respond to different types of sources and relevant historiographical issues related to World War 1.
• War on the Western Front• The reasons for the stalemate on the Western Front
• There are a myriad of reasons as to why there was a stalemate between German forces, French forces and French allied forces such as Britain
• One of the main reasons for the stalemate was the failure of the Schlieffen Plan.
• The failure of the Schlieffen Plan resulted in an elongated trench war.
• The Schlieffen Plan |
• Context and basics of the plan |
• In 1879, a German leader called Moltke created plans for a future war.
• His plans detailed the river flowing through Germany; the Rhine could be utilised as potential blockade for barrier against invading forces, defending their country.
• Most of the left side of the Rhine was gained through the Franco-Prussian War in 1874 and not as vital to defend compared to the rest of Germany.
• In 1891, Count Von Schlieffen became General of the German forces and wanted to employ a two front war, one in Belgium to France and one in Poland against Russia.
• In 1905, Schlieffen introduced his plans of attacking France through Belgium and Holland, flanking the French forces and take Paris.
• The German right wing would move across Holland and Belgium to the sea at Dunkirk.
• Defences at Verdun and Dunkirk were estimated defeat in 6 weeks by the 35th army corps.
• Schlieffen assumed that Russian forces would take 6 weeks to 8 weeks to mobilise forces. In this time, France would be defeated and forces could be transferred.
• The Right wing would create a circular swing to the North of Paris. The French troops would have to flee Paris and counter attack fortifications in Stratsbourg
and Metz, being defeated by advancing German lines.
• The revised Schlieffen Plan’s implications |
• Context
• In 1906, Von Moltke, related to the Moltke who devised the original plan, became Chief of General Staff. He believed the original Schlieffen plan was not well planned and changed for, in his mind, a higher chance of success.
• The revision scrapped an invasion through Holland and the Netherlands would suit as easy trade due to its neutrality.
• Armies and Alcaise and Lorrain were boosted, almost doubling the combined forces in Meltz and South Meltz.
• The Eastern fronts would be lightly guarded to ensure more troops in France/Belgium.
• The decision not to invade Holland created longer times for advancing German troops to travel through Belgium’s narrow and treacherous conditions, hindered by mountains, snow, the cold, blizzards, lack of roads, etc.
• Due to more troops in Lorraine, the flank to Paris was much too slow and weak; taking Paris was abandoned.
• Due to little forces in East Germany, Russia was already mobilised and quickly invaded East Prussia and rapidly Germany.
• The plan forced French soldiers to Verdun which was extremely fortified.
• Due to the advancing of Russia, Germany needed to quickly attack France, attacking the so called ‘neutral’ city of Liege, in Belgium.
• Neither Russia could win against Germany nor Germany against France. Germany was forced into digging trenches to maintain the territory they had fought for, and the same went for the Russians and the French. All nations involved in the war were forced into trench warfare, causing no consistent advancements but idolness of defending troops.
• The failure of the Schlieffen Plan resulted in trench warfare in turn formed the stalemate.
• Reasons for the plan’s failure |
• Molke’s revised Schlieffen’s plan did not allow measures against supply problems when moving through Belgium, Holland and then France.
• The French had a rail network that could deploy supplies and troops faster than Germans ever thought.
• The amount of flanking and lack of railway for the German forces caused the men to travel in terrible conditions.
• The Germans did not predict that Britain would become involved in the war.
• Britain was prepared to go to war over Belgium
• Schlieffen did not prepare of think that the Russian forces would attack into eastern Prussia so quickly.
• The revised plan forced troops to travel through much more treacherous conditions than if they moved through Holland.
• Armies and Alcaise and Lorrain were boosted by removing troops from the flanking groups, weakening the flanking arms which ultimately ruined any chance of a swift takeover.
• The Eastern fronts would be lightly guarded to ensure more troops in France/Belgium. This weakened the defences of Germany and when Russia invaded Prussia, Germany had to scramble to move troops to Prussia from France, both sides needed urgent reinforcements.
• The two main reasons for the failure of the plan were:
• Assumptions and preconceptions:
• 1. Germany would win, there was no doubt. This was unrealistic.
• 2. Lack of thought concerning Russia and France. Both sides were quite strong.
• 3. Generalised ideas such as Russia would take 6-8 weeks to mobilise.
• Revisions
• 1. Removal of Holland as a pathway to France to save military battles caused longer times to move into France.
• 2. Strengthening of defence in Alcaise and Lorraine, rather than bolstering flanking and Eastern front forces lead to a failure in taking Paris.
• Example answer |
• What were the reasons for the Plan’s failure and what were the results?
• There were many reasons for the plans failure and most of them would have the same characteristic of assumption. Schlieffen and Moltke did not anticipate Russia’s quick mobilisation. With Molke’s change in the plan and little troops in the West, Russia easily mobilised and started to advance and attack Germany.
• The plan was forged around the idea of extremely rapid defeat of France which was the other main failure of the plan. Schlieffen wanted victory in six weeks against a nation that was underestimated, under attacked by Germany, assumed that it would attack certain areas and that it didn’t have alleys. Britain was allied with Belgium and became involved, using its navy channel ports to help the Belgium.
• By not moving through Holland, troops became extremely fatigued. This caused more supplies to be used and very quickly they ran out. The plan did not create different options to use if supplies were depleted, if Russia attacked quicker than expected and that they didn’t fake Paris. The whole plan was made on the assumption of quick victory.
