Modul Teacher Copy Form 4

Bahrul Mazi Li Ulumil Insan ©Zulizah2013@SBPIS

1

Chapter 2

Cell Structure and Cell

Organization

“Barangsiapa Merintis Jalan

Mencari Ilmu Maka Allah Akan

Memudahkan Baginya Jalan Ke

Syurga” (HR. Muslim)


2

Cell Structure and Function

Protoplasm is living component of a cell

It consists of cytoplasm and nucleus

There two types of cell,

1. Animal cell

2. Plant cell

The cytoplasm contains organelles which perform specific functions.

This enable the cell to function as unit of life

Cellular component of animal and plant cell

Animal cell


3

Plant cell

Organelle Characteristic Function Location of

most abundant Effect of absent

Plasma

membrane

Semi

permeable

Made of

protein and

phospolipid

Form boundaries

to separate

internal from

external

environment.

Regulate the

movement of

substances

across PM

All cell

All substances

can move

across PM

Cell wall

Rigid

Fully

permeable

(have tiny

pores)

Give shape to

plant cell

Provide

mechanical

support

Prevent plant

cell from

rupturing

(Excess water)

All plant cell

Plant cell

…………. fix

shape

Plant cell

b………… due

excess intake of

water


4



Cytoplasm

Consists jelly

like matrix

Contain

organic and

inorganic

substances

Medium for

biochemical

reaction

Provide

substances for

biochemical

reactions

All cells

Biochemical

reaction can’t

occur

Nucleus

Large, dense

and spherical

organelle

Enclose by

nuclear

membrane

Control activity

of cell

Meristematic

tissues

Pancreas

Synthesis of

protein can’t be

regulated

Mitochondria

Small

spherical of

cylindrical

structures

Generate energy

during cellular

respiration

Sperm cell

Skeletal

muscles

Bird flights

muscles

Sperm infertile

Skeletal muscle

can’t contract

Bird can’t fly

Ribosome Consists of

two sub-unit

Synthesis of

protein

Liver

Pancreas

Protein can’t be

synthesised

Lysosome

Contain

hydrolytic

enzyme

Break down

complex organic

molecules

Eliminate worn

out organelle

Liver

Worn out

organelle can’t

be eliminate

Smooth

endoplasmic

reticulum

Don’t have

ribosome

attach on the

surface

Synthesis of lipid

Detoxification of

drug

Liver Lipid can’t be

synthesised


5



Rough

endoplasmic

reticulum

Connected

with nuclear

membrane

Have

ribosome

attach on the

surface

Transport

protein

synthesised by

ribosome

In form of

transporting

vesicle

Pancreas

Wall of ileum

Protein can’t be

transported into

GA

Centrioles

Pair of small

cylindrical

structures

Composed of

complex

arrangement

of microtubules

Form spindle

fibre during cell

division

Reproductive

organ

Cell division

can’t occur

Chloroplast

Contain

green

pigment

called

chlorophyll.

Trap sunlight

during

photosynthesis

Palisade

mesophyll

cell

Spongy

mesophyll

cell

Guard cell

Photosynthesis

can’t occur

Golgi

Apparatus

consist of a

stack of

flattened

membranous

sacs

processing,

packaging and

transporting centre

of proteins

In form of

secretory vesicle

Liver

Pancreas

Protein can’t

transported out

from the cell

Vacuole

Fluid-filled

sac

surrounded

by tonoplast

In plant cells act

as storage place

Provide support

in herbaceous

plant

Young cells Plant will wilt

easily

Contractile

vacuole

Can contract

and relax Osmoregulatio

Unicellular

organism

Unicellular

organism burst


6

Similarities and Differences animal cell and plant cell

Both have nucleus, plasma membrane, mitochondria

Differences

Aspect Animal cell Plant cell

Shape Doesn’t have fix shape Have fix shape

Cell wall Absent present

Vacuole Small and numerous/ absent Large central vacuole

Chloroplasts Present Absent

Food storage Glycogen Starch

Relating the Density of Certain Organelles with the Functions of Specific Cells.

Types of Cells Function Organelles found abundantly

in the specific cells

Sperm cells

Require large amount of

energy to propel towards the

uterus and Fallopian tube

during fertilisation

Mitochondria

Flight muscle cells

in insect and birds

Contract and relax to enable

movement and flight Mitochondria

Cells in the

meristem

Actively divide to produce new

cells for growth Nucleus

Mesophyl

palisade cells

Trap sunlight and convert

light energy into chemical

energy during photosynthesis

Choloplast


7

CELL ORGANISATION

Living processes in unicellular organism

Aspect Amoeba sp. Paramecium sp.

a) Habitat

Freshwater environments and in

soil water

Freshwater ponds rich in decaying

organic matter

b) General

Characteristic

Enclosed by the plasma membrane

constantly changing shape as it

meets obstacles (halangan)

It is divided into two layers

1. Ectoplasm

2. Endoplasm

Only have one nucleus

Moves and feed by using

pseudopodia

The surface is covered by numerous

rows of cilia

Cilia are short hair-like outgrowths

The cilia are involved in locomotion

and feeding

C) Living

Processors

i) Locomotion

Moves by extending pseudopodia

and anchoring the tips on the

ground

Followed by the flow of cytoplasm

into the projected pseudopodia

Moves by means of rhythmic

beating of cilia

Move forward while rotating and

spiralling along its axis


8

Known as amoeboid movement

ii) Feeding

Engulfs food by phagocytosis

The pseudopodia enclose the food

Packaged in a food vacuole and

fuses with a lysosomes

The food is digested by a hydrolytic

enzyme called lysozyme

The resulting nutrients are

absorbed into cytoplasm.

the undigested particle will left

behind when amoeba move forward

The rhythmic beating of cilia along

oral groove sweeps water and

suspended food particles into the

cytostome

In the cytostome, food vacuoles

containing the food particles are

formed

The food particles in the food

vacuoles are digested by hydrolytic

enzymes from the lysosomes

Nutrients from the digested food then

absorb into the cytoplasm

The undigested contents are

released through the anal pore

iii) Respiration The exchange of gases, nutrients

and waste substances occur

simple diffusion

Exchange of O2 ,CO2 by simple

diffusion

The exchange of gases, nutrients

and waste substances occur simple

diffusion

Exchange of O2 ,CO2 by simple

diffusion

iv)

Osmoregulation

Water is hypotonic compare to

Amoeba sp.

Water diffuses into the cell by

osmosis

The water fill the contractile vacuole

Contractile vacuole will expand

When it reach max size, it contracts

to expel the water to surrounding

Water is hypotonic compare to

Paramecium sp.

Water diffuses into the cell by

osmosis

The water fill the contractile vacuole

Contractile vacuole will expand

When it reach max size, it contracts

to expel the water to surrounding


9

v) Responses to

Stimuli

Reacts by retreating from adverse

stimuli, such as acidic solutions or

bright light

Reacts by move towards the

favourable stimuli such as food

Reacts by retreating from adverse

stimuli, such as acidic solutions or

bright light

Reacts by move towards the

favourable stimuli such as food

vi) Reproduction

Environment is favourable, Amoeba

sp. reproduces asexually by binary

fission

When the environment is not

conducive, Amoeba sp. forms

spores

Environment is favourable,

Paramecium sp. reproduces

asexually by binary fission

Involve macronucleus

When the environment is not

conducive, Paramecium sp.

reproduces sexually by conjugation

Involve micronucleus

vii) Growth Grows by synthesizing new

cytoplasm

Grows by synthesizing new

cytoplasm


10

Feeding by Ameoba sp.

Food vacuole

Ameoba extend

it pseudopodia

toward bacteria

Ameoba engulf

the bacteria by

phagocytosis

The bacteria is

packed into

food vacuole

Lysozyme from lysosome

hidrolyse the food vacuole.

The nutrients are absorbed

into cytoplasm

Undigested particle will

left behind when

amoeba move forward

1 2 3

4 5

Bacteria Pseudopodia Food vacuole


11

Feeding by Paramecium sp.

2

3

4

5

6

The rhythmic beating of cilia along

oral groove sweeps water and

suspended food particles into the

cytostome

1

In the cytostome, food

vacuoles containing the

food particles are formed

Lysosome fuses with

food vacuole and

release lysozyme into

food vacuole

The food particles in the

food vacuoles are digested

by hydrolytic enzymes from

the lysosomes

Nutrients from the digested

food then absorb into the

cytoplasm

The undigested contents

are released through the

anal pore


12

Osmoregulation in Paramecium sp.

Cell Specialisation in Multicellular Organism

1. A cell is composed of molecules

2. Cells of the same type which carry out a same function are organised into tissue

3. A tissue is a group of similar cells performing a particular function

4. Different type of tissues group together to form an organ

5. An organ is a group of tissues that performs a specialised function

6. Several organs are organized into a system

7. Finally, all the systems make up an organism

Cells Organs Tissues Systems Multicellular Organism

4

Contractile vacuole will

expand until it reaches

maximum size.

1 Water is hypotonic

compare to

Paramecium sp.

2

Water diffuses into the

cell by osmosis

3

The water fill the

contractile vacuole

5

It contracts to expel the

water to surrounding


13

Cell Organsation in Animals

Tissues Characteristics Functions

I. Epithelial tissues Consist of one or more

layer of cells

The cells of an epithelium

are tight interconnected,

with little space between

them

On the skin it forms a

protective barrier against

infections, mechanical

injuries and dehydration

Form goblet cells which

secrete mucus into the

digestive tract in small

intestine

Form cilia that line the

trachea

To trap dust from entering

the lung

Form glands (exocrine

and endocrine glands

1. Exocrine glands

secrete mucus,

Cardiac

muscle cell

Cardiac

muscle

Heart Circulatory

system


14

enzymes, sweat

2. Endocrine glands

secrete hormones

only

Epithelial tissues at the lining

of the lung, body cavities,

heart and blood vessel

Epithelial tissues at the

lining of kidney tubules,

glands and duct

Epithelial tissues

at the lining of the

trachea


lining of small intestine


surface of skin, and the lining

of mouth and oesophagus

Goblet

cell

Cilia


15

ii. Muscle Characteristic Function

a) Skeletal muscles

Attached to the bones of the

skeleton

Found in the intestines, blood

vessel

Responsible for the voluntary

movements of the body

Contractions of skeletal

muscle produce movements of

various body parts

b) Cardiac muscles

Form the contractile wall of

the heart

Found in the walls of heart

only

Contract to pump blood to all

parts of the body

Contractions of the cardiac

muscles are involuntary

c) Smooth muscle

Found along the walls of the

digestive tract, blood

vessels, bladder and

reproductive tract

Contract more slowly and

remaining contracted for a

longer period of time

Responsible for the

involuntary actions of the

body.

Example in the peristaltic

movement along digestive

tract

Iii. Nerve Tissues

Composed of neurones, or

nerve cells

Each neurone consist of a

cell body and nerve fibres

called dendrites and axons

Detect stimuli and transmit

electrical signals called nerve

impulses to muscle or gland

Control and coordinate all

activities of the body


16

Iv. Connective Tissues

a) Cartilage

Strong and flexible

connective tissue

Provides support to the nose,

ears and covers the ends of

bones at joints

Forms discs between the

vertebrae

Act as cushions to absorb

pressure

b) Tendon

Tough and inelastic

connective tissues

Attach muscles to bones

c) Ligament Tough and elastic

connective tissues

Attach bones to bones

d) Bone

Consist of cells embedded in

a matrix of collagen

Hardened by mineral

deposits such as calcium.

Provide protection to organs

in the body

Supports the body

e) Blood Blood consist of

- Red blood cell

- White blood cells

- Platelets

Blood cells are

manufactured in the bone

marrow

Red blood cells transport

respiratory gaseous.

White blood cell assist in

fighting infections

Platelets aid in blood clotting

f) Adipose tissue/ fat

tissue

Fat cells or adipose tissue,

are tightly packed.

They can be found in the

dermis of the skin

Act as storage energy

Insulate the body

Protect internal organ


17

Blood

Organ

Formed by two or more types of tissues working together to perform particular function

Examples of organs include

1. Skin

2. Lungs

3. Kidney

Skin

Cover the body and it function to;

1. Act as barrier against infection

2. Protect body from physical trauma

3. Reduce water loss by evaporation

Skin is an organ because consists of various types of tissues working together to

perform specific functions

Red blood cell/

erythrocytes

White blood cell/

Leukocyte

Platelet


18

Skin structure Characteristic/ function

1. Epidermis Outer layer of skin

Made by epithelial tissues which constantly

undergo cell division

2. Dermis Composed of connective tissues, nerve tissues,

epithelial tissues and muscle tissue

3. Blood vessel Supply blood to the skin

4. Nerve Act as receptors which transmit impulses for

pain, pressure, temperature and touch

5. Hair follicles Produce hair

6. Sweat gland Secrete sweat

7. Oil gland Secrete sebum

Epidermis

Dermis

Hair erector

muscle

Hair

follicle

Oil gland

Adipose tissues

Blood vessel

Sweat gland

Nerves


19

Cell Organisation in Plant

Meristematic tissues

Consist of small cells which have thin walls, large nuclei, dense cytoplasm and no

vacuoles.

