Modern Europe II

Unit 4 – Revolutions and Order, 1848-1870

“Hungry Forties” Europe suffered economically during the 1840s

Industrial economic downturn late 1830s Led to a slowdown in industry and high

unemployment Bad harvests throughout Europe in 1839-1842 Potato blight high northern Europe hard in 1846 (esp.

Ireland and Germany) By 1847, food prices doubled Bread and potato riots broke out throughout Europe

People lost faith in their governments Governments sent in military to suppress the riots Made them look more authoritarian and incompetent

Revolutions of 1848 Near universal uprisings

Occurred throughout Europe Timing was nearly simultaneous Only Russia, the Netherlands, and Great Britain

avoided upheaval Goals of the revolts

Constitutional governments Independence and unification End to the remnants of serfdom and manorial

systems Revolutions of this period were short lived

Brought to an end through military means Start a new period of reactionism

Republique Française

French Revolution of 1848 July Monarchy remained separate from

changing French society Still no true representation for the bourgeoisie class Only elite enjoyed privileges Radicals called for universal male suffrage and a

republic Liberals wanted greater enfranchisement with a

constitutional monarchy Louis-Philippe did not support any changes

French eyed the changes taking place in Britain Called for greater enfranchisement Also demanded better wages and “right to work”

French Revolution of 1848 Problems for France

Bad harvests in 1846 Economic depression in 1847 Peasant rebellions throughout 1846-7

Prime Minister Guizot refused their calls for reform Reformers organized a banquet for February 22,

1848 Day before, government banned the meeting

February Revolution (February 22-24, 1848) Fighting broke out between Parisians and local guards National Guard opened fire on the crowd, killing 20

people City broke into riots On February 24, Louis-Philippe fled to England

French Revolution of 1848 Second Republic

Provisional government was set up Made up of seven political republicans and three

social republicans National Workshops

Louis Blanc, social republican, called for the creation of National Workshops to help unemployed

A program of public works in and around Paris Planned to support twelve thousand workers By June 1848, unemployment reached 65% Workers wanted to join the Workshop which could

not handle the numbers Increased from 66,000 participants in April to

120,000

French Revolution of 1848 Popular politics

Provisional government lifted restrictions on freedom of speech and political activity

Women’s clubs and newspapers appeared Constitutional Assembly

Elected in April 1848 by universal male suffrage Worked on a new constitution Temporary executive board was more moderate Less sympathetic towards the needs of the worker

Not everyone supported the revolution Conservativism popular in the countryside Rural farmers resented higher taxes to “pay” the

unemployed

French Revolution of 1848 Some felt it was not enough

Wanted greater changes especially in the workplace Still suffered from long days at low pay Workers attacked the Assembly in May calling for its

dissolution Assembly wanted an end of socialist influences

Decided to bring an end to the Workshops They were considered a financial drain Told unemployed to join army or transfer to

provincial workshops In May, closed the Workshops to future enrollment On June 21, the government ended the program

French Revolution of 1848 June Days (June 23–26, 1848)

Over 20,000 workers took up arms Parisian workers barricade the streets, creating a

maze effect Put down by National Guard under General Cavaignac In the end, over 3,000 killed and 7,000 wounded Over 11,000 were arrested and deported to colonies

Reaction Many were fearful of a full-blown revolution or class

war One Frenchwoman wrote that society was “a prey to

a feeling of terror incomparable to anything since the invasion of Rome by the barbarians”

Workers moved more towards socialism

Louis Napoleon Bonaparte

Rise of Louis Napoleon Bonaparte Constituent Assembly created the elected

position of president Designed to act as strong executive power Elections were to be held in December 1848

Four presidential candidates: Alphonse de Lamartine – Republican General Cavaignac – Republican Alexandre Auguste Ledru-Rollin - Socialist Louis Napoleon Bonaparte

Bonaparte won by a landslide Won with 5,400,000 votes (74% of total)

Rise of Louis Napoleon Bonaparte Louis Napoleon Bonaparte (1808-1873)