• The lack of forces to flank Paris due to Molke’s bolster of Lorraine revision in 1911 caused a weaker flank, leading to the entire collapse of the plan. Also due to this, Russia was dawning, so troops were rushed to the Western front. Both fronts were being fought at the time in Trench warfare.
• French soldiers were quickly moved through France, using railway networks, which were also not planned by Moltke and Schlieffen This caused great problems for the invading Germans, fighting the French who had much more ready supplies than they did, as well fighting them at
much sooner times than expected.
• Liege’s downfall in Belgium took 3 days which added to the slowness of German troops as well as depleting their supplies. This battle wasted precious time, supplies and men who were desperately needed for the strong right wing.
• France, Germany and Russia ended up in a stalemate battle. Germany was entrenched in the Western and eastern fronts causing neither a victory in France, a counter attack against Russia or France, or the ability to stop Russian advancement. This stalemate caused over 250,000 soldier deaths and constant slow movement for the entire war. The failure of this plan basically affected the result of the entire war.
• The nature of trench warfare and life in the trenches dealing with experiences of Allied and German Soldiers
• Reasons for Trenches |
• Trenches were new in the 20th century in Europe.
• Most battles previous to WW1 were fought on foot, charging with melee weapons as well as using mainstream rifles.
• Trenches are concave enclosures dug in the ground that offer protection from enemy fire as well as vision by enemies.
• Trenches can be defended effectively compared to “out in the open” positions with little protection.
• Trenches offer soldiers areas to sleep and attack the enemy from a longer distance.
• Trenches can be dug anywhere, its size and ease of creation depending on the soil condition, soldier’s fatigue/equipment and enemy position.
• The main purpose of a trench was to shelter from enemy fire.
• Due to the Schlieffen Plan failing, German soldiers “dug in” in trenches around France and in some parts of Lorraine. French troops also dug trenches for defence. Both sides did not want the other to invade or push forward so they dug trenches of slow down the enemy’s movement.
• Structure of the Trenches |
• They were deep enough for men to stand without being exposed to the enemy.
• Some trenches were lined with sandbags to offer protection and strength of the trench. Trenches usually had parapets, made by sandbags for soldiers to rest their weapons on.
• Some trenches had fire steps and elbow rests to allow soldiers to fire their weapons more comfortably than standing on uneven dirt.
• Duckboards prevented soldiers from standing/walking in mud, due to water moving down the trenches into the greatest depression which is the middle area of a trench.
• Barbed Wire was common in many well established trenches, preventing enemy soldiers from entering the trench easily compared to without it.
• Most trenches were in a zig zag pattern to allow greater defence then defending a straight line. The zig zag created corners in the trench that solders could defend separately if necessary
• Dugouts are ditches and rooms dig out of the walls of the trench to create sleeping cabins for soldiers and officers.
German Trenches British and French trenches
• The German tactic of war was reliance of machine guns and fortified positions.
• German trenches were the first to have reinforced concrete trenches, to construct deep, shell-proof and ventilated dugouts.
• Germans made sure their trenches were of high quality to resist enemy bombardment.
• German forces did have non-concrete trenches and they were used as disposable compared to the concreted trenches which were treated as a strategic strongpoint.
• Germans developed the concept of ‘defence in depth’, where the front line zone was hundreds of yards deep and contained a series of tunnels rather than a continuous trench.
• The British tactic of war was very pragmatic, often making troops charge at German machine gun trenches.
• The French relied on artillery as well as surprise attacks, more subtly than the British.
• The British and French trenches had three types of trenches in a major fortified area. The front line trench was closest to ‘no man’s land’ and was often lightly garrisoned, often used as a look out post. Then a communication post would run between the front line trench and the support trench, used for communication. The support trench was the most garrisoned trench, waiting for enemy attacks.
• Often the French would have an artillery trench behind the support trench to fire on enemy invaders or apply a distraction for allied advancement.
• British trenches were often very ill constructed compared to the German, British trenches often were not reinforced by concrete and were much more susceptible to rain and enemy fire.
• Trench Systems |
• Trenches varied greatly in size and quality. German Trenches were often 300-500 meters apart.
• Most trench systems consisted from a front line trench, a support trench behind it and a reserve trench behind that, about 200 meters in distance between.
• Trench systems often stretched for many kilometres.
• All trenches were subject to rain and mud was a huge issue in trenches. Conditions in trenches were horrendous and due to the level of moisture, many airborne and waterborne diseases spread.
• Life in the Trenches |
• Month
• Four days in the front line trench
• Four days in the support trench
• Eight days in the reserve trench
• Remainder in other positions
• Day
• Standing for an hour and a half before daylight waiting on the fire step.
• Stood down at dawn.
• Breakfast was scarce and consisted on rations.
• Officers inspection
• 1/3 of men given maintenance jobs.
• Removing water
• Digging latrines (in ground toilet areas)
• Filling and moving sandbags.
• Securing trench walls.
• Adding to barbed wire.
• Moving fresh water from the artillery to the in need trench.
• 1/3 of men sent for rations
• 1/3 given sentry duty.
• Majority of time:
• Watching and waiting for enemies.
• Writing letters and diary entries. (Diary entries were actually illegal in British army life)
• Bonding with soldiers.
• Most men would work for one hour hard or light labour, one hour rest during the day and one hour of sentry duty every three hours. This was a typical day that didn’t consist of enemy charges.
• Night
• Most activity occurred during the night.
• Most of the dangerous trench maintenance (outside or above the trenches) occurred during the night.