They are young and actively dividing cells

Have not undergo differentiation

Located at;

1. Tips of roots

2. Buds of shoots

Ground tissues

1. Parenchyma tissues

2. Collenchymas tissues

3. Sclerenchyma tissues

Meristematic tissues Permanent tissues

Epidermal tissues

Tissues

Vascular tissues

1. Xylem

2. Phloem


20

Permanent tissues

Mature tissue that have undergone differentiation or are still undergo differentiation

Tissue Characteristics Functions

A) Epidermal

tissue

The outermost layer that covers the

stems, leaves and root of young plants

The walls of epidermal cells are

exposed to air are covered by a cuticle

(waxy, waterproof coating)

Most epidermal cells are flat and have

large vacuoles

The epidermal cell of roots are not

covered with cuticle

The cuticle on the epidermal

tissue helps prevent the loss

of excessive water through

evaporation,

Protects the plant from

mechanical injury

Prevents invasion by

disease-causing

microorganism

In root, epidermal cells have

long projections called root

hairs.

To increase the surface area

for absorption of water and

Shoot bud

Actively divide cell

Root tip


21

mineral

In leaves, the lower

epidermis called guard cells,

Which regulate the opening

and closing of stomata


B) Ground tissue

Parenchyma

tissue

Consist of thin primary walled cells

Have a large vacuole

Most fruit are made up of parenchyma

cells

Store products of

photosynthesis such as

sugar and starch

Parenchyma tissue which is

turgid gives support and

shape to herbaceous plants

Collenchyma

tissue

Unevenly thickened cell walls

Provide support in

herbaceous plants, young

stems, leaf stalks and

petioles

Root hair Guard cell

Root hair

Soil

particle

Guard cell

open

Guard cell

close


22

Sclerenchyma

Tissue

Have cell walls which are uniformly

thickened by lignin

Most of the cells are dead at maturity

Don’t have nucleus

Supports and mechanical

strengthens to the mature

region of a plant


C) Vascular tissue

Xylem tissues

Consist of fibres, tracheids and xylem

vessels

These are long tubes joined together

end to end

Extending from the roots right up to the

shoots

Doesn’t have cytoplasm in xylem

vessel for efficient transporting of

water and mineral

The cell walls of the xylem are

thickened with lignin

Prevent the xylem from collapse

Xylem conducts water and

minerals from the roots to

the leaves

It provides support and

mechanical strength to the

plant

Parenchyma tissue Collenchymas tissue Sclerenchyma tissue


23

Phloem tissue

Phloem tissue consist of parenchyma

cells, sclereids, sieve tubes and

companion cells

The conducting cells of phloem are the

sieve tubes which have pores at both

ends, called sieve plates

Sieve tubes obtain nutrients and

energy from the adjacent companion

cells

Phloem transports product

of photosynthesis

downwards from the leaves

to storage organs

Xylem Component

Xylem vessel

Tracheids Fibre


24

Phloem component

Regulating the Internal Environment

The internal environment of Multicellular organism

Internal environment refer to condition that exist within the body of an organism

Internal environment consist of

o Blood plasma

o Interstitial fluid

o Lymph

Sieve plate

Sieve tube

Companion cell

Interstitial fluid

Blood plasma

Lymph


25

The Necessity for Maintaining an Optimal Internal Environment

The physical factors and chemical factors in internal environment must be maintain and

regulated at optimum level

Physical factor Chemical factor

1. Temperature 1. Salt and sugar content

2. Blood pressure 2. Blood pH value

3. Blood osmotic pressure 3. Concentration of carbon

dioxide

The internal environment always changes because the fluctuation of physical and

chemical factors

These changes are maintenance and regulated by homeostasis process

The purpose of homeostasis is to maintain the internal environment optimum level so

that the metabolic processes can proceed at maximum rate

The mechanism that governs homeostasis is called negative feedback mechanism

The Involvement of Various Systems in Maintaining an Optimal Internal Environment

Regulation of glucose

Normal concentration

of Glucose Normal concentration

of Glucose

Glucose

Increase

Pancreas

(Beta cell)

Secrete Insulin

hormone

Transport via blood

circulatory system

Liver

Stimulate liver cells convert

excess glucose into glycogen

Glucose

Decrease

Pancreas

(Alpha cell)

Secrete Glucagon

hormone

Transport via blood

circulatory system

Liver

Stimulate liver cells breakdown

glycogen into glucose


26

Temperature regulation

Normal body

Temperature

Thermoreceptor

Hypothalamus

Effectors

Sweat gland

Hair erector muscle

Smooth muscle blood vessel

Adrenal gland Thyroid gland

Hair upward so heat is t trapped

Sweat is not produced

Contract and

relax rapidly

Increases

Active

Relax

Vasoconstriction Not release

heat

Relax

Dilate

Adrenaline and

Tyrosine

Increase metabolic

rate to increase

heat regeneration

Secrete

less

Normal body

Temperature

Shivering to produce heat

Thermoreceptor

Decreases

Hypothalamus

Effectors

Sweat gland

Hair erector muscle

Smooth muscle blood vessel

Adrenal gland Thyroid gland

Skeletal Muscle

Inactive

Contract

Contract

Constrict

Secrete more

Hair upward so heat is trapped

Sweat is produced to cooling body

Vasodilation To release

excess heat

Adrenaline and

Tyrosine

Decrease

metabolic rate to

decrease heat

generation


27

CHAPTER 3

The Movement of

Substances Across Plasma

Membrane

“Redha Allah Bergantung

Pada Redha Dua Ibu Bapa,

Dan Murka Allah Bergantung

Pada Murka Kedua-Dua Ibu

Bapa.” (HR Al-Hakim)


28

Chapter 3- The Movement Of Substances Across Plasma Membrane

Label Name of Structure Characteristic/ Function

A Hydrophilic head

Made of phosphate

Have charge

Attract to water

B Hydrophobic tail

Made of lipid

Doesn’t have charge

Not attract to water

C Carrier Protein

Made of protein

Have active site for attachment of substrate and

ATP

Involve in active transport

D Glycoprotein Made of carbohydrate

For cell recognition

E Cholesterol

Type of lipid

To strengthen the plasma membrane

To make plasma membrane more flexible

To make plasma membrane less permeable to water

soluble substances

E

A

B

C

D

F

G

H


29

F Pore protein/ Channel

protein

Made of protein

Have active site for attachment of substrate

Have a pore

Involve in facilitated diffusion

G Pore Allow the movement of substances across plasma

membrane

H Phospholipids bilayer Consists of two layer of phospholipids

The Structures of Plasma Membrane

Composed mainly of phospholipids and protein

each phospholipids molecules has a polar head and a pair of non-polar tail

phospholipids is called bilayer because it arranged in two layers

Known as Fluid Mosaic Model because

o The plasma membrane is dynamic(always move) and not static

o The protein molecules float in phospholipids bilayer to form mosaic pattern

The function of plasma membrane are:

o Act as selective barrier which is to regulate the movement of substances across the

plasma membrane

o Form a border to separate internal environment with external environment

Permeability of plasma membrane

Because plasma membrane is semi-permeable, it only allows certain substances across through

it by simple diffusion which are:

o Small molecule such as water

o Uncharged molecules such as carbon dioxide and oxygen

o Fat soluble substances such as Vitamin ADE and K, fatty acid and glycerol

Large water soluble molecule such as glucose and amino acid across plasma membrane through

carrier protein

Small water soluble molecule (Vitamin B and C) and ion (Na+, K+ and Cl-) across plasma

membrane through pore protein


30

THE MOVEMENT OF SUBSTANCES ACROSS PLASMA MEMBRANE

Passive Transport Active Transport

Simple diffusion Osmosis Facilitated diffusion

Movement of substances across the plasma membrane

Glucose,

amino acid

H2O, CO2, O2 Vitamin B and

C, Na+, K+,Cl-


31

Simple Diffusion

Osmosis

A B

Compartment A is hypotonic

region ( less solute) compare to

compartment B which is

hypertonic region (more solute)

Water molecule diffuse across semi

permeable membrane from hypotonic

region to hypertonic region by osmosis

Osmosis stop when dynamic

equilibrium is achieved

Glucose molecule

Water molecule

Semi permeable

membrane

A B A B

Dye molecule have

higher concentration

gradient compare to

water molecule

Dye molecule diffuse

between water molecule

follow concentration

gradient randomly

The diffusion of dye

molecule stop when it

equally distributed in the

water

This condition is called

dynamic equilibrium


32

Facilitated Diffusion

Active Transport

Carrier protein have active site which complement to the shape of substances

Substances bind with active site at the carrier protein

Carrier protein change shape and facilitate the diffusion of substances across the plasma membrane

Carrier protein return to normal shape to carry another substances

Carrier protein have

active site to bind

with ion molecule

and ATP

Ion molecule and ATP bind to their respective active site

Binding of ATP at the active site will cause carrier protein change shape

Ion molecule will across plasma membrane against concentration gradient

ATP leave the active site

Carrier protein chance to it normal shape


33

The process of passive and active transport in living organism

Gaseous exchange in alveolus

Concentration of oxygen in alveolus is higher

compare to concentration of oxygen in blood

capillary

Oxygen from alveolus diffuse into blood

capillary by simple diffusion

Concentration of carbon dioxide in blood

capillary is higher compare to concentration

of carbon dioxide in alveolus

Carbon dioxide from blood capillary diffuse

into alveolus by simple diffusion

Food Absorb In Villi

Concentration of glucose in small intestine is

higher compare to concentration of glucose in

villi

Glucose across the villi by facilitated diffusion

Water Absorption In Root Hair

Concentration of water in soil is higher

compare to concentration of water in the root

hair

Water from soil diffuse into root hair by

osmosis

Ion Absorption In Root Hair

Concentration of ion in root hair is higher

compare to concentration of ion in the soil

Ions from the soil diffuse into root hair by

active transport


34

Comparison Between Active Transport and Passive Transport

Similarities

Both process involve the movement across plasma membrane

Differences

Aspect Passive transport Active transport

Concentration

gradient

Substances move follow

concentration gradient

Substance move against

concentration gradient

Cellular energy The movement of substances

doesn’t require ATP

The movement of substances

require ATP

Outcome of the

process

The process movement of

substances stop when dynamic

equilibrium is achieved

The process movement of

substances is to accumulate or

eliminate ions from the cell

The Effects of Hypotonic, Hypertonic and Isotonic Solutions on Plant and Animal

Cells

Type of Solution Definition

Isotonic solution Concentration of the solution is same with the

concentration of the cell

Hypotonic solution Concentration of the solution is less than the


Hypertonic solution Concentration of the solution is more than the


Note: Isotonic, Hypotonic, Hypertonic are concentration of solution, NOT a process

Note** To answer a questions from this section student should put;

o Different concentration of solution with the cell

o Direction of water movement

o By osmosis

o Condition of the cell


35

Condition of Cell Before

Immersion

Condition of Cell After

Immersion Explanation

1. Isotonic solution (5%

sucrose solution)

5% sucrose solution is isotonic

solution compare to erythrocytes

cell

Water diffuse in and out from

solution at equal rate

by osmosis

Erythrocytes maintain it shape

2. Hypotonic solution

( distill water)

Distill water is hypotonic

solution compare to erythrocytes

cell

Water diffuse in from solution

into the cell

by osmosis

Erythrocytes swell and burst

This condition known as

haemolysis

3. Hypertonic solution

(30% sucrose

solution)

30% sucrose solution is

hypertonic solution compare to

erythrocytes cell

Water diffuse out from cell into

the solution

by osmosis

Erythrocytes shrink


crenation

4. Isotonic solution (5%

sucrose solution)

5% sucrose solution is isotonic

solution compare to plant cell

Water diffuse in and out from


by osmosis

Plant cells maintain it shape


36


( distill water)




into the vacuole of cell

by osmosis

The vacuole of plant cell expand

and swell up

This condition known as turgid

6. Hypertonic solution

(30% sucrose

solution)

30% sucrose solution is

hypertonic solution compare to

plant cell

Water diffuse out from cell into

the solution

by osmosis

Both vacuole and cytoplasm

shrink


plasmolysis

The cell become flaccid


( distill water)




into the vacuole of cell

by osmosis

The vacuole of plant cell expand

and swell up again


deplasmolysis


37

Mustard strip in various concentrations

Epidermis coated by cuticle which made of waxy substances

This make the cuticle waterproof(water can’t across through it)