Nephew of Napoleon Spent most of his life in exile Initiated a Bonapartist coup at Strasbourg in 1836 Attempted a coup in Boulogne in 1840 which led to his

arrest In 1846, he escaped to England

Des Idées napoléoniennes (Napoleonic Ideas) Set down his political program Called for a strong centralized state but also social

reform Focus was on bringing glory and peace

L'Extinction du paupérisme (Extinction of Poverty) Pushed for greater social reforms

Rise of Louis Napoleon Bonaparte Rise of the Napoleonic Legend

In 1836, the Arch de Triumph was completed In 1840, Napoleon was returned to France for burial Louis Napoleon was associated with the greatness of

the Napoleonic era New Legislative Assembly met in May 1849

2/3 were royalists: Legitimists (favoring the line of Charles X) and Orléanists (favoring the line of Louis-Philippe)

Rest were either Socialists or political Republicans In June, an insurrection occurred

Failed to gain a following but led to reaction 33 Socialists were removed from the Assembly All public meetings were banned

Rise of Louis Napoleon Bonaparte In 1850, the Assembly terminated universal male

suffrage Role as president

At first, supported the more conservative actions of the Assembly

Put all the schools under control of the Catholic Church Lay teachers were associated with republicanism and

socialism Needed the support of the radicals as well Did this by supported the restoration of universal male

suffrage in 1851 Promoted the idea that wealthy were trying to control the

government “Counteracted” this by putting his own men in high

positions

Rise of Louis Napoleon Bonaparte Coup d’Etat (December 2, 1851)

Held on the anniversary of Napoleon’s victory at Austerlitz

Posted placards all over Paris stating the Assembly was disbanded

Members who showed up were dispersed or arrested Was some fighting throughout the country

Election of December 20, 1851 Louis Napoleon was elected president for a ten year

term Official count was 7.4 million to 646,000

Napoleon III In 1852, he declared himself Emperor of the French

Impact of the 1848 French Revolution Significance of the 1848 Revolution in France Its dynamics would be repeated elsewhere

Created a domino effect throughout Europe The pivotal role of the middle classes Many saw the June Days as naked class struggle

Shattered many liberal aspirations Led to an anti-Republican reactionary movement

Middle-class and working-class politics were more sharply differentiated Working class turned more radical Middle class turned more conservative

Europe in 1848

Revolutions in Central Europe Revolutions broke out throughout central Europe

in 1848 France provided the spark

Roots of revolution Social antagonisms between the privileged and middle

class Economic crises from the depression of 1846-7 Desire for political change

Liberal goals Representative government An end to privilege Economic development National unity

Austrian Empire in 1848 Austrian Empire was one of the most diverse in

Europe Population was exceeded only by Russia Germans were most populous In Romania, there were the Romanians In Hungary, there were the Magyars Also had a huge conglomerate of Slavic groups:

Czechs, Poles, Croats, Slovaks, and Slovenes The groups mainly lived in blocks but in some areas

were intermixed Huge spread of both culture and language Each one of these groups wanted their own

independent state

Austrian Empire in 1848 Austria also exerted influence on numerous areas

in central Europe Included the German Federation and Italy Many of these regions had been touched by the

nationalistic sparked Metternich prevented any nationalistic movements

from growing in these regions Could not stop the growing liberalism among the

middle class Problems for Austria

The economic recession and food shortages of 1846-7 also affected the Empire

The French Revolution of 1848 had an impact as well

Lajos Kossuth (1802-1894)

March Days The momentum of revolution began on March

3, 1848 Led by Lajos Kossuth, leader of the liberal faction

in the Hungarian Diet Demanded representative institutions Autonomy for the Hungarian Magyar nation

Demonstrations of March 15, 1848 Revolutionaries marched in the cities of Buda and

Pest demanding their “12 point plan” Called for a representative government, equality

before the law, and an end to censorship Were accepted by the imperial governor

March Days New Hungarian government

Pushed through major reforms known as the “April Laws”