• Patrols were sent into no man’s land to try and listen for enemy movements.
• Pairs of soldiers were sent to check on the enemy trenches at night.
• Trench raids occurred in nights, volunteers would raid the enemy trench to capture individual enemy soldiers to invoke fear in their enemies as well as gain intelligence on the enemy’s situation.
• Rations
• Most men received less than half of the allocated calories per day.
• Food was often stolen in the ranks. Butter and milk were a rarity and never met with the common soldiers.
• Hot food was unheard of until 1916.
• Rations were so poor that teeth were recorded to be broken by army biscuits.
• Germans suffered greater trouble with food as the Allied Blockade blocked all transit of sustenance.
• A rum ration was given to British soldiers at the standing for and hour and a half or “stand to” as well as before going “over the top” (over the trenches to charge).
• French and German soldiers had wine rations as well.
• Food parcels from soldier’s friends/family supplied majority of good food.
• Officers ate far more nutritious and tasty meals than common soldiers.
• Disease in the Trenches
• Combination of the cold, wet, vermin and poor diet led to sickness in the trenches.
• Trench fever was a common disease that effect 1/3 of the British Forces, 1/5 of German and many French troops suffered this disease. It is caused by lice’s faeces in wounds causing infections and eventually fever. A strong fever usually lasted for 5 days and causes pain in the legs and knees of soldiers for a month or two.
• Scabies is a disease where itch mites lay eggs underneath the skin of a soldier causing skin irritation and rashes.
• Trench foot is caused by prolonged exposure of the feet to wet, unsanitary and cold conditions. It causes the foot to become numb due to the shoes worn by soldiers being too small, worn or exposed, reducing blood flow to the foot and eventually causing gangrene. Trench foot also can cause blisters and fungi.
• Shell shock is the “shock” soldiers felt when an explosion occurred, causing hearing, visual or mental incapability. Men were punished if they experienced this and discontinued fighting until 1916.
• Venereal disease (Sexually Transmitted infections) was illegal and punishable.
• In trenches, men experienced horrendous conditions, mentally and physically and over 55,000 British soldiers were freed of service due to mental issues.
• Main Issues in Trenches
• Soldiers were kept in close proximity with each other caused transference of diseases at an extremely fast pace and a large scale.
• Trenches were depressions in the ground, therefore rain would flood trenches and if the trench was in an area with a slope, water would flow from the land into the depression.
• Soldiers would have minimal energy due to lack of proper nutrition. Lack of nutrition causes fatigue and fatigue caused the body’s immune system to slow down allowing faster infections/diseases and longer and worse onsets of diseases like trench fever and flu’s.
• Close proximity allows fleas, ticks and mites to travel easily.
• Soldiers would be in an enclosed space for long periods of time, especially if the trench they are in is not in a trench system. This caused many issues for soldiers which included mental illness.
• Overview of strategies and tactics to break the stalemate including key battles: Verdun, the Somme, Passchendaele.• Weapons of the War |
• Rifles (1914)
• Basic weapon at start of war
• Issued to all soldiers
• Used to pick off individual men in enemy trenches
• Machine Guns (1914)
• intended to stop infantry breaking through trench lines
• caused about 1/3 of battle casualties
• Trench Mortars (1914)
• used in every battle by infantry
• very accurate
• killed soldiers in enemy front line trenches without exposing attacker
• result- shell shock
• The Big Guns (1914- used form start of war)
• intended to break barbed wire and open trench line to allow attackers to advance
• achieved very little leading to military victory
• Aeroplanes (1914)
• used form start of war but only gradually as attacking weapon)
• intended use for above observations of enemy lines and bombing of storage shelters
• as result air warfare increased
• Barbed Wire (1914- used once trench warfare began)
• intended to hamper enemy movements towards trench lines
• responsible for about 1/3 of causalities
• Gas
• first used on French by Germans on 22 April 1915 at Ypres
• intended to clear enemy trenches before advance into enemy lines
• between 1916 and 1918 accounted for about 1/8 of casualties
• gas masks introduced
• Zeppelins (1915)
• intended for observing an bombing
• bombing raids very successful
• 1915- raids over London
• Flamethrower (1915)
• intended to clear away enemy troops
• uncertain aim and high fuel consumption
• Grenades (1915)
• Germans used stick grenade ‘potato masher’
• Less than 2% casualties were a result of bombs of grenades
• Effective within confines of trenches
• Tanks (1916)
• First used by British against Germans at the Somme
• intended to break enemy line with fire, leaving a gap for advance
• mechanically unreliable- not all made it to battle field
• broke down or bogged
• scared opposition- astonished and fled
• Concepts of the War |
• Stalemate
• Trench Warfare
• Opposite to a War of Movement due to failure of Schlieffen Plan
• Defensive War – Machine Guns and barbed wire
• Hazards
• Artillery
• Retreat
• Advance/charge
• ‘Over the top’ – Troopers ordered to go outside their trenches and lead an advancement into no man’s land.
• Snipers
• Gas
• Mines
• Diseases like trench foot.
• Disillusionment with War
• Many friends died
• Many friends wounded
• Miserable cold conditions
• Lack of food and warmth
• Lack of a winning side.
• War of Attrition
• A concept of not trying to decisively win a battle but to demoralise and hinder the enemy.
• Tactics of the War |
• ‘Going over the top’
• Soldiers are ordered to advance across ‘no man’s land’, with the result of great numbers of casualties and wounded. Majority of these attacks were led by Allied forces, mainly British, to drive out the entrenched German forces.