Concentration of 30% of

sucrose solution is

hypertonic compare to

the mustard cell

Water diffuse out from

the cell into the solution

By osmosis

The cell become

plasmolysis

The mustard strip bend

inward

Concentration of 5% of

sucrose solution is

isotonic compare to the

mustard cell

Water diffuse in and out

from the cell into the


By osmosis

The cell maintain it shape

The mustard strip

unchanged

Concentration of distil

water is hypotonic

compare to the mustard

cell

Water diffuse in from the

solution into the cell

By osmosis

The cell become turgid

The mustard strip bend

outward

Immerse

in 30% of

sucrose

Immerse

in 5% of

sucrose

Immerse

in distill

water


38

Graph of potato strip immerse in various concentration of sucrose solution

At point P

0.1M concentration of sucrose solution is hypotonic solution compare to cell of potato

water from the solution diffuse into the cell of potato

by osmosis

cause increase change in mass of potato

At point Q

0.25M concentration of sucrose solution is isotonic solution compare to cell of potato

water from the solution diffuse in and out of the cell of potato at equal rate

by osmosis

cause no change in mass of potato

At point R

0.5M concentration of sucrose solution is hypertonic solution compare to cell of potato

water from the cell of potato s diffuse out to the solution

by osmosis

cause decrease change in mass of potato


39

The Effects and Applications of Movement of Substances in Everyday Life

Condition Process

Unicellular Organism in it

natural environment

Paramecium live fresh water which is hypotonic

solution

water diffuse into the cell by osmosis

If osmoregulation doesn’t occur, cell will burst

Osmoregulation

water will diffuse into contractile vacuole

contractile vacuole will expand until it reach

maximum size

it will contract and expel excessive water into

surrounding

this process require energy(ATP) generated by

mitochondria

Excess fertilizer

Excess fertiliser cause soil water become

hypertonic solution compare to plant cell

Water diffuse out from plant cell into the solution

by osmosis

Both vacuole and cytoplasm shrink

This condition known as plasmolysis

The cell become flaccid

The plant become wilt and eventually die

Mango/ Fruit preservation

(Sugar solution)

Sugar solution is hypertonic solution compare to

plant cell

Water diffuse out from cell into the solution

by osmosis

The plant cell become dehydrated

This condition not suitable for the growth of

microorganism


40

Fish/ Salted food

(Salt solution)

Salt solution is hypertonic solution compare to

fish cell

Water diffuse out from cell into the solution

by osmosis

The fish cell become dehydrated

This condition not suitable for the growth of

microorganism

Vegetables

(Vinegar solution)

Vinegar have a low pH

Molecule of vinegar diffuse into vegetable by

simple diffusion

This will cause cell of plant become acidic

This condition is not suitable for the growth of

microorganism

Root hairs

(Ion molecule absorption)

Root hair is hypertonic compare to molecule ion in

the soil

Molecule ion will diffuse into root hair from soil by

active transport

The movement of ion against concentration

gradient

and require ATP

Root hairs

(Water absorption)

Root hair is hypertonic compare to water in the

soil

Water diffuse into root hair from the soil

by osmosis

The root hair become turgid


41

CHAPTER 4

CHEMICAL

COMPOSITION OF THE

CELL

“Yang Pertama Sekali Dihisab

Atas Seorang Hamba Di Hari

Kiamat Nanti Ialah Sembahyang,

Maka Jika Baiklah

Sembahyangnya Nescaya Baiklah

Amalan-Amalan Lainnya Dan Jika

Rosak Sembahyangnya, Maka

Binasalah Amal-Amal Yang Lain."

(HR Thabrani)

(Hadis riwayat Thabrani)


42

CHAPTER 4: CHEMICAL COMPOSITION IN THE CELL

Cells are the building blocks of all life forms which composed of element

An elements are;

Substance composed of only one kind of atom

Cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical reaction

There are about 25 essential elements which are important to living organism

Can categorized into three components

1. Major element

Most common

element

Made of 96% of

human body mass

Examples are;

Carbon

Oxygen

Hydrogen

Nitrogen

2. Minor element

Required in small

quantity

Made of 4% of

human body mass

Examples are;

Calcium

Potassium

Sodium

Sulphur

3. Trace element

Required in very

small quantity

Made of 0.01% of

human body mass

Examples are;

Ferum

Fluoride

Iodine

Copper

A compound is substance which consist of two or more elements combined in a fixed

ratio

Compounds are divided into two types;

a. Organic compounds

b. Inorganic compounds

Organic compounds are chemical compounds which contain carbon and hydrogen

These compounds are synthesized by the cell

The organic compounds that are present in the cells include;

o Carbohydrates

o Proteins

o Lipids

o Nucleic acids

Inorganic compounds are chemical compounds which not contain either carbon or

hydrogen

These compounds are not synthesized by the cell


43

Can obtained from the external environment

Inorganic compound that are found in the cell include;

Water (H2O)

Acid (HCl)

Bases (NaOH)

Mineral salt(Fe2+)

Nucleic acid

Macromolecules which stores genetic information in form code

Nucleotides are the building block(basic unit) of nucleic acid

Consists of;

1. Phosphate group

2. Pentose sugar

3. Nitrogenous base

Two types of nucleic acid

Deoxyribonucleic acid(DNA) Ribonucleic acid(RNA)

o Carry genetic information about

organism

o Consists of double-strand

polynucleotide

o Two strand twisted to each other in

form of double helix

o Copies of genetic information carry

by DNA

o Used for synthesis of protein

o Consists of single strand with linear

form


44

The importance of water in the cell

1. Act as solvent

o Polar molecule which consists one atom of oxygen and two atoms of hydrogen

o Can dissolve many ionic compounds such as salt and polar molecule such as

sugars

2. Transport medium

o Blood plasma made of 90% of water

o Used to transport sugar, amino acid and respiratory gases from one part of the body

to another

o Waste product such as urea excreted from the body through urine

3. Medium for biochemical reaction

o Most biochemical reaction in the cells only can occur with the present of water

o During the process of digestion, water is used to breaking down of protein, lipid and

sugar in food

4. Maintenance of internal environment

o Water used for maintaining osmotic balance between blood and interstitial fluid

o This balance is important for all activities and life processes in the cells

5. Act as lubricant

o To assist the movement of substances

o Mucus help the movement of food during the process of peristalsis

6. Support in plant

o Cell sap of plant in vacuole is hypertonic

o Water will diffuse into the plant cell by osmosis

o Plant cell become turgid

o Thus provide support to the plant cells

o Lack of water cause a plant wilt

7. Transport in plant

o Water molecule have very high cohesion

o Can stick to each other and move in long unbroken column

o Water can be transport from root to the leaf by xylem


45

All monosaccharide and disaccharides(except sucrose) is reducing sugar

Reducing sugar reduce Copper (II) Sulphate into Copper (I) Oxide in Benedict solution

Disaccharides can be form from monosaccharide by condensation process and can be

break down into monosaccharide by hydrolysis process.

Glucose + Glucose Maltose + water

Glucose + fructose Sucrose + water

Glucose + Galactose Lactose + water

Differences Between Monosaccharide/ Disaccharides and Polysaccharides

Aspect Monosaccharide Disaccharides Polysaccharides

Reducing sugar All reducing sugar All reducing sugar

except sucrose All non-reducing sugar

Crystallization Can be crystallize Can be crystallize Can’t be crystallize

Taste Sweet Sweet Not sweet

Solubility in water Soluble Soluble Not soluble

Carbohydrates

Monosaccharide

(Simple sugars) Glucose Fructose Galactose

Glucose

Fructose

Galactose

Disaccharides

(Complex sugar) Maltose Sucrose Lactose

Polysaccharides

Starch Cellulose Glycogen

Hydrolysis

Condensation

Hydrolysis

Condensation

Hydrolysis

Condensation


46

Proteins

Proteins are complex organic molecules which are made of elements carbon,

hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. Most proteins also contain sulphur and phosphorus

All proteins are made up of one or more polymer, known as polypeptides

o Each polypeptide is made up of monomers called amino acids

o A dipeptide consists of two molecules of amino acids that are linked together by

a peptide bond formed through a condensation reaction.

o A dipeptide can be broken down into amino acids through hydrolysis

Amino acid + Amino acid Dipeptide + water

Amino Acids

There are about 20 naturally occurring amino acids that can be divided into two groups:

a) Essential amino acids

b) Non-essential amino acids

Essential amino acids are amino acids that cannot be synthesized by the body and can

only be obtained from a diet

Non-essential amino acids are amino acids that can be synthesized by the body and no need to

obtain from a diet

Animal proteins are first class proteins because they contain all the essential amino

acids needed by the body

Plant proteins are second class proteins because they do not contain all the essential

amino acids

All amino acids have an amino group (-NH2) and a carboxyl group (-COOH)

Hydrolysis

Condensation

H

C

H

N

R

C

O

OH H

Amino

group

Carboxyl group


47

Protein Structures

1. The primary structure of proteins refers

to the linear sequence of amino acids

in a polypeptide chain

2. The secondary structure of proteins

form when polypeptide chain that is

coiled

Two types of secondary structure which

are held together by hydrogen bonds :

Alpha-helix (-helix) - Example is

keratin(protein in hair)

Beta-pleated (-pleated) sheets -

Example is Silk

3. The tertiary structure form when the

helix chains or the beta-pleated sheets

are folded into a three-dimensional

shape of a polypeptide chain

Examples of proteins with tertiary

structure are enzymes, hormones,

plasma proteins and antibodies

4. The quaternary structure form when

two or more tertiary structure

polypeptide chains are combine

Form a large and complex protein

molecule.

Example is hemoglobin, which consist

of four polypeptide chains

Alpha-helix Beta-pleated sheets


48

Lipid

Fats and oils are triglycerides

A triglyceride formed through the condensation of one molecule of glycerol and three

molecules of fatty acids

Triglycerides can also be broken down into fatty acids and glycerol by hydrolysis

reactions

Fatty acids are either saturated or unsaturated

Saturated Fats Unsaturated Fats

Do not have any double bonds between the

carbon atoms

Have at least one double bonds between

the carbon

atoms

Can react with an additional hydrogen atom Can’t react with an additional hydrogen

atom

Saturated fats are solids at room

temperature

Unsaturated fats are liquids at room

temperature

Contain more cholesterol Contain less cholesterol

Sources of fats from animal Sources of fats from plant or vegetable

Hydrolysis

Condensation

Fatty acid Glycerol Triglyceride

3H2O + +


49

4.5 Enzymes (*)

The Role of Enzymes in Organisms

The biochemical reactions that occur in a cell are called metabolism

Metabolism includes:

a) Anabolism: the metabolic reactions that build complex molecules, for example,

photosynthesis

b) Catabolism: the metabolic reactions that break down complex molecules, for

example, digestion

Enzymes are biological catalysts to speed up biochemical reaction

The reactant in an enzymatic reaction is called a substrate while the substance formed

at the end of the reaction is called a product

This reaction is known as ‘Lock and Key hypothesis’

The General Characteristics of Enzymes

Enzymes are not changed or destroyed after reaction

Enzymes reaction are highly specific

Enzymes are need in minute amounts or small quantity

Enzyme reactions are reversible

The Mechanism of enzyme action

Enzyme are complex protein made of one or more polypeptide chain

These polypeptide chain folded into three-dimensional shape which is called active site

The active site of enzyme have distinctive shape that complement with its active site of substrate

The shape of substrate must be fit the enzyme precisely if the reaction to be catalysed


50

The “Lock and Key” Hypothesis

The substrate molecule represent the ‘key’

The enzyme molecule represent the ‘lock’

the substrate binds to active site of enzyme to form enzyme-substrate complex

the enzyme catalyses the substrate to form products

the product leaves the active site of enzyme

the enzyme is free to bind to more substrate molecule

Enzyme Enzyme-Substrate

complex

Substrate

Enzyme

Product

Hydrolysis

Condensation


51

The Production of Extracellular Enzymes

1. Nucleus

At nucleus, DNA uncoil/unwind

A base from one strand of DNA is copied

to form mRNA

This process known as transcription

mRNA leave nucleus through nucleus

pore to ribosome

2. Ribosome

At ribosome

mRNA is translated

for synthesis of

protein

This process known

as translation

3. Rough Endoplasmic

Reticulum

At RER, protein is

transported to Golgi

apparatus

Via transporting

vesicle

4. Golgi apparatus

At GA, protein is

processed and

modified into enzyme

Enzyme is packaging

into vesicle and bud

off from GA

5. Secretory vesicle

Transport enzyme to

excreted outside of the

cells


52

Factors Affecting the Activity of Enzymes

a) pH

b) temperature

c) substrate concentration

d) enzyme concentration

The Effects of pH on the Activity of Enzymes

Optimum pH of enzyme depend on the

location where the reaction take place

Most enzymes function optimally at a pH that

ranges from 6 to 8

Note**: Not All optimum pH of enzyme is 7

A change in the pH can alter the changes on the active sites of an enzyme and the

surface of a substrate

This can reduce the ability of both molecules to bind each other

Thus rate of enzyme reaction will decreases

_

_

_

+

+

+

_

_

_

Pepsin Protein

pH 8

_

_

_

Enzyme reaction not occur


53

The Effect of Temperature on the Activity of Enzyms

Temperature provide kinetic energy for the movement of enzyme and substrate

At 1

At low temperature, rate of enzyme is low

Because low kinetic energy cause movement of substance and enzyme is slow

The collision of substrate with enzyme is less frequent

Thus low product is produce

At 2

As the temperature increases, kinetic energy also increases

Cause the movement of substrate and enzyme become faster

Thus the cause collisions between the substrate and enzyme molecules

occur more frequent

This will increase the chances of the substrate molecules to contact with the

active sites of an enzyme to form product

At 3

At 37OC is an optimum temperature for enzyme reaction

Enzyme reaction is maximum

The movement of substrate and enzyme are fastest

Thus the collision between substrate and enzyme more frequent

More product are produced

1

5

3

4

2

Rate of enzyme

reaction, min-1

Temperature, OC


54

At 4

Beyond optimum temperature, rate of enzyme reaction decrease

The hydrogen bonds holding the enzyme molecules in their precise shape

begin to break

This alters the three-dimensional shape of the enzymes and eventually

destroys the active sites of enzyme

Substrates can no longer fit into the active sites of the enzymes

At 5

At 60˚C rate of enzyme reaction is zero

All hydrogen bond has break and enzyme has loss it 3 dimensional shape

The enzyme is said to be denatured.