Created an autonomous Hungarian state with the Habsburg Emperor as its king

Called for all taxes collected in Hungary to go to Hungary

Demanded the Diet be in control of the Hungarian army

In Prague, working and middle class revolted in the first half of March Demanded a meeting of the Bohemian Diet Wanted more social reforms including an end to

serfdom and civil liberties Provincial governor agreed to call the Diet

March Days Kossuth’s speech had an impact in Vienna as

well On March 13, 1848, students and workers rose up Demanded political and social reforms Built barricades and attacked the imperial palace Metternich was forced to resign and fled to Britain

Austrian government concessions Male suffrage and single house of representatives Withdrew troops from Vienna Worked toward the abolition of serfdom Yielded to Czech demands in Bohemia

March Days Germany was not free of revolts

Growing tensions already taking place There was a rise in the number of political clubs

Students and other radicals joined with middle-class reform groups

New demands for representative government Attacked autocracy and bureaucratic authority

Revolts broke out in Berlin on March 15, 1848 Demanded a representative government King Frederick William IV agreed to draw up a

constitution Also agreed to a meeting of a German assembly to

discuss possible unification

March Days Italy was still a patchwork of small states

Piedmont-Sardinia, the Papal States, and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies

Lombard and Venetia controlled by Austria Tuscany, Parma, and Modena ruled by the Habsburgs

Revolts in Italy Citizens of Milan drove out Austrians and set up a

provisional government Tuscany kicked out their Grand Duke and set up a

republic King Charles Albert of Sardinia declared war against

the Austrians This sparked an all out Italian war against the Austrians

Barricades in Prague May 1848

Reaction to the Revolutions Impact from the revolutions continued to spread Pan-Slav Assembly (June 1848)

Created in response to the nationalistic fervor Slavs did not want to participate in an all-German

assembly Wanted to bring forth a Slavic Revival Not all wanted to break from the Empire Saw it as a “necessary evil” to protect their interests

from Germany and Russia By June, the fervor had died down

Old regimes were bruised by not broken The revolutions were losing their momentum

Reaction to the Revolutions Biggest problem was the lack of cohesion

Peasants only cared about gaining emancipation Workers did not have the organization nor

education to see the revolution to its logical conclusion

Rest of the revolution was made up of the intelligentsia who did not have the political or economic power to make long term change

Starting in June 1848, there were a number of victories for the counterrevolution Worked to support the old regimes Brought about an end to liberalism in the short term

Reaction to the Revolutions On June 12, 1848, another insurrection broke

out in Prague Supported by Czech separatists Was violently put down by Prince Alfred Windisch-

Grätz Implemented martial law to keep the peace The Pan-Slavic assembly was dissolved

Sardinians lost to the Austrians General Joseph Radetzky von Radetz successfully

retook both Milan and Venice King Charles Albert was forced to retreat to Sardinia Both Lombardy and Venetia were returned to Austria

Reaction to the Revolutions Things were not going well for Hungary

Growing tensions between Magyars and non-Magyars In June 1848, anti-Magyar Josip Jellachich was

appointed as provincial governor of Croatia Kossuth severed all ties between Hungary and Austria Leads to a civil war between Serbo-Croatians and the

Magyars Vienna responded with another insurrection in

September 1848 Windisch-Grätz captures Vienna after 5 days Ferdinand abdicates in favor of his nephew Franz

Joseph

Reaction to the Revolutions Austrian Empire became more reactionary than

ever before Control was placed in the hands of Chief Minister

Prince Felix of Schwarzenberg Constitutionalism, self‐expression and nationalism

were “rooted out” Bach System

Designed by Austrian Minister of the Interior, Alexander Bach

Centralized the government to keep smaller provinces under control

Made some reforms including emancipation of the serfs, tariff reform, and legal reform

Prince Felix of Schwarzenberg Chief Minister of

Austria (1848-1852)

Frankfurt Assembly The Frankfurt Assembly (May 1848 – May 1849)

Most delegates represented the professional classes Most were moderate liberals Desired a constitution for a liberal, unified Germany No resources, no sovereign power, and no single legal

code The nationalist question

Großdeutsche Lösung (“Great Germany”) called for the incorporation of a greater German state, including Austria

Kleindeutsche Lösung (“Small Germany”) wanted Germany to contain only lands not held by larger nations

Both Ferdinand I and Franz Joseph refused to divide up Austria

Assembly accepted the “Small Germany” solution

Frankfurt Assembly Assembly offered the crown of Emperor to

Frederick Wilhelm IV on April 3, 1849 Did not want a crown based on revolutionary ideals He wanted the crown and larger state on his terms

alone The delegates left the Assembly disillusioned

Perhaps liberal and nationalist goals were incompatible?