• Artillery
• An artillery bombardment would often precede an attack. It can last for hours even days, in the hope of distracting or destroying the enemy troops in no man’s land and beyond. This was extremely difficult as until 1917, artillery fire was quite inaccurate due to a slow development of technology to improve its accuracy.
• Artillery was responsible for 75% of the war’s casualties.
• Gas
• Chlorine Gas was used first; it was visible to the eye and caused the lungs to produce large amounts of mucus.
• Mustard Gas was introduced by the Germans around 1917.It was odourless and caused respiratory problems and blisters.
• Phosgene Gas was not visible to the eye and caused large fatalities. It often took men who breathed it in, days to die.
• Prussic Acid Gas was developed by the French, it would leave people incapacitated.
• The only protection against Gas was bicarbonate soda and urine soaked cloth. Masks weren’t predominate until 1917.
• Strategies to break the stalemate |
• The Battle of Verdun: 1916 |
• Before the battle
• Germany needed something to bring about the flanking of French troops to Paris and end the stalemate.
• Germany understood their position in the war as the aggressors as well as the fact that they were unable to advance consistently.
• Germany began to use the controversial tactic of fight a ‘war of attrition.
• War of attrition is a military tactic of fighting where a side does not enter a battle in knowledge of victory by defeat of the enemy physically, but defeating the enemy through defeat in moral and sprit through prolonged fighting, slowly but frequently hindering the enemy’s progress.
• Through attrition, both sides would face many losses but one side would be hopeful that their enemy would become weak in moral, might and fatigued to weaken the enemy. This was believed to work and German troops could then defeat the whole French and British forces easier than battles fought for a decisive victory.
• Aim for the Germans
• Devastate the city of Verdun which has great historical and cultural significance.
• To pave the way for the invasion in Paris. By defeating the French at
Verdun, Germans could weaken French and move to Paris.
• General Falkenhayn (Chief of German Staff) wanted Britain out of France, through a major victory or prolonged hardship, Britain would be forced out.
• Eventually it was attrition, to ‘bleed the French white’ – Falkenhayn.
• Significance of Verdun
• Citizens left the city. The city was not occupied with civilians at the time.
• It was a gateway to Paris as it was only 200 KM NE of Paris.
• It was used as a fortress town due to its large buildings, which made it a major city for control.
• Cultural significance as the city has many churches and old monuments.
• The city was a salient to the German lines. It was protruding closer to German lines, isolating itself from French support.
• Situation
• The battle began on the 21st of February, 1916.
• French reinforced the trenches before the battle began as the French knew of an impending attack.
• February- It took 3 days for the Germans to fight their way 8kms from the city.
• The battle in February witnessed an unprecedented amount of artillery and munitions used by both sides.
• By May, the Germans had devastated the French Forces but did not utilise the position as effectively as possible. The British capitalised and engaged a battle against the Germans near the River Somme.
• The artillery shelling was a wakeup call of the conditions of ‘modern’ war for the British and indeed all sides. The British entered the war with a large import of horses for Calvary fighting yet this tactic often failed dramatically due to the German use of machine guns.
• French troops used a road called the ‘sacred way’, which was untouched by the Germans, allowing thousands of men and supplies to move into the city each day.
• Gas was used through the battle.
• It was the longest battle of the War, lasting over a year.
• German Tactics
• Verdun protected by a series of forts and a salient of the French army
• Early in the war both sides realised the importance of heavy artillery
• 1915- Verdun stripped of majority of guns and was unable to defend itself from Germany
• Using small group infiltration, Germany captured fort Douaumont on 25 Feb (this was considered the cornerstone of the Verdun defence system)
• The aim changed to one of attrition- ‘bleed French white’.
• French Response
• Initial French reaction was not to defend.
• If French withdrew from Paris, their trenches would have been shortened and straightened, and thus strengthened- didn’t withdraw because it was a symbol of pride.
• Initial attack postponed because of blizzards, rains, and gales- gave French a chance to bring two extra divisions as reinforcement.
• Results
• 11 July Falkenhayen ordered a halt to German attacks because of the allied attack on the Somme
• Germany’s early gains were lost
• Fort Douaumont was recaptured for the French
• Town of Verdun destroyed
• 700 000 losses (French and German together)
• Germans did not break French resistance
• Historiography
• “In their eyes, the battle was a defence of their women, their wives, the children, the French religion, the French soil” – Stephane Rouzeau
• “It’s a form of attrition to yield a victory after a mountain of corpses was produced. It’s a new kind of war.” – Jay Winter
• “It’s like a giant funnel, into which are poured the huge armaments and men of two of the largest and most advanced nations of the time” – Jay Winter
• Battle of the Somme: 1916 |
• Before the battle
• The city of Verdun was being destroyed by the Germans and the French were in need of assistance.
• Britain wanted to relieve pressure off the French and create a distraction through an offensive.
• Aims
• Led by Sir Douglas Haig, the British forces wanted to launch a 14 day offensive which would open up German lines, flanking them, then cutting the Germans off from supply lines and force a German surrender. It was like rounding up sheep.
• Significance
• The battle after it was finished, became the symbol for the entire war, immense casualties and loss of youth.
• Situation
• British launched a massive artillery barrage before the battle began, trying to destroy German frontline trenches.
• The German frontline trenches were destroyed yet most underground trenches and bunkers survived and after the barrage, the troops were able to set up machine guns to surprise the advancing British.