The substrate can’t bind with active site of enzyme

The Effects of Substrate Concentration on the Activity of Enzymes

Concentration of substrate effect enzyme reaction based on free active site that are

available to combine with active site of enzyme

Enzyme molecule denatured enzyme molecule

As concentration of substrate increases,

the rate of enzyme reaction increases

Because the substrate have many free active site

that are available to combine with active site of enzyme

Thus more product is produced

Rate of enzyme

reaction, min-1

Concentration of substrate,

%

At this point, increasing of concentration of substrate

has no effect to rate of enzyme reaction

Because all the active site of enzyme has fully occupied with

substrate

The enzyme has saturated

Enzyme become limiting factor


55

The Effects of Enzyme Concentration on the Activity of Enzymes

The Used Of Enzymes in Daily Life and Industry

Name of Enzyme Industries / Daily life involve Uses

Amylase

Beverage industry Convert starch into sugar in

syrup production

Food Industry Converts starch flour into sugar

in the making of bread or dough

Textile Industry Removes starch that is used as

stiffeners from fabric

Detergent Industry Removal stains based starch

such as chocolate from clothes

Protease

Food processing Industry Tenderises meat

Fish processing industry Removes the skin of fish

Leather Industry Removal of hair from animal

hides

Detergent Industry Removal stains based protein

such as blood from clothes

As concentration of enzyme increases,

the rate of enzyme reaction increases

Because the enzyme have many free active site

that are available to combine with active site of substrate

Thus more product is produced

Rate of enzyme

reaction, min-1

Concentration of

enzyme, %

At this point, increasing of concentration of enzyme

has no effect to rate of enzyme reaction

Because all the active site of substrate has fully occupied

with enzyme

The substrate has saturated

Substrate become limiting factor


56

Lipase

Dairy Industry Ripening of cheese

Detergent Industry

Removal stains based protein

such as oil and grease from

clothes

Cellulase

Food Industry Extracts agar from seaweed

Food Industry

Breaks down cellulose and

removes the seed coat from

cereal grain

Rennin Food Industry Solidifies milk proteins

Zymase Beverage Industry Converts sugars into ethanol


57

CHAPTER 5

CELL DIVISION

“Dan Janganlah Kamu Mendekati

Zina; Sesungguhnya Zina Itu

Adalah Suatu Perbuatan Yang Keji

Dan Suatu Jalan Yang Buruk.”

(QS. Al Israa : 32)


58

CHAPTER 5: CELL DIVISION

Cell division

• A process when cells divide and multiply to produce new daughter cells

• Two types cell in sexually reproducing organism

• Somatic cell

• Reproductive cells (gamete)

• Example of somatic cells are;

• Cheek cell

• Epithelial cell

• Epidermal cell

• Example of reproductive cells are;

• Sperm

• Ovum

• Pollen grain

• Two stages of cell division;

• Nuclear division

• Cytoplasmic division

• Two types of cell division;

• Mitosis

• Meiosis

Mitosis

• In plant the process of mitosis occur at;

• Meristem tissues at tips of shoot and a root

• Vascular cambium

• Cork cambium

• In animals the process of mitosis occur in all somatic cell

The Necessity Cell Divide by Mitosis

1. To increase the numbers of cell during growth process

2. Produce new cell to replace dead or worn out cells

3. Regenerate to replace lost organ or part of the body eg: lizard tail, human liver

4. As a method asexual reproduction in unicellular organism

• Binary fission in Amoeba sp. and Paramecium sp.

• Budding in Yeast and Hydra sp.


59

5. Vegetative reproduction in plant

• Tuber in potato , banana

• Rhizome in ginger

• Stolon in strawberry

Significance of Mitosis

1. To maintain the chromosomal number in Cell

• Refer to the number of chromosomes present in the nucleus of each cells

• To ensure the new daughter cells produce have same the chromosomal numbers

with the parent

• This condition known as diploid

2. To maintain the genetic material in the cells

• The two daughter cells produce by mitosis are genetically identical to each other

and to the parent cell

• This will ensure the new cells can carry out the same function as the parent cells

The Cell Cycle

• Period that extends from the time a new cells is produced until the time the cell

complete cell division

• The cell cycle can be divided into two major phases

• Interphase

• Mitotic cell division or M phase

• M phase consists of :

• Mitosis(nuclear division)

• Cytokinesis or C phase(cytoplasmic division)


60

Interphase

• Cells to grow larger and prepare for cell division

• During this period, nucleus is big and well defined

• A pairs of centrosomes which consists of a pair of centrioles formed in cytoplasm of

animal cells.

1. Interphase divide into three sub phases

1. G1 phase

• Synthesis new protein and organelle (mitochondria and chloroplast)

2. S phase

• Synthesis of DNA occur

• The DNA in the nucleus undergoes replication to produce new

chromosome known as sister chromatids

3. G2 phases

• Cell accumulate energy for cell division

Mitotic cell division/ M Phase

• Consists two major part

• Mitosis

• Cytokinesis

• Mitosis consists four phases

• Prophase

• Metaphase

• Anaphase

• Telophase

Stages Behavior of Chromosomes

1. Prophase

Chromosome condense and more tightly coiled

The chromosome become shorter and thicker

and can be seen under light microscope

The spindle fibres begin to form and chromatids

attach to the spindle fibres at centromere

Nucleolus disappear

Nuclear membrane disintegrate


61

2. Metaphase

Chromosomes are lined up at metaphase plate

The spindle fibres are fully form

3. Anaphase

Sister chromatids separate at centromere

Sister chromatid/ chromosome move to

opposite poles

4. Telophase

Begin when two sets of chromosomes reach at

opposite poles

The chromosomes start to uncoil and revert

into chromatin

Spindle fibres disappeared

Nucleolus reappeared and nuclear membrane

reform


62

Cytokinesis in animal cell

Actin filaments in the cytoplasm contract to pull a ring of plasma membrane inward

This will cause the forming of groove at the middle of cytoplasm called cleavage

furrow

The cleavage furrow pinch deepen progressively until cell separate into two daughter

cells

Cytokinesis in plant cell

• The membrane-enclosed vesicles collect in the middle of the cell

• The vesicles fuse to forming a cell plate

• The cell plate grows outwards until it edges fuse with the plasma membrane of

parent cell

• New cell walls and plasma membrane are formed from the contents of cell plate

Vesicle Cell plate

Actin filaments

Cleavage furrow


63

Comparison Between Cytokinesis In Plant Cell With Animal Cell

Similarity

• Both are cytoplasmic division

• Both produce two daughter cells

Differences

Aspect Cytokinesis In Animal Cell Cytokinesis In Plant Cell

Material Used Actin filaments Vesicles

Method Of Cytoplasm

Division

Formation of cleavage

furrow Formation of cell plate

Direction Of Cytoplasm

Division

From outward to inwards

From inwards to outward

The Importance of Controlled Mitosis

• To ensure the new cells of the organism obtains an identical set of chromosomes

as parent cell

• For proper function of the cells.

Uncontrolled Mitosis In Living Things

• Carcinogenic compound can change in the DNA structure of the cell

• This process is called mutation

• This change in the DNA corrupts the coded genetic instructions for cell cycle regulation

• This leads to severe disruption of cell cycle and cause uncontrolled mitosis

• Causing the non-stop division of cells, producing a cancer cells

• Cancer cells compete with surrounding normal cells to obtain nutrients and energy for

growth

• The cancerous cells can divide rapidly and uncontrollably to form a tumor

• The tumor can invade and destroy neighboring cells

• This occurrences known as malignant

• The malignant cells can enter blood circulatory system or lymphatic system

• This malignant cells will be transported via these system to other location in a body

• It can attack and invaded the normal cell

• The new cells that invaded become cancerous cell


64

THE APPLICATION OF KNOWLEDGE ON MITOSIS IN CLONING

Tissues culture

• Involve four procedures

Procedure Explanation

1. Treatment

A pieces of tissue, called explants, its taken from a

parents plant (e.g. carrot root or stem tissue,)

The pieces of tissues are sterilized with dilute sodium

hypochlorite solution

To prevent the growth of pathogens (such as bacteria

and fungus).

2. Medium

Each sterile tissue piece is placed on to a growth

medium gel containing nutrients and

growth hormone

The medium is kept in suitable temperature and pH

3. Cell division

The tissues cells divided by mitosis

Produce a mass of loosely arranged undifferentiated

cells called callus

Callus is stimulated with shoot-stimulating hormone

to form multiple shoots

The shoots are separated and each is placed in

nutrient medium for growth

4. Transferring

o Once the roots grow, the plantlets (little plants) are

planted in sterile compost to grow

o When the plantlet has mature, it transferred into the

soil


65

Animal cloning

Sheep A Sheep B

o Somatic cell from

sheep A is taken.

o Egg cell from sheep B is

taken.

o The cytoplasm is taken

while the nucleus is

discharge

o The nucleus is taken

while the cytoplasm

is discharge

o The nucleus is inserted

in the cytoplasm

o Electrical pulse/current

is exerted stimulate

the cell to fuse


66

• The cell divide by mitosis

and form an embryo

Sheep C

Lamb

• The embryo’s is transplant

into surrogate mother

womb

• The lamb that birth have

an identical characteristic

with sheep A

• The embryo develop in

surrogate mother womb

until it born


67

THE CONSEQUENCES OF CLONING

Advantage

1. Can produce a new organism(clone) in

large scale in short period of time Increase the crop yields

2. Maintain good quality/ characteristic from

the parent Increase crop yield

3. Transgenic plant more resistant toward

diseases and pesticide Reduce the cost of management

4. Can produce a bacteria that can digest

oil

Can be use during environmental cleaning of oil

spill at ocean and beaches

5. Can produce insulin from genetically

modified bacteria Can treat diabetes mellitus patient

6. Preserve endangered species Ensure the survival of species

Disadvantage

1. All clone have same level of immunity

resistant

If new disease occur, the entire

population will be extinct

2. Disturb natural equilibrium Clone may undergo mutations which can

endangered natural species

3. Have shorter life span Decrease the profit because low

production

4. Immoral attitude The researcher will destroy the zygote if

they not meet the requirement

5. Safety aspect The long term side effects by consuming

GMO still unknown


68

MEIOSIS

The Function of Meiosis

1. Produce variation

• This to ensure the continuation/ survival of species because the offspring are

more adept to the surrounding condition

2. Reduce the numbers of chromosomes in the gamete

• To maintain the chromosomal number in organism

Location of Meiosis

• In animal meiosis occurs in

• Testes(male)

• Ovary(female)

• In plant meiosis occurs in

• Anther(male)

• Ovary(female)