Many delegates fled to the United States Popular revolution

Peasants ransacked tax offices and burned castles Workers smashed machines Formation of citizen militias Newspapers and political clubs

Cartoon of Frederick William refusing the crown (1849)

Marxism Karl Marx (1818–1883)

Influenced by Hegel’s philosophy Studied philosophy but became a journalist

The Rheinische Zeitung (1842–1843) Marx exiled to Paris, then Brussels, then London

Partnership with Friedrich Engels (1820–1895) Experience in the Manchester textile factories The Condition of the Working Classes in England

(1844) In 1847, Marx and Engels joined the League of

the Just Later renamed the Communist League

Marxism The Communist Manifesto (1848)

History and conflict Master and slave Lord and serf Bourgeois and proletariat

Capitalism would “dig its own grave” With the collapse of capitalism, the workers would

seize the state Communism Dialectical materialism

Karl Marx (1818-1883)

Napoleon III (1852-1870) Very different from his uncle

Rejected many radical ideas Believed that France should become a more “modern”

state Previous rulers had been controlled by special

interests Wanted to be the “sovereign of the people”

Believed in personal rule and a centralized state Felt he could do more than an assembly Created an elected Assembly that had no real power Control of finances, the army, and foreign affairs Undermined traditional elites and fashioned a new

relationship with the people

Napoleon III (1852-1870) Economic changes

Took steps to develop the economy Founded the Crédit Mobilier Helped to bring France fully into the modern period Built new railroads and the Suez Canal Faith in the ability of industrial expansion to bring

prosperity and national glory Passed new limited-liability laws Reluctantly permitted trade unions and the

legalization of strikes Helped France get through the economic depression

of 1857 Signed a free-trade agreement with England (1860)

Boulevard Montmartre: Afternoon Sunshine (c. 1897)

Napoleon III (1852-1870) Improving Paris

Massive rebuilding of the medieval infrastructure Built railway stations, roads, and other public

works projects Erected 34,000 new buildings New water pipes and sewer lines Wholesale renovation did not benefit everyone

Aggressive foreign policy It was his foreign policy that undid Napoleon III Started his reign with the slogan “L’Empire, c’est la

paix” (the Empire means peace”)

Napoleon III (1852-1870) Crimean War (October 1853–February 1856)

French, British and Ottomans against the Russians First major scramble for territory from the declining

Ottoman Empire Started when France declared itself as “sovereign

authority” in the Holy Land Russia refused to go along The alliance won the war, ending the Congress

System Second Opium War (1856-1860)

Again allied with Britain against Qing Dynasty in China Won more trading rights with China and large

indemnity Coincided with greater involvement in Vietnam

Napoleon III (1852-1870) Second Italian War of Independence (April 29 -

July 11, 1859) Worked with Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia to drive

out the Austrians from northern Italy France received Savoy and Nice Sardinia received Parma, Modena, Tuscany, and

Papal States Intervention in Mexico (January 1862–March

1867) Wanted to bring back a monarchy to Mexico Also wanted to extend France’s sphere of influence

in the New World Installed a new emperor, Maximilian I

Napoleon III (1852-1870) French plans for the American Civil War

Napoleon was the leading European force supporting the Confederacy

Never officially gave support Did supply weaponry in the form of firearms,

submarines, and ironclads to both sides Franco-Prussian War (July 1870 - May 1871)

Brought the final decline of France’s Second Empire

Napoleon was already in declining health France lost Alsace-Lorraine Led to German unification