• As the British advanced, German machine gunners slaughtered over 20,000 troops in one day, with over 40,000 wounded. It was a complete failure.
• The French however gained all of their objectives with a loss of 7,000 troops.
• After a few weeks, German troops ceased fire on Verdun and concentrated all might to the Somme.
• German Tactics
• Germany was aware of an attack, strengthening their positions.
• They built underground shelters to be immune from shell fire.
• Germans were well supplied with machine guns.
• British Tactics
• British infantry and artillery were completely inadequate.
• Infantry were made to advance in a linear manor, without any training of formation or flexibility.
• There were many junior officers who were inexperienced in war, which in turn led to miss management and a great loss of lives.
• British gunners were untrained.
• They did not have nearly enough large artillery guns, having 1 per 50 m compared to one every 18 meters.
• Results
• British forces lost around 600,000 troops.
• French lost around 195,000.
• German forces lost around 450,000.
• Oddly enough, the French had similar troops in the battle as the British and faced simular numbers of enemy forces yet lost 2/3 less than the British. This suggests the British forces were highly inefficient and lacking experience or good commanders.
• General Haig blamed an inexperience in troops yet there were various other reasons as to why the British lost so many lives:
• Many of the supply roads for the British weren’t maintained.
• Any frontal assaults were suicidal but went ahead.
• Lack of infantry training.
• Artillery after the initial bombardment was inadequate.
• Calvary was used against machine guns and artillery. This concept of cavalry attacks was outdated.
• Tanks were misused due to lack of experience.
• It took 141 days till it was finished, rather than Haig’s prediction of 14 days.
• Both Verdun and Somme weakened the German army.
• Haig refused to change his tactics and was supported by the King of England.
• Originally, Haig wanted the offensive to force a German surrender through a complete restriction of supplies yet he changed his objective after the battle, advocating the idea of attrition.
• Battle of PasschendaeleL 1917 |
• Before the battle
• Germany was using sea ports such as Ostend and Zeebrugge in Belgium, to run an unrestricted submarine warfare campaign against the British.
• The British were almost forced out of the war by the Germans sinking a quarter of supply ships coming from Britain to France.
• Aims for the British
• To break the German line and capture the two sea ports in Belgium and cease the amount of sinking of British ships.
• Situation
• Battle began with a 10 day artillery strike. Heavy rain aided the initial bombardment to destroy German drainage systems, turning the German line into a manmade swamp.
• Tanks were unable to be used due to the thick mud.
• British failed to break the front line due to the Germans use of concrete reienforced bunkers which allowed the troops to move above ground and begin firing machine gun turrets like in the Battle of the Somme.
• The battle raged on in appaling conditions, many soldiers died by drowning in large holes filled with mud.
• The battle was called off a few days after the city of Passchendaele was totally destroyed.
• Results
• British forces lost around 240,000 troops and the Germans lost around 260,000 troops.
• The battle was regarded as the battle with the most horrific conditions.
• Haig failed to capture Ostend and Zeebrugge. Less than 10km of land was gained.
• Historiography
• Haig had sent the British troops to death in the Battle of the Somme and in Passchendaele he tipped the soldiers into the slough of despond. – John Keegan
• John Keegan suggests that the British army was mismanaged through Haig as Haig had send over half of the British forces into the battle against 1/3 of the German army, who were also fighting in the Eastern Front against the Russians, and still lost.
• Changing attitudes of Allied and German soldiers to the war over time• Early attitudes |
• Excitement, patriotic fervour, value of noble self sacrifice
• At beginning of war, there were some pacifist groups who maintained their
political, socialist and humanist views of society.
• However, Generally people put aside their politics, overwhelmed by nationalism and patriotism
• many women were reluctant in wanting the men to go to war- this was accompanied with feelings of pride that their brothers, sons and husbands were fighting for their nation
• Poets such as Wilfred Owen and Rupert Brooke, many war songs, news reports expressed these ideas
• Latter attitudes |
• Changed as a result of 1916-17 huge casualties, no gains and horror of trench warfare
• People became disillusioned and cynical- new recruits were not as fit and healthy (as stereotypical soldier types) and lacked enthusiasm (physiological)
• British people still had some enthusiasm as they had not experienced the total devastations of war, because it was not being fought on their front
• Many people in Russia and Germany became disillusioned and dissatisfied with war because of blockades
• As the war progressed and women became more involved in total war, they began to develop a sense of independence
• Anti war poets and painters included Sassoon, Owen and Nash. Diaries and memoirs of thousands of soldiers corroborate this change in attitude
• The Home fronts in Britain and Germany• Total War and its social and economic impact on civilians in
Britain and Germany• What was ‘total war’ and why was it introduced?
|
• Total war- the situation where every available person and resource in put towards the war effort
• It became the job of the civilian population to produce masses of equipment, weapons, ammunition, transport and food necessary to continue the military struggle
• Success or failure of the home front was crucial to the outcome of the war- the British with their naval blockade and the Germans with their submarine campaign attempted to disrupt their enemy’s economy
• Development of Total War |
• Total war was developed in response to the breakdown of the ‘war of movement’ and establishment of the ‘war of attrition.’
• To meet the demands of war (recruitment, production of weaponry etc,), all resources were diverted to the war effort from 1915 onwards.