Stages of meiosis

Stages Behavior of Chromosomes

1. Prophase I

The chromosome coiled up to become shorter and thicker

and also clearly visible

The homologous chromosome pair up to each other to form

bivalent or tetrad through a process of synapsis

Spindle fibres begin to form, nucleolus disappear

and nuclear membrane disintegrate

Crossing over occur between non-sister chromatids


69

2. Metaphase I

The spindle fibres is fully form

The homologous chromosomes line up at metaphase

plate side by side

3. Anaphase I

The spindle fibres contract

Homologous chromosomes separate and move to

opposite poles

4. Telophase I

The spindle fibres disappear

The nucleolus reappear

Nuclear membrane reform

NOTE: chromosome not revert into

chromatin


70

5. Prophase II

Chromosome condense and more tightly coiled

The chromosome become shorter and thicker

and can be seen under light microscope

The spindle fibres begin to form and chromatids

attach to the spindle fibres at centromere

Nucleolus disappear

Nuclear membrane disintegrate

6. Metaphase II

Chromosomes are lined up at metaphase plate

The spindle fibres are fully form

7. Anaphase II

Sister chromatids separate at centromere

Sister chromatid/ chromosome move to

opposite poles

8. Telophase II

Begin when two sets of chromosomes reach at

opposite poles

The chromosomes start to uncoil and revert

into chromatin

Spindle fibres disappeared

Nucleolus reappeared and nuclear membrane

reform


71

Comparison Between Meiosis I And Meiosis II

Similarities

• Both produce haploid daughter cells

• Both process end with cytokinesis

Differences

Aspect Meiosis I Meiosis II

Synapsis

During prophase I, synapsis occur

During prophase II, synapsis does

not occur

Crossing over

During prophase I,

Crossing over occur

During prophase II,

Crossing over does not occur

Behaviors of

chromosome

during Metaphase

During metaphase I, homologous

chromosomes align side by side at

the metaphase plate

During metaphase II, chromosomes

align at the metaphase plate


72

Behaviors of

chromosome

during Anaphase

During anaphase I, homologous

chromosomes separate and move

to

opposite poles

During anaphase II, chromosomes

separate and move to opposite poles

Numbers of

daughter cells

produced

At the end of telophase I, two

haploid daughter cells are formed

At the end of telophase II, four

haploid daughter cells are formed

Comparison Between Mitosis And Meiosis

Similarities

• Both is nuclear division

• Both process of cell division in which DNA replicates only once

Aspect Mitosis Meiosis

Behavior of chromosome during

Anaphase

Sister chromatids separate to

move to the opposite poles

Homologous chromosomes

separate to move to the

opposite

poles

Number of cytoplasm divisions One Two


73

Number of daughter cells

produced at the end of the

division

Two daughter cells Four daughter cells

Chromosomal number of the

daughter cells Diploid (2n) Haploid (n)

Genetic content Genetically identical to the

parent cell and to one another

Different from the parent

cell

and from each other

Variation Does not cause genetic

variation Causes genetic variation

Appreciating the Movement of Chromosomes During Mitosis And Meiosis

Mitosis and meiosis are regulated in precise manner so they do not go awry

If sister chromatids not separate during anaphase in mitosis, it will resulting the

daughter cell will not be same with parent cell

Thus will affect the function of the cells and cause can cancer

If meiosis does not occur properly, the gametes formed will have an abnormal number

of chromosomes.

The zygote that is formed after fertilisation would become abnormal

Because they will have more chromosomes or less chromosomes

For example, Down syndrome is the result of an extra chromosome 21, so that each

body cell has a total of 47 chromosomes instead of 46.

The affected individuals have certain characteristic which include

o Short stature

o Slated eyes

o Mental retardation

Carcinogenic compound such as radiation and chemicals can disturb the process of

mitosis and meiosis

Radiation Chemical

Gamma ray Sodium nitrate

X-ray Benzene

Ultraviolet ray Formaldehyde


74

CHAPTER 6

NUTRITION

"Hai sekalian manusia, makanlah

yang halal lagi baik dari apa yang

terdapat di bumi, dan janganlah

kamu mengikuti langkah-langkah

syaitan, karena sesungguhnya

syaitan itu adalah musuh yang

nyata bagimu." (Q.S. al-Baqarah:

168)


75

Chapter 6: Nutrition

Nutrition is a entire process by which organism obtain energy and nutrient

Nutrient is the substances that are required for the nourishment of an organism

There are two types of nutrition:

Autotroph

Organism that can

produce they own food

o

Nutrition

Heterotrophs

Cannot synthesis their

own nutrients

Obtains energy by

consuming other organism

Parasitism Organism (parasite) that

obtain nutrient from readily

digested food from other

organism (host)

Saprophytism

Saprophytes feed on

dead or decaying

matter

Holozoic nutrition

Organisms feed by

ingesting solid organic

matter

Chemosynthesis

Bacteria obtain energy

by oxidise inorganic

substances

Such as hydrogen

sulphide and ammonia

Photosynthesis

Green plants produce

organic molecules

from CO2 and H2O

using light as a

source of energy


76

Classify Organisms According To the Types of Nutrition

Organism Type of Nutrition

Venus fly trap

Green plant

Bacteria

Rafflesia


77

Tapeworm

Mushroom

Tiger

Balanced Diet

• The nutrient must be contain all seven food classes with taken in appropriate proportion

• The 7 food classes are:

o Carbohydrate o Minerals

o Protein o Water

o Lipids o Roughage(dietary fibres)

o Vitamins


78

Factor Effecting Daily Energy Requirement

1. Age

• Children and teenager need more energy compare

to adult

• High metabolic process for growth

2. Sex

Male need more energy compare to female at same

age and body size

Metabolic rate in male is higher than female

3. Size and body weight

• Smaller in size people need more energy than larger

in size people

• Because high TSA/V will cause more heat loss to

surrounding

4. Occupation

Active people need more energy than less active

people

More energy required for muscle contraction

Correlate Different Sizes of Cubes to Total Surface Area/ Volume(TSA/V) Ratio

1 cm

2 cm

3 cm

1 cm 2 cm 3 cm


79

Calculate the TSA/V of the three cubes by using the formula

Total surface area = Length X Width X Number of Surfaces

Volume = Length X Width X Height

Size of cube (cm) Total surface

area(cm2) Volume(cm3) TSA/V(cm-1)

1 6 1 6

2 24 8 3

3 54 27 2

Nutrient in Food Contain

Vitamin

• The function of vitamin to maintenance of good health and efficient metabolism

Sources, Functions and Effects of Vitamins Deficiency

Vitamin Dietary sources Functions Symptoms of

deficiency

A

Egg yolk, dairy

Products, vegetables

Needed for the formation

of light-sensitive pigment

in the retina. .

Night blindness

B Milk, liver, legumes

Precursor of a coenzyme

for carbohydrate

metabolism.

Beriberi

Fat soluble vitamin

Examples are A, D, E

and K

o

Vitamin

Water soluble vitamin

Examples are B and C


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D Dairy products, egg

yolk

Aids in the absorption of

calcium in the small

Intestine

Rickets

Osteomalacia

C Citrus fruits, tomatoes,

green peppers A strong antioxidant. Scurvy

E

Green vegetables,

milk Produces red blood cells. Cause anemia

K Egg yolk, cabbage Important in blood clotting Defective blood

Clotting

Minerals

• Minerals do not provide energy

• Two type of minerals:

o Macrominerals,

• Required in relatively large quantities (200mg/ day).

• Examples are calcium, magnesium, phosphorus and sodium.

o Microminerals

• Required in trace amounts of less than 20mg /day.

• Examples are cobalt, fluorine, iodine, manganese, zinc and molybdenum

Sources, Functions and Effects of Minerals Deficiency

Mineral Sources Functions Symptoms of deficiency

Calcium Milk,

cheese

Strong bone and tooth

formation.

Rickets in children

Osteoporosis in elderly

Magnesium Vegetables,

meat

Maintains normal

function of muscles and

nerves.

Retarded function if

muscles and nerves

Iron

(ferum)

Vegetables,

egg yolk, meat

Component of

haemoglobin Iron-deficiency anemia

Iodine Seafood,

iodized salt

Component of the

thyroxin hormone.

Goitre

(enlarged thyroid gland)

Sulphur Meat, milk Component of certain

amino acids.

Symptoms of protein

deficiency

Phosphorus Milk, cheese, Bone and tooth formation Rickets in children


81

Roughage/Dietary Fibre

• Refer to the indigestible part of plant food which consists mainly of cellulose

• The main sources of fibres are fruit, vegetables, nut and wholemeal grains

• Dietary fibre has the following functions

1. Has a high water holding capacity thus prevent constipation

2. Aids in peristalsis of faeces in colon

3. Lowers the cholesterol level in the blood

4. Reduces the risk of heart disease and colon cancer

Lack of fibres in a diet can cause constipation

Water

• Water is very essential to the survival of humans

• All metabolic reactions in the human body take place in solutions.

Functions of Water

1. Medium for all cellular biochemical reactions.

2. Medium of transportation for respiratory gases and nutrients.

3. Regulates body temperature.

4. Removes excretory waste such as lactic acid, urea and excess mineral

salts through perspiration and urination.

5. Maintains osmotic pressure in the tissue fluid and blood plasma

6. Aids peristalsis movement.

7. Dissolves most chemical substances.

8. Enables hydrolysis of food substances during digestion


82

Choosing an Appropriate Diet Menu for Different Target Groups

• The balanced diets of different people vary according to their age, lifestyle, health

conditions and specific nutritional needs.

• Each target group needs to follow food guide pyramid

Target group Nutrient Function

Pregnant

Mothers

• Calcium and

phosphorus

• For the formation of strong bones in

the growing fetuses

Folic acid • Normal neural tube development in

the embryos.

Ferum • For the formation of red blood cells.

• Proteins • For the formation of new tissues.

• Vegetables and whole

grains

• As a source of fibre to prevent

constipation

• Carbohydrate • To provide energy

Infants and

Children


• Carbohydrates • To provide energy

• Calcium and

Phosphorous

• For the formation of strong bones

and teeth.


83

Growing

children

• Proteins • For the formation of new tissues

• Carbohydrates • To provide energy

• Calcium and

Phosphorous

• For the formation of strong bones

and teeth.

Teenagers


• Carbohydrates • Provide energy for their active

lifestyles

• Ferum(Female)

• To synthesize more haemoglobin

after menstruation to prevent iron-

deficiency

Athletes

• Protein • Build new tissues and strong

muscles.

• Carbohydrates • Provide constant energy during

training and competition.

• Sodium and

potassium • To prevent muscle cramps.

The Aged

• Proteins • To replace dead or worn out tissues

• Vitamins D, calcium

and phosphorus • To prevent osteoporosis

• Ferum(iron) • To synthesize red blood cells

• Reduce the intake of

fat and salt

• Reduce the risk of getting high

blood pressure and heart attack

and stroke

• Reduce the intake of

sugar and

carbohydrate

• Reduce the risk of getting diabetes

mellitus

People with

specific

diseases

• Avoid sugary and high

carbohydrate

• To maintain a normal level of sugar

in his blood

• Reduce consumption

of saturated fat and

cholesterol

• To maintain normal blood pressure

.


84

Malnutrition

• Malnutrition results from an unbalanced diet

• Which certain nutrients are deficient, in excess, or are in the wrong proportions.

Food classes Malnutrition Disease Symptom

Protein

• Excessive • Gout • Joint inflammation

• Deficiency

• Marasmus • Child very thin with wrinkled

skin.

• Kwashiorkor

• Stunted growth.

• Swelling of the body

(stomach)

Carbohydrate

(sugar)

• Excessive

• Diabetes

mellitus • Weight loss, blind, gangrene

• Obesity • BMI more than 30

• Deficiency • Hypoglycaemia • Body become weak, feint

Lipid • Excessive

• Obesity • BMI more than 30

• Hypertension • Blood pressure more than

140 mmHg

• Stroke • Paralyse of body, coma

• Heart attack • Pain at the heart, death

Calcium • Deficiency • Osteoporosis

• Bone become brittle, porous

and crack easily

• Osteomalacia • Bone become soft

• Excessive • Kidney stone • Malfunction of kidney

Salt • Excessive • Hypertension • Blood pressure more than

140 mmHg

Roughage

Dietary fibre • Deficiency • Constipation

• Difficulties and pain during

defecation

Vitamin

• Deficiency A • Night blindness • Can’t see during night

• Deficiency B • Beriberi • Lethargy and fatigue

• Deficiency C • Scurvy • Bleeding at gum

• Deficiency D • Riket • Bone become soft

• Deficiency E • Liver damage • Malfunction of liver

• Deficiency K • Defective blood

clotting • Excessive of bleeding


85

Note**: To answer question regarding malnutrition student should put;

o Type of food class/ nutrient

o Examples of food(refer to menu)

o Malnutrition(Deficiency or Excessive)

o Name of disease

Ways to Reduce the Effects of Certain Health Problems

Health problem Method

High blood pressure

Reduce the consumption of food high in saturated fat

and cholesterol

Regular exercise

Reduce the consumption of food high in salt

Have healthy life style to reduce stress

Diabetes mellitus

Reduce the consumption of food high in sugar

Reduce the consumption of food high in carbohydrate

Regular exercise

Osteoporosis

Increase the consumption of food high in calcium

Increase the consumption of food high in Vitamin D

Drink water contain fluorine

Regular exercise to increase the mass of bone


86

Food Digestion

The body cells require substances to carry out metabolic processes

The examples of these substances are

Substances Metabolic process

Glucose Oxidised to provide energy

Amino acid Synthesis new protein

Examples are enzyme, hormone and antibody

Lipid Synthesis new plasma membrane

• Complex substances in food have to breakdown into simpler and soluble molecules

• For small enough for the body to absorb

• This process is called food digestion

Complex substances Simpler molecules

1. Carbohydrate Glucose

2. Protein Amino acid

3. Lipid Fatty acid and glycerol

Digestion of Carbohydrates, Proteins and Lipids

• Food digestion is a cooperative process between different parts of the human digestive

system along the alimentary canal

Mouth Oesophagus Stomach

Small intestine Large intestine Anus


87

• Food digestion involves both physical process and chemical process

• Physical digestion

Breaking up large pieces of food into smaller pieces by mechanical means

In mouth - Slicing and chewing action of teeth

In stomach - Churning action of muscles at stomach wall

• To increase surface area for chemical digestion

• Chemical digestion

Process of break down chemical structures of complex substances into

smaller molecule by digestive enzymes

Involves enzymatic hydrolysis


88

Digestion in the Mouth

• Chewing action breaks the food into smaller pieces to increase the surface area for

digestive enzyme reaction

• Presence of food triggers the salivary glands to secret saliva

• Saliva contains the salivary amylase enzyme which hydrolyses starch into maltose.