• Effects of total war |
• Increased importance of civilians
• Use of Govt propaganda aimed at civilians
• Increased powers of Govt’s over civilians, which limited civil liberties and freedom
• Economic difficulties, particularly inflation
• Shortages of food, fuel and consumer goods
• By 1917 development of war weariness
• Change in public opinion and conditions on home front
• Britain |
• 27 Nov 1914 the Govt passed the Defence of Realm Act (DORA):
• Nationalised coal mines
• Gave govt control of railways
• Introduced censorship in newspapers, books and letters
• Introduced day light saving
• Introduced restrictions on alcohol consumption
• A curfew was introduced- lights out at 10pm
• Germany |
• Even before the outbreak of war, Germany had been an authoritarian society
• Conscription gave the govt immediate control over the military aged population- this control was gradually increased over the whole population
• 1916 the National service law introduced as part of Hindenburg plan- gave the govt power to control all adult males and direct them into any part of the military or economy.
• The Economy |
• Total war created shortages in other areas, which had to be managed by rationing
• Govt’s also attempted to control prices, wages and trade union
• Britain |
• The war lead to food shortages and price increases- this was the biggest cause of complaint for ordinary people and created controversy about price controls and rationing
• The board of agriculture was authorised to use unoccupied land, commons and parks for growing food
• Rationing was introduced in early 1918
• Income tax was increased during the war
• Germany |
• 1916 Hindenburg program gave govt increased control of labour- many more men were being taken out of agriculture and transferred to war industries or the military
• The efficient production of war materials caused relative neglect to the consumer sector and food production- this made worse the shortages that had been created by the British blockade and Germany’s lack of support from allies
• Poor harvests made the food situation worse- coal essential for cooking and heating was also in permanent short supply
• The Govt introduced mobile soup kitchens
• By 1918 there was famine
• Historiography- Total War |
• A. Pickard- four problems that dominated the home front in Britain- the production of munitions, food supply, the labour shortage and political changes- each brought significant changes to people’s lives
• Recruitment, conscription, censorship and propaganda in Britain and Germany• Recruitment and Conscription |
• the enlisting of new soldiers for an army in order to increase or restore its fighting capacity
• Reasons for recruitment |
• Germany
• Introduced conscription in 1871 and was still in force when war broke out- as a result campaigns to increase voluntary recruitment were not necessary.
• In the beginning Germany had large reserves of man power but this situation changed as the war progressed
• Britain
• Had a small standing army at beginning of 1914- previously relied on navy for its defence
• Recruitment to armed forced continued to be voluntary until 1916
• To make sure all man of military age enlisted, 1916 the Govt introduced compulsory military service- first for unmarried men between twenty and forty one, then for all men between eighteen and forty one
• 5 Aug 1914 Lord Kitchener was appointed Secretary of state for War
• conscription created a new group in British society- conscientious objectors- these were men who were pacifists or who for personal or religious reasons were opposed to war
• provision was made for ‘special exemptions’ were tribunals judged conscientious objectors to be genuine
• Reasons Soldiers enlisted
• Adventure
• Patriotism, jingoism, nationalism
• Seen as a holiday
• Economic downturn
• Escape from family life
• Conscription
• Appeal to manhood
• Propaganda
• Propaganda |
• Reasons for Propaganda During the First World War
• To encourage recruitment into the army
• To boost the morale of civilians and troops
• To encourage hatred of the enemy
• To encourage financial investment into the war effort
• To encourage acceptance and support of various restrictions, including rationing
• To encourage active participation in the war effort
• To attack those opposed to the war, or those not supporting the war effort
• To promote or oppose conscription for military service
• To promote of oppose industrial action by workers
• Types of Propaganda |
• Films
• Intention to present an appearance of sound organisation, valuable work and mateship of army life
• Scenes of carnage and misery and reference to heavy casualties were avoided
• Newspapers
• Reports of heroism and endurance of those in the fighting line
• Condemned enemy soldiers as ‘barbarians’
• Editorials urged men to join the army by appealing to a number of emotions
• Illustrations stressed the courage of soldiers in battle and the excitement of danger- encouraged recruits and maintained morale on home front
• Posters
• Designed to appeal directly to emotions, not the intellect
• Encouraged women to put pressure on male relatives to enlist and show their ‘manliness.
• Schools
• Teachers believed it was their patriotic duty to encourage children to support the war and to pressure male relative of fighting age to enlist.
• Lessons on the wickedness of the enemy, and the heroism of their country’s soldiers were common
• Songs
• Simple lyrics made strong emotional appeal
• Songs sung by women, but addressed to men encouraged enlistment
• Military bands dressed in uniform played at open air gatherings- excitement and glamour of army encouraged confidence, high morale and enlistment
• Censorship |
• to ensure Govt propaganda was not undermined, censorship was introduced
• Britain
• Images of the dead or severely wounded were excluded from photographs and
paintings
• Germany
• Tighter control over information than Britain
• Good news, such as victories, were highlighted
• Misinformation (incorrect) was fed to the people
• Prevented the expression of opposition views
• The variety of attitudes to the war and how they changed over time in Britain and Germany• Changing Attitudes |
• many people’s believed the war would be over before Christmas 1914
• for many young men there was a fear that the war would be over before they had a chance to be involved
• the Battle of the Somme, bought hoem the realities of mechanized warfare
• enthusiasm had largely disappeared
• civilians faced economic hardship
• very few gains were made
• Britain |
• Early Response to War
• Majority of British people welcomed the war
• Govt had little difficulty encouraging men to enlist
• Only early opposition from committed socialists, such as, Keir Hardie and Ramsay McDonald
• The Emergence of Opposition
• 1916-17 men in trenches and home front population beginning to express their frustrations
• lack of compassion shown by Generals did not help
• At home, growing war weariness developing as casualty lists in newspapers lengthened, shortages increased and greater demands were being made on the work force
• Zeppelin raids and attacks on eastern coastal cities lowered morale on the home front
• The Growth of Opposition
• Workers socialist foundation- concerned that workers were being redirected to war industries or the military
• Union of Democratic Control- concerned with the world after the war and aimed to prevent another war breaking out- accused of being organised by German agents- attacked by press and mobs
• No Conscription Fellowship- included socialists, religious dissenters such as the Quakers and feminists such as Sylvia Pankhurst- sought to assist those men who refused to serve in the army
• Germany |
• Early Response to war
• In 1914 opposition to the war was limited and mute- due to majority of peoples support for war and authoritarian nature of Govt
• Middle class German peace society- suffered repression and quickly disappeared
• Religious and intellectual opposition, such as Georgo Grosz, who opposed conscription, but opponents to the war soon ended up in prison
• Like many socialists in the rest of Europe, most German socialists dropped their pre-war pacifist views and joined the patriotic rush to support the Govt
• The Growth of Opposition |
• German home front suffered more than British, and war weariness was quicker to develop
• Decreased Standard of living- shortages, inflation, deterioration of working conditions
• Despite growing war weariness and increasing casualties, large scale opposition did not emerge until the second half of 1918
• Peace Movements |
• International Women’s movement
• 1915 International socialist conference in Switzeland called for peace without annexations and indemnities
• President Wilson (US president) at start of war promoting idea of ‘peace without victory’- Fourteen points:
• No secret agreements between nations
• Freedom of the seas
• Removal of economic barriers
• Disarmament
• Impartial adjustment of colonial claims
• Evacuation of all Russian territory
• Evacuation of all Belgian territory
• Evacuation of French territory and restoration of Alsace and Lorraine
• Adjustment of Italy’s borders
• Opportunity for various people of Austria-Hungary to seek autonomy (Freedom)
• Serbia given access to the sea and issues in Balkans resolved
• Autonomy for different nationalities within the Ottoman Turkish empire
• An independent Poland
• The formation of ‘a general association of nations’ to ensure all nations had protection against aggression
• What led to armistice
• Oct 1918 German high Command requested that politicians seek an armistice and peace negotiations based on Wilson’s proposal
• Nov Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated and a new provisional Govt was formed with Social democrat Freidrich Ebert as leader- had task of negotiating peace terms and signing the Armistice
• The impact of war on women’s live and experiences in Britain. • New Roles |
• While there were working class women, they had always been restricted, especially to domestic duties in the homes of the wealthy
• Because of total war, women were given the opportunity to take on traditional male roles
• First organised attempts by women to do war work were rejected
• The absence of men began to impact numerous industries and the increasing need for was supplies created demand
• Nurses, ambulance drivers, police women, fire fighters, milk deliverers, railway cleaners, window cleaners, ticket collectors
• Impact on Women’s lives |
• Young working class women largely who took on traditional male roles- impacted social and economic independence
• Middle and upper class women tended to do more volunteer work- this gave them a war experience but had little impact on their place in society
• Women had independence and money to make decisions about their social activities
• New responsibilities of war work and financial independence redefined ideas about acceptable behaviour for women- women no longer needed escorts to maintain their reputation, and smoked in public
• For practicality in the workplace, skirts became shorter, women wore trousers, and shortages of fabric lead to changes in fashion
• Turning points• Impacts of the entry of the USA and the Russian withdrawal
• United States entry into the war, April 1917
• German Submarine Campaign |
• Under international law the US was free to trade with both sides- Britain imposed a blockade on all merchant ships trading with Germany and Germany responded with a submarine campaign against ships trading with Britain
• President Wilson protested against the British naval blockade and the German submarine campaign- British used some flexibility by stopping ships rather than sinking them, German submarine campaign was more confrontational
• Passenger liner Lusitania sunk on 31 May 1915 by German u-boat- American passengers amongst the 1200 killed
• Conspiracy theory-American Govt took involvement in sinking the Lusitania so that the nation would support the Govt in entering the war
• Faced with a trade imbalance (Britain and France receiving more from America than Germany), the effectiveness of the British blockade and a need for a strategy to break the stalemate, Jan 1917 German Govt (campaign endorsed by Hindenburg and Ludendorff) announced it was reintroducing ‘unrestricted submarine warfare’ (all merchant vessels heading for Britain would be sunk without warning)