• Tongue manipulates the food while it is being chewed to mixed it well with saliva and

to form bolus

The bolus enters the oesophagus

Process of peristalsis occur via rhythmic contraction of muscle

It will squeezes the bolus to move along the oesophagus into the stomach

• The cardium sphincter relaxes, the bolus enters the stomach.

Digestion in stomach

• Site for protein digestion

• Gastric glands at epithelial cells in stomach secrete gastric juice which are consists

of mucus, enzyme and hydrochloric acid

• Enzyme: Pepsin and Rennin

• The function of hydrochloric acid are;

1. Creates an acidic medium (pH 1.5-2.0) which is optimal pH for the action of

the enzymes in the stomach.

2. Stops the activity of salivary amylase

3. Helps to kill bacteria in food

• Churning and mixing food with the gastric juice by peristalsis will produce chyme

• Chyme gradually enter duodenum from relaxing of pyloric sphincter

Salivary

amylase Starch Maltose

Pepsin Protein Polypeptide + Water

Rennin Caseinogens Casein + Water


89

Digestion In Small Intestine

• The small intestine consists of the duodenum, jejunum and ileum

• Duodenum receives bile secreted by liver and pancreatic juice secreted by pancreas

• Bile is stored in gall bladder and enter the duodenum via bile duct

• The function of bile

• Reduce the acidity of chyme

• Provide alkaline medium for enzyme reaction

• Emulsify lipids into tiny droplet, thus providing a greater surface area for

digestion by enzymes

• Gastric juice contain enzyme

• Lipase

• Pancreatic amylase

• Trypsin

Lipase Lipid Fatty acid + Glycerol + Water

Pancreatic

amylase Starch Maltose + Water

Polypeptide Peptide + Water Trypsin


90

• Glands in the wall of the ileum secrete intestinal juice which contains digestive

enzymes

• Maltase

• Erepsin

• Lactase

• Sucrase

Maltose Glucose + Glucose + Water Maltase

Peptide Amino acid + Water Erepsin

Lactose Glucose + Galactose + Water Lactase

Sucrase Sucrose Glucose + Fructose + Water


91

Mouth: pH 6.5-7.5

• Chewing action breaks the

food into smaller pieces to

increase the TSA for digestive

enzyme reaction

• Salivary glands secret saliva

• Contain salivary amylase

enzyme which hydrolyses

starch into maltose

Oesophagus

Process of peristalsis occur

Rhythmic contraction of muscle

Squeezes the bolus move along

the oesophagus into the stomach

Stomach: pH 1.5-2.0

Gastric glands secrete gastric

juice

Consists of enzyme and

hydrochloric acid(HCl)

Enzyme: Pepsin and Rennin

Hydrochloric acid

Creates an acidic medium for

the action of the enzymes

Stops the activity of salivary

amylase

Helps to kill bacteria in food

Churning and mixing food

with the gastric juice by

peristalsis will produce

chyme

Ileum; pH 7.6

o Glands in the wall of the ileum secrete intestinal juice which contains

digestive enzymes: (MELS)

o Maltase, Erepsin, Lactase , Sucrase

Duodenum: pH 7.1-8.2

Receives bile secreted by liver

and pancreatic juice secreted

by pancreas

• Pancreatic jus contain enzyme

o Lipase

o Pancreatic amylase

o Trypsin

• Bile is stored in gall bladder and enter

the duodenum via bile duct

• The function of bile

1. Reduce the acidity of chyme

2. Provide alkaline medium for

enzyme reaction

3. Emulsify lipids into tiny droplet


92

Digestive System in Ruminants and Rodents

• Ruminants is herbivores animals that do the process of regugating and rechewing

process

• Ruminants like cows and goats have stomachs which are divided into four chambers

1. Rumen

2. Reticulum

3. Omasum

4. Abomasums


93

Digestion in Rodent

Mouth

Rumen

Partly chewed food enter

rumen

Contain colony of bacteria

and protozoa

Secrete Cellulase to

hydrolyse cellulose

Reticulum

Food enter reticulum and

cellulose undergoes further

hydrolysis

Content of reticulum (cud)

is regugated into mouth and

rechewed

Regugate and rechew to:

To soften and break down cellulose

Make it more accessible for microbial action

Abomasum (true stomach)

Gastric juice is secreted to

hydrolyse protein and others food

substances

Food passes through small intestine

to digested normally

Omasum

Cud is reswallowed into omasum

Water reabsorb from the cud

Peristalsis occur break down

larger particles into smaller

particles

1

2

3

4

5


94

Comparison The Digestive Process In Humans, Ruminants And Rodents

Similarities

• All organism have only one stomach

• All organism can’t synthesis cellulase enzyme

Keys:

1st time enter alimentary cannel

2nd time enter alimentary cannel

Mouth

Digestion and

absorption of

simple

carbohydrate

Faeces left during night

for further digestion of

cellulose by cellulase

First batch of faeces are:

Containing partially

digested cellulose

Soft

Watery

Anus

• Normal digestion

Small intestine

Digestion and

absorption of

nutrient

except cellulose

Second batch

of faeces

are:

• Hard

• Dry

Caecum and Appendix

Cellulose is hydrolise

by cellulase secreted

by bacteria and protozoa

2 1

3

4

5

6

7

8


95

Differences

Aspect Human Ruminant Rodent

Number of

chamber

in stomach

One Four One

Size of caecum and

appendix Normal Normal Large

Present of cellulose

digesting bacteria Absent Present Present

Number of food

enter elementary

cannel

Once Once Twice

Regugating process Absent Present Absent

Problems Associated with Food Digestion

Problem Cause Effect

1. Incomplete digestion

excessive intake of

food, eating too much

oily food or eating too

fast

• Improper chewing of food

cause reduce surface area thus

decrease enzyme activity

• Cause severe pain in the

abdomen followed by nausea,

vomiting and a bloated

stomach.

2. Reduced production

of specific digestive

enzymes

• Lack of lactase • Adults difficult to digest lactose

(milk sugar) compared to a

baby or a child

3. Damaging pancreas

organ

Reduced production of

digestive enzymes for

the digestion of starch,

proteins and lipids

Slowdown hydrolysis of starch,

protein and lipid

4. Gallstone preventing

the flow of bile

Diet high with fat and

cholesterol

Encourage the

1. Cause lipid can’t be emulsified

into tiny droplet

• Slowdown the


96

formation of gallstones

in the gall bladder

Gallstone block the bile

duct t

Prevent the bile from

channeled out into

duodenum

digestion of lipid

2. Can’t provide alkaline medium

in the duodenum(not optimum

pH)

• Reduce the lipase,

pancreatic amylase and

trypsin enzyme reaction

• Slowdown the digestion

of lipid, starch and

peptides

ABSORPTION AND ASSIMILATION OF DIGESTED FOOD

Adaptive Characteristic of the Digestive System Related To Absorption

The adaptation of ileum to maximize nutrient absorption

Structure Function

1. Have length of about 6 meter • Increase the time for nutrient absorption

2. Highly folded • To increase surface area

3. Have finger-like projections

called villi • To increase surface area

4. Villus has microvilli • To increase surface area

Adaptation of Villi for the Process of Food Absorption

Structure Function

1. Numerous in humbers • Increasing surface area for absorption digested

nutrients

2. One cell thick • Digested food can be absorbed rapidly.

3. Enriched of network of blood

capillaries • More efficient transport of digested food

4. Have lacteals • For absorbing fatty acids and glycerol

5. Have microvillus • Increase surface area for nutrient absorption


97

Absorption of digested food

By diffusion into blood capillary in villi

o Glucose

o Amino acids

o Water soluble vitamins (B and C) a

o Mineral

By diffusion into lacteal in villi

o Fatty acids and glycerol recombine into tiny droplet of lipid and enter lacteals

o Fats soluble vitamins (A, D, E and K)

• Active transport occur when concentration of nutrient in blood capillary have achieve

dynamic equilibrium (to move against concentration gradient)

Flow of blood

Epithelial tissue Microvillus

Epithelial tissue

Lacteal

Hepatic portal vein

Mesentery artery


98

Transportation of Digested Food

Water soluble substances

Fat soluble substances

Fatty acids, glycerol and Fats soluble

vitamins (A, D, E and K)

Glucose, amino acids, water soluble

vitamins (B and C) and mineral

Hepartic portal vein

Liver

Lacteal

Lymphatic vessel

Converge into

Thoracic duct

Right lymphatic duct

Drained into

Emptied into

Right Subclavian vein

Left Subclavian vein

Liver

Emptied into


99

Assimilation of Digested Food**

• Assimilations is a process where the nutrients are used to form complex

compounds or structural components

• The products of digestion are brought directly to the liver

• The liver controls the amount of nutrients released into the blood circulatory system

• Assimilation takes place in the cells

Assimilation of glucose

In Liver

• Excess glucose

Low glucose

In Cell

Assimilation of Protein

In Liver

Excess amino acid

Glucose Glycogen Lipids Converted by

Insulin into

If full

converted into

Glucose Energy (ATP) Oxidise by

cellular respiration

Glycogen Glucose Blood circulatory system Breakdown by

Glucagon into

Transport

into

Amino acid Plasma

protein

Blood clotting

Regulate osmoregulation

Used for

synthesis of

Their function

for

Amino acid Carbohydrate

Kidney

(Excrete)

Deamination

process

Convert

into Amino group (NH2)

is removed

Transport

into Urea


100

In Cell

• Used for

1. Synthesis new protoplasm

2. Repair damage tissues

3. Building block for synthesis of enzyme and hormone

Lipid Assimilation

• In Cell

• Used for

• Storage energy in a body in form of adipose tissues

• Synthesis new plasma membrane(phospholipids and cholesterols)

Main Functions of Liver

Function Explanation

1. Storage of nutrients

Excess glucose is transformed into glycogen

and stored in the liver

Stores fat-soluble vitamins, A, D, E and K

Stores ferum from the disintegrated of

haemoglobin in red blood cells.

2. Processing The Products Of

Digestion

Excess glucose

Insulin will stimulate liver cells to convert

excess glucose into glycogen

Excess amino acid

Amino group in amino acid is removed

by deamination process to produce urea

3. Detoxification Alcohol, drugs and residue of insecticide enter

the body through foods

Liver remove harmful substances from the blood

or convert them into harmless substances

The products of detoxification eliminated from

body through bile or urine


101

Formation of Faeces and Defaecation

The Process of Defaecation

• Intestinal contents enter the colon which semi-liquid that consist of a mixture of

• Water

• Undigested food substances

• Indigestible fibre(cellulose)

• The movement of this undigested materials along the colon is helped by peristalsis

• The colon reabsorbs almost 90% of water and minerals into the bloodstream.

• Cause intestinal content become faeces

• Faeces contain dead cells, waste products like bile pigments and toxic substances

• Mucus is secreted to helps bind the faeces and lubricates the movement of faeces

along the colon.

• Faeces pass to the rectum for temporary storage

• More water is absorbed and cause the faeces more hardens

• Accumulation of faeces increasing the pressure in the rectum

• Causing a desire to expel the faeces from the body.

• Defecation is a process of elimination of faeces via the anus

Microorganisms in the Colon

• Escherichia coli

• Synthesizes vitamins B and K as by products of their metabolism.

• Lactobacillus acidophilus

• Secrete antibiotics (acidophilin) that inhibit the life cycle of harmful

microorganisms

• Overuse of antibiotics can reduce the microbial population

• As a result, food digestion and absorption of nutrients in the intestine will be

affected.


102

Problems Related to Defaecation

Constipation

• Caused by faeces moving too slowly through

the colon.

• As a result, more water is reabsorbed in the

colon

• It making the faeces hard.

• This will lead to painful defaecation.

• Constipation can be avoided by drinking a lot of

water and take high fibres in diet

Haemorrhoids

• Harden faeces caused by too much pressure in

the rectum and anus during defaecation

• This willl cause the blood vessel in the vascular

cushions(soft tissues ) in rectum swollen

Colon cancer

• Constipation will cause the faeces accumulate at rectum

• Toxin substances in the faeces which is carcinogenic will disturb cell cycle

• Cell division become uncontrolled and cause colon cancer


103

Evaluating Eating Habits

Good eating habits

• Taking meals at the appropriate time

• Refraining from overeating or eating too little during a meal

• Eating a variety of foods

• Eating a balanced diet

• Eating sufficient amounts of fibre

• Drinking at least 2 to 3 litres of water daily

• Avoiding excessive fatty food and food rich in sugar.

Health Problems Related To Eating Habits With

Gastritis

• Protective layer in stomach is corrode by hydrochloric acid

• Hydrochloric acid react on soft tissues in stomach

• Epithelial lining of the stomach becomes inflamed.

• Treatment involves taking medication such as antacids (sodium bicarbonate and

magnesium hydroxide).

• Antacids can neutralize the hydrochloric acid in gastric juice

Obesity

• Excessive storage of energy in the form of fats which results from as imbalance

between food intake and energy expenditure

• An obese person is predisposed to a number of diseases

• Cardiovascular diseases

• Hypertension

• Diabetes mellitus

• Obesity can be overcome by

• Practicing a balanced diet

• Eating not more than what is required by the body.

Anorexia nervosa

• People with anorexia nervosa experience an intense fear of gaining weight.

• They are persistently concerned about their body shape and weight.

• They have distorted body image which convinces them that they are fat

• Thus refrain themselves from eating to boost self esteem


104

• They lose both fat and muscle and this eventually leads to a disruption of the

functions of the

• Heart

• Endocrine system

• Reproductive system

• Treatment

• Through nutrition and gradual restoration of body mass to correct some of

the physical symptoms

• Counseling to help the patients to correct distort believe and stress

Bulimia

• Victims of bulimia may have a normal body mass.

• The victims have a binge (consume huge amounts of food in a short period of time)

and feel guilty, or depressed after a binge.

• This is followed by immediately purging of foods through self-induced vomiting or

misuse of laxatives

• Repeated purging and vomiting results in:

• serious injury to the digestive tract

• imbalance of mineral salts in the blood

• This can lead to cardiovascular problem and kidney damage

• Treatment of Bulimia nervosa

• Eats correctly

• Counseling

• Medication.

Understanding the Importance of Macronutrients and Micronutrients in Plants

Plants need water, carbon dioxide and sunlight to synthesise carbohydrates during

photosynthesis.

Plant also need minerals to synthesise nutrients and other organic substances

Mineral are essential chemical elements requires by plants to achieve optimal growth

and development.

Minerals that are needed by plants can be divided into

Macronutrients

Micronutrients.


105

Macronutrient Functions Effects of deficiency

Nitrogen A major component of proteins,

nucleic acids, chlorophyll and

enzymes for photosynthesis and

respiration.

Important for rapid stem and leaf

growth.

Increases seed and fruit yields.

Stunted growth.

Chlorosis, in which the synthesis of

chlorophyll is inhibited

results in pale yellow leaves.

Phosphorus Synthesis of nucleic acids,

adenosine triphosphates (ATP),

and phospholipids of plasma

membranes.

Acts as a coenzyme in

photosynthesis and respiration.

Poor root growth.

Formation of dull, dark green leaves.

Red purple spots on old leaves.

Potassium Protein synthesis.

Carbohydrate metabolism.

A cofactor for many enzymes.

Maintains turgidity in plants.

Reduced proteins synthesis.

Yellow-edged leaves.

Premature death of plants.

Calcium A major constituent of the middle

lamella of cell walls.

Formation of spindle fibres during

cell division.

Stunted growth.

Leaves become distorted and cupped.

Areas between leaf veins become

yellow.

Magnesium The main structural component of

the pigment chlorophyll.

Activates many plant enzymes.

Involved in carbohydrate

metabolism.

Yellowing of the regions between the

veins of mature leaves.

Red spots on leaf surfaces.

Leaves become cupped.

Sulphur A component of certain amino

acids.

A constituent of vitamin B and

some coenzymes.

General yellowing of the effected

leaves or the entire plant.


106

Micronutrient Functions Effects of deficiency

Boron Aids in calcium ion uptake by

roots and translocation of sugars.

Involved in carbohydrate

metabolism.

Aids in the germination of pollen

grains.

Required for normal mitotic cell

division in the meristems.

Acts as a cofactor for chlorophyll

synthesis.

Death of terminal buds.

Abnormal plant growth.

Leaves become thick, curled and brittle.

Copper An important component of

enzymes.

Involved in nitrogen metabolism

and photosynthesis.

Important for reproductive growth

and flower formation in plants.

Death of tips of young shoots.

Brown spots appear on terminal leaves.

Plants are stunted.

Ferum A cofactor in the synthesis of

chlorophyll.

Essential for young growing

plants.

Yellowing of young leaves.

Manganese An activator of enzymes in

photosynthesis, respiration and

also nitrogen metabolism.

A network of green veins on a light

green background.

Brown or grey spots between the veins.

Molybdenum Involved in nitrogen fixation.

Reduction of nitrates during

protein synthesis.

Chlorosis in the areas between the

veins of mature leaves.

Pale green leaves.

Reduction in crop yields.

Zinc Formation of leaves.

Synthesis of auxin (a type of

growth hormone in plants).

Acts as a cofactor in carbohydrate

metabolism.

Mottled leaves with irregular areas of

chlorosis.

Retarded growth.


107

PHOTOSYNTHESIS

• Leaf are the main photosynthetic organs

• The adaptation are:

Structure Function

Leaf mosaic arrangement

The whole leaf are arranged so they are overlap each

other as little as possible

Enables leaf to receive maximum light as possible.

Have petiole

Hold the leaf in the best position to receive maximum

amount of light.

Flat and thin Lamina

Increase surface area to maximize absorption of

sunlight.

Allow more sunlight can penetrate through the leaf into

the chloroplast.

Adaptation of Leaf Structure that Support Photosynthesis


108

Structure Function

Cuticle Waterproof layer

prevent excessive loss of water by transpiration

Upper Epidermal • Transparent (Do not contain any chloroplast)

• More light can penetrate through it

Palisade Mesophyll cell

Packed tightly together in an upright arrangement to

near upper surface

o Receive maximum sunlight.

Contain high density of chlorophyll in chloroplast

o Maximize the absorption of sunlight.

Spongy Mesophyll cell

Have cell which have irregular shape and loosely

arranged.

o Provide air spaces to allow easy diffusion of

water and carbon dioxide

Xylem Transport water from the soil into the leaf

o Supply water for photosynthesis process

Phloem Transport product of photosynthesis (eg. Glucose) from

leaf to all part of the plant.

Guard Cell Regulate the opening and closing of stomata

Stomata Allow gaseous exchange of carbon dioxide and

oxygen from surrounding.

Adaptation of Plants from Different Habitats to Carry Out Photosynthesis

Habitat Distribution of stomata Distribution of chloroplasts

Land plant

Example,

hibiscus.

Large numbers of stomata on

the lower epidermis of the

leaf.

Allow maximum absorption of

carbon dioxide

Most of the chloroplasts are

found in the palisade mesophyll

cells

Facilitates maximum absorption

of sunlight for photosynthesis.

Floating

Plant

Example,

The stomata are mostly

distributed on the upper

epidermis of the leaves.

Chloroplasts are found mainly

in the upper epidermis

This maximizes the absorption


109

duck

weed

To allow maximum

absorption

of carbon dioxide

of sunlight

Desert plants

Example,

cacti.

Have reduced leaves (very

few stomata) and sunken

stomata

Prevent excessive loss of

water through transpiration.

Found in thorns and stems

This maximizes the absorption of

sunlight.

Submerged

plant

example,

Hydrilla

The epidermal layer does

not

have stomata

Aquatic plants have thin-

textured and feathery leaf

To increase surface area for

gaseous exchange

Found all over the surface of the

plant

Maximize the absorption of

sunlight.


110

The Mechanism of Photosynthesis

• There are 2 stages in photosynthesis which are:

• Light Reaction occur in grana

• Dark Reaction occur in stroma

• Grana which are membranous structure which are pile up and contain chlorophyll.

• Stroma which is gel-like matrix and consist photosynthetic enzyme

Light Reaction

e-

H2O

CHOLOPHYLL

Hydroxide ion (OH-)

Donate

electron to Become

OH + OH

H2O O2

Produces ATP

Hydrogen ion (H+)

(Hydroxyl group)

Hydrogen atom

Photolysis of water

Electron exitation


111

• Light energy is used to split water molecules into hydrogen ions (H+) and hydroxide ions

(OH-).

• This reaction is known as photolysis of water.

• During the light reaction, chlorophyll captures/ trap light energy.

• This cause excites the electrons of chlorophyll molecules to higher energy levels.

• The electrons leave the chlorophyll molecules

• This reaction is called electron excitation

• The energy from the excited electrons is used to form molecules of ATP

• The hydrogen ions combine with the electrons to form hydrogen atoms.

• Hydroxide ion loses/ donate an electron to form a hydroxyl group

• This electron is then received by chlorophyll

• The hydroxyl groups combine with other hydroxyl group to form water and gaseous of

oxygen

• Oxygen is released into the atmosphere and used for cellular respiration

Dark Reaction

Hydrogen atom (H2)

(From light reaction)

Fix with

Carbon dioxide (CO2)

from atmosphere

ATP

Photosynthetic enzyme

Reduction

Water (H2O)

6(CH2O)- Basic unit of glucose

Combine to

form

C6H12O6 -Glucose

Condensation

Starch


112

• Hydrogen atoms fixed carbon dioxide in a series of reactions

• Catalyses by photosynthetic enzymes and ATP

• Water and basic unit of glucose is produced

• This process is called reduction

• Six unit of (CH2O) combine to form one molecule of glucose

• The glucose monomers then undergo condensation to form starch

Comparison Between Light Reaction And Dark Reaction

Similarities

• Both process occur in chloroplast

• Both process produce water

Differences

Aspect Light reaction Dark reaction

Light energy Required Not Required

Site of reaction Grana Stroma

Substances required for

reaction Water Carbon dioxide

Products of reaction Oxygen and Water Glucose

Process occur Photolysis of water Reduction

Time of Reaction Day Day and Night

Light

Cholophyll 6H2O + 6CO2 C6H12O6 + 6O2


113

Factors Affecting Photosynthesis

Light intensity

• Increases of light intensity, increases the rate of

photosynthesis

• More light to split water molecule to form

hydrogen ion and excite chlorophyll to produce

electron

• Thus more Hydrogen atom and ATP are produced

• Beyond P point, increases of light intensity the rate

of photosynthesis is constant

• Because no more CO2 to fix with excess hydrogen

atom

• Thus CO2 become limiting factor

• To increase the rate of photosynthesis is by

increasing the concentration of CO2

Concentration of Carbon Dioxide

• Increases of CO2 concentration, increases the rate of

photosynthesis

• More CO2 to fix with hydrogen atom in dark reaction

• Thus more glucose are produced

• Beyond P point, increases of CO2 the rate of

photosynthesis is constant because no more hydrogen

atom to fix with excess CO2

• Thus light intensity become limiting factor

• To increase the rate of photosynthesis is by increasing

the light intensity


114

The Difference In The Rate Of Photosynthesis In Plants Throughout The Day

1

2

3

4

5

Temperature

• Increases of temperature , increases the rate of

photosynthesis

• More collision between substrate with enzyme

molecule

• Thus more product (glucose) are produced

• Beyond P point, increases of temperature, the

rate of photosynthesis is decreases

• Because enzyme start to denature

• Thus substrate can’t bind with enzyme to produce

product


115

1. At 0700, the rate of photosynthesis is zero because no light intensity

2. After 0700 to 1200, the rate of photosynthesis is increases because light intensity

increases

3. After 1200 to 1300, the rate of photosynthesis is constant because CO2 become

limiting factor

4. After 1300 , the rate of photosynthesis is decreases because light intensity

decreases

5. At 1800 rate of photosynthesis zero because no light intensity

Increasing the Productivity of Crops Based On Factors Affecting The Rate Of

Photosynthesis

Problem

• Occur in four season country

• because light intensity and temperature not constant throughout a year

• During autumn, rate of photosynthesis low because tree shed leaves

• During winter, rate of photosynthesis zero because temperature is 0oC

To overcome problem

• Plant grown in greenhouse

• Light intensity, temperature and C02 concentration can controlled artificially

• Rate of photosynthesis not affected/ high

• Crops production produces throughout a year

The Importance of Photosynthesis

• Provide food

• Provide nutrient and energy to animal which eat the plant

• Produce oxygen

• Used for cellular respiration to generate energy

• Absorb carbon dioxide

• Maintain the percentage of carbon dioxide at atmosphere.