• If Germans sunk an American ship the American would be likely to enter the war on the allies side- if German u-boat succeeded at sinking most vessels heading for Britain then Britain would be faced with food shortages and be forced to withdraw from the war- if this happened then the war would be won before America had time to send troops to Europe
• On 15 March three American vessels were sunk
• Zimmerman Telegram |
• Telegram sent by German Govt encouraging Mexico to invade US, and offered Mexico the return of Texas, Arizona and New Mexico if the invasion was successful
• It was hoped such an invasion distracted US from the European war
• Mexican Govt was uninterested
• British code breakers ensured that the US Govt and newspapers received a copy of the telegram
• 7 April 1917 Congress voted to declare war on Germany
• it took a year for the US to draft, train and transport a large army to Europe
• America’s entry to the war added increased urgency for Germany to drive Britain out of the war- Submarine campaign failed to starve Britain out of the war- sailed in a zigzag pattern making it hard for submarines to aim their torpedos
• Ludendorff began to prepare for the last attack on the Western front before the American troops arrived
• The Russian Revolution |
• March 1917 anarchy broke out- land being seized by villagers, villager declaring power
• Tsar Nicholas II was forced to abdicate
• 5 Dec the Bolsheviks had achieved an armistice with Germany- Russians unable to achieve goal of no exchange of land or reparations
• End of fighting on Eastern front allowed Ludendorff to use these soldiers for his great offensive- some soldiers remained on Eastern border for protection and to maintain control
• Ludendorff’s spring offensive and the allied response• The First Offensive |
• 21 March Germans attacked on 96km front using gas, smoke shells and field guns
• forced British back to Amiens
• Germans advanced towards Paris in south
• Foch appointed commander in chief if allied armies in France
• 30 March Ludendorff called off offensive
• The Second Offensive |
• 9 April Germans attacked in Flanders on a smaller scale than first intended
• British position was desperate
• End of April 300 000 US troops arrived
• Germans failed to break through
• Ludendorff called off offensive because troops were tired
• The Third Offensive |
• 26 May German bombardment in Chemin des Dames sector
• met no resistance
• 30 May reached Marne- causing panic in Paris
• The Fourth Offensive |
• 9 April: attempt to eliminate failed and German advance was halted
• German flanks exposed to counter-attack
• The advance outstripped supplies
• The Fifth Offensive |
• 15 July Germans launched attack in Champagne region
• French halted the advance
• Offensive had failed
• The Allied Counter Attack |
• 18 July- under leadership of Foch- counter attacked Herman salients (exposed territory) across the Marne
• The death of most elite storm troopers reduced German fighting capacity
• German morale was deteriorating- soldiers surrendering without a fight
• 8 Aug- British, French, Canadian and Aust troops made surprise attacks
• Germany fell back to Hindenburg line
• 26 Sept final allied attack
• 29 Sept Ludendorff demanded the Chancellor, Prince Max, to sue (try reach an agreement while still in the position to negotiate) for an armistice
• 3 Oct Germany sure for peace
• Reasons for the failure of Germany’s last |
• Mechanical apparatus for supplying advanced troops was ineffective
• Strong British defence
• German troops exhausted, ran out of reserves, and supplies were very low because of blockade
• Morale disappeared
• Allied Victory• Events leading to the Armistice, 1918
• Armistice |
• By Sept 1918 German army forced to retreat beyond Hindenburg lin
• Germany’s allies had collapsed and the German home front could no longer maintain the war effort
• 4 Oct 1918 German Govt applied to President Wilson (US) for an armistice and peace negotiations based on Wilson’s fourteen points
• Discussion between allies took place before armistice was signed- Europeans delegates opposed to basing peace on fourteen points
• Wilson’s confidante (Colonel House) threatened to make a separate peace with Germany
• Allied agreed to make peace based on the fourteen points with two limitations:
• Allies reserved complete discretion over the seas
• That occupied territories be restored and that compensation to the civilian population by the aggression of Germany be paid for by Germany
• By Nov Germany was in Chaos- Kaiser forced to abdicate
• Revolutionary groups forming all over Germany demanding major political and economic reform
• German Govt had no choice but to accept the terms of the armistice
• Signed on train outside Paris
• Treaty of Versailles |
• 18 Jan 1919 the council of Ten (Great Britain, USA, France, Italy, Japan, Aust, New Zealand, India, Canada, South Africa) convened in the Great hall at Versailles
• end of march reduced to council of four- made negotiations more effective
• War Guilt and Reparations |
• Late may it was decided the war guilt clause (article 231)should be included for moral justification for reparations
• France insisted on full repayment- USA wanted to link payments to Germany’s capacity to pay
• Help Germany responsible for loss and damage caused by the war
• British efforts to limit the extent of reparations opposed by Wilson and Clemenceau
• The League of Nations |
• Wilson wanted a system that would permanently preserve peace in Europe
• Wanted the league to be an integral (essential) part of the treaties
• England and France doubted how effective it could be
• Germany was refused admission
• Russia was forbidden to join- due to western fears of communism
• Failure to disarm- Germany was the only nation to disarm
• Approved on 28 April and written into the treaty of Versailles
• The treaty of Versailles was signed on 28 June 1919 in the hall of mirrors
• Reasons for the allied victory and German collapse |
• USA entry into war
• Russia withdrawal- lack of support from allies
• failure of spring offensive
• Low moral- on trenches and home front
• Poor conditions on home front- economic problems, food shortages
• The roles and differing goals of Clemenceau, Lloyd George and Wilson in creating the treaty of Versailles• Clemenceau (French)
• Disliked Wilson
• Wanted to punish Germany for aggression of WWI and revenge for Franco- Prussian war
• Foch and French nationalists condemned Clemenceau as too liberal
• Objectives:
• Disarmament of Germany
• Guarantees for French security
• Restoration of Alsace- Lorrain
• Reparations
• Lloyd George (Britain)
• Objectives:
• Keeping faith with British public which wanted to see Germany punished
• Recommencement of trade and economy
• How to increase British colonial power
• Woodrow Wilson (USA)
• Objectives
• Wilson’s fourteens points intended to preserve peace and status quo in Europe
• Thought Germany should retain most of its pre war territory- with exception of Alsace and Lorraine
• Reparations- Germany should pay little or no reparations- all nations involved bore some responsibility to the outbreak of war.
• League of nations- to preserve peace throughout Europe