• Provide fossil fuel

• Coal and petroleum formed from biodegradation of plant


116

TECHNOLOGY USED IN FOOD PRODUCTION

Efforts to Diversify Food Production

1. Ulam

• Type of salad which include fresh leaves, fruits and other parts of plant that eaten

raw.

• Rich in minerals, vitamin, fiber and ions.

• Also used in herbal medicine and drinks

2. Diversify source of protein

• Rabbit and Ostrich

• Rich in protein

• Low in fat and cholesterol

• Freshwater fish

• Low in cholesterol

• Protein is easily digestible

3. Mushroom

• Have high nutrient content( vitamin and mineral)

• Shittake sp. able to increase body’s immunity

Method Used To Improve the Quality and Quantity of Food Production

1. Direct seedling

• Plant is sown directly into the soil without transplanting seedling

• Seed covered with a soil thus less damage to root

• Plant grow faster and increase crop yield

• Less water to irrigate the field

2. Hydroponics

• Crop plant is planted in culture medium in a container rather than soil

• The plant root is immersed in a solution containing all the nutrient in correct

proportion

• The plant are supported by a pebbles

• The culture solution is aerated to provide oxygen for respiration


117

3. Aerophonics

• The plant are suspended in special chambers with the roots are expose to the air

• Nutrient solutions are sprayed onto the root of the plant at suitable interval

• Plant root absorb more carbon dioxide between the periods of spraying

• Thus increase the rate of photosynthesis

4. Selective Breeding

• A parent of crop which have a good characteristic is selected

• The parent crop is crossed with another crop of parent which have other good

characteristic

• This technique will produce a new crop which have a good characteristic from both

parent

• Tissues culture

• The cells or tissues taken from the plant are grown in a sterile medium

• The medium contain all the nutrients and growth hormones

• The planlets that are produce can than transplanted into nurseries(refer chapter 5)

5. Genetic engineering

• The characteristic of organism is altered

• Done by changing the genetic composition of the organism

• A beneficial gene from one organism is transferred to another organism

• The genetically organism(GMO) is called transgenic organism

6. Soil management

• Soil is cultivated in a controlled manner to prevent depletion of some mineral from

the soil

• Soil is fertilized regularly by adding organic or inorganic fertilizer to maintain soil

fertility

• Plow to help soil aeration

• Crop rotation

• Can improve soil fertility and prevent the build-up of pest that peculiar to certain

crop

• Different plants are cultivated in succession on the same plot of land over period of

time

• Steps must be taken to reduce soil erosion and leaching of minerals from the soil

• Addition organic matter promote humus promotion and improves the soil structure


118

7. Biological control

• Pest is controlled by introducing it natural predator or parasite

• The beneficial is reduce the consume of pesticide to control the population of pest

• Example is by using an owl to control the population of rat in paddy field or palm

tree estate

TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT IN FOOD PROCESSING

The Necessity for Food Processing

1. Overcoming The Factors Causing Spoilage Of Food

• Action of microorganisms

• Decomposing bacterial and fungal act on protein and carbohydrate in the

food

• It will contaminating a food and produce a toxin

• When a person eat contaminate food, it can cause food poisoning

• Oxidation Of Food

• In fruits, oxygen reacting with an enzymes and chemical released by the

cells of fruits

• Thus reduce nutrient value in the foods such as vitamin C

• Oxidation also can cause oily food became rancid and have different smells

and tastes

• Rancid food is harmful to a body

2. Extending The Lifespan Of Food

• The processing of food will increase the lifespan of food

• By adding preservative it will prevent or stop the growth of bacterial and

fungal

• Food not contaminate by action of bacterial and fungal are last longer

3. Diversifying The Uses Of Food

• To produce a new product from a basic product

• Will produce a variety of product

• Examples are

• Milk - ice cream, chocolate, yoghurt, cheese, butter

• Soya bean - tempeh, tauhu, fucuk, soya bean drink, tauchu


119

Correlate the Food Processing Methods with Factors Causing Food Spoilage

Food Processing

Methods Food Spoilage Prevention

Cooking

Heating food to high temperature

Can kill microorganism and denature an enzymes that can

breakdown of food

Can destroy certain bacteria spore but not the toxin

Fermentation

By adding yeast to fruit juice and other food substances

Fermentation of yeast will produce ethanol

The concentration of ethanol increase

Inhibit the growth of bacteria

• Drying

Under the sun water will evaporate to surrounding

The food become dehydrated

This condition not suitable for the growth of microorganism

The UV ray also can kill the bacteria

This will make food last longer

• Using sugar

• Sugar solution is hypertonic compare to the CELLs of fruits

• Water from the cells diffuse out into the sugar solution

• By osmosis

• The cells of fruit become dehydrated and not suitable for the

growth of bacteria

• The fruit last longer

• Using Salt

• Salt solution is hypertonic compare to the CELLs of fruits

• Water from the cells diffuse out into the sugar solution

• By osmosis

• The cells of fruit become dehydrated and not suitable for the

growth of bacteria

• The fruit last longer

• Using a vinegar

• Vinegar has low acidity

• At high concentration of, vinegar molecule will diffuse into the

cell of plant

• By simple diffusion

• Vinegar cause plant cell become acidic

• This condition not suitable for the growth for microorganism

• The foods last longer


120

• Pasteurisation

• A method to preserve milk and fruit juices

• Milk is heated at;

630C for 30 minute OR 720C for 15 second

• After that it undergoes rapid cooling below 100C

• Rapid change of temperature will kill most of bacteria without

• change the nutrient content, taste and texture of the food

• Pasteurized milk need to keep in refrigerator to extend shelf

life

and prevent the growth of bacteria

• Refrigeration

• Foods are stored in low temperature (below 00C)

• At low temperature, spoilage food enzymes which secreted by

bacteria is inactive

• The foods can last longer

• Canning

• Food is packed in can and steamed at a high temperature to

destroy the bacteria and food-spoilage enzyme

• This will make the food become sterile

• After that, high pressure is exerted to eliminate all the air in the

can

This will make the can airtight(vacuum) thus prevent the

growth of bacteria

The canned food will have long shelf live

JUSTIFY THE CHOICE OF CONSUMING CERTAIN PROCESSED FOOD

Good effect

Cause Effects

1. Food processed are safe to

eat

Prevent the occurrence spoilage food diseases

such as

cholera and typhoid

2. Content high nutrient

Some processed food are enriched with mineral

such

as calcium, ferum and vitamins such as vitamin

A B C D E

3. Easy to use Save time to prepare the food

4. Easy for storage Processed food have long shelf live


121

Bad effect

Cause Effects

1. Content additives( artificial

colouring, preservative and

flavouring)

Can cause cancer

2. High content of salt and

Monosodium glutamate (MSG) Can cause hypertension

3. High content of fat and cholesterol Can cause cardiovascular disease such as

Hypertension, stroke and heart attack

4. High sugar content Can cause diabetes mellitus

5. Have low nutritional value

Some nutrient such as vitamin and minerals

are loss during food processed in high

temperature


122

CHAPTER 7

RESPIRATION

“Jagalah Dirimu Dari Api

Neraka, Walau Hanya Dengan

Sedekah Separuh Biji Kurma,

Jika Tidak Bisa Berbuat

Demikian, Maka Berbuatlah

Baik Walau Hanya Dengan

Kata-Kata Yang Manis.”(Hr Ady

Ibnu Ra)


123

CHAPTER 7 - RESPIRATION

• Process of obtaining oxygen and delivering it to the cell for cellular respiration

• Also removing of carbon dioxide produced by the cells

• Respiration can be divided into two stages:

• External respiration or breathing

Mechanical process of obtaining O2 and removing CO2 that occur

between the lung and environment

• Internal respiration or cellular respiration

The process of oxidation of organic molecules to produce energy

• The purpose of cellular respiration is to produce an energy in form of ATP

• Energy is required for;

1. Excretion of waste products

2. Muscle contraction which enables locomotion

3. Cell division in which new cells are produced for growth and development

4. Transmission of nerve impulses

5. Absorption of digested food through active transport

6. Active transport of biochemical substances

7. Maintaining the body temperature (in warm-blooded animals)

8. Synthesis of lipids, hormones, proteins and enzymes

• Glucose is the main substrate for cellular respiration to produce energy

• In human and animals, glucose is obtained from the digestion of carbohydrates

• In plants, glucose is obtained through the process of photosynthesis (Chapter 6)

Energy production in aerobic respiration

• Aerobic respiration is a process of oxidation of glucose with the present of oxygen

to produce energy

• Oxygen that is taken in and delivered by the blood circulatory system to body cells

• Aerobic respiration occur in mitochondria

• Aerobic respiration can be summarized by the following chemical equation:

C6H12O6

Glucose

2898 kJ/ 38 ATP

Energy 6O2

Oxygen

6CO2

Carbon

dioxide

6H2O

Water + +

+


124

Anaerobic respiration

• Process that breaks down of glucose in the absence of oxygen

• Occur when external respiration can’t supply enough oxygen for cellular respiration

during vigorous activities

• Anaerobic respiration occur in cytoplasm

• Anerobes are organism respire anerobically such as bacteria and yeast

Anaerobic respiration in human muscles

• During vigorous activity, the muscle use up all the available oxygen supply for

oxidation of glucose to produce ATP

• The external respiration cannot deliver sufficient oxygen to the cells for cellular

respiration

• The muscles are in a state of oxygen deficiency

• In such situations, muscle cells switch from aerobic respiration into anaerobic

respiration to produce ATP

• Because body produce ATP without use an oxygen, our body has said have oxygen

debt

• Glucose molecules break down partially into lactic acid and energy

• Energy that is produce is less(150kJ or 2 ATP)

Lactic acid accumulate in muscle and cause muscle become fatigue which can lead

muscle cramp

This contributes to feels of the pain at muscle in a person during and after a period of

intense exercise

The person needs to breathe in deeply and rapidly in order to inhale more oxygen

The excess oxygen is used to oxidize the accumulated lactic to carbon dioxide and

water

Lactic acid + O2 CO2 + H2O + energy

Oxygen debt is paid off when all of the lactic acid is removed

C6H12O6

Glucose

150 kJ/ 2 ATP

Energy

2C3O6H3

Lactic acid

+


125

Anaerobic respiration in yeast

• Yeast normally respires aerobically

• Under anaerobic conditions, yeast carries out anaerobic respiration.

• Anaerobic respiration in yeast produces ethanol, carbon dioxide and energy (210 kJ)

• Anaerobic respiration in yeast is also known as fermentation

• This process is catalysed by the Zymase enzyme

Comparison between Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration

Similarities

• Both cellular respiration

• Both involve the breakdown of glucose

• Both release energy that is stored in the ATP molecules

• Both are catalysed by enzymes


126

Differences

Aspect Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration

Presence of oxygen Present Absent

Oxidation of glucose Complete Incomplete

Products of respiration CO2, water and energy

Lactic acid and energy

or ethanol, CO2 and

energy

Number of ATP molecules produced 38 molecules of ATP 2 molecules of ATP

Place where the process takes

place Mitochondria Cytoplasm

Amount of energy released per mole

of glucose

2898kJ 150kJ or 210kJ

The Respiratory Structures and Breathing Mechanisms in Humans and Animals

Common Adaptations of Respiratory Structures

Adaptation Explanation

• The respiratory surface are

moist • Easy dissolve of respiratory gaseous

• Cells lining respiratory surface

are one cell thick • Easy diffusion of respiratory gaseous

• The respiratory structure has

large surface area

• Increase rate of diffusion of respiratory

gaseous

• The respiratory structure have

rich of network of blood

capillary

• Rapid transportation of respiratory

gaseous

• Unicellular organism such as Amoeba sp. don’t have any respiratory

• Because have high Total Surface area per Volume of body(TSA/V)

• Simple diffusion is sufficient to transport respiratory gases into and out of their body

• They also live in moist environment and have thin plasma membrane


127

• Larger organism have low total surface area per volume of body(TSA/V)

• More complex an organism more oxygen is required

• Simple diffusion can’t supply sufficient oxygen for the body tissues

• Thus require specialised respiratory structure for efficient gaseous exchange

Total Surface Area/Volume (TSA/V)

Calculate the TSA/V of the three cubes by using the formula

Total surface area = Length X Width X Number of Surfaces

Volume = Length X Width X Height

Size of cube (cm) Total surface

area(cm2) Volume(cm3) TSA/V(cm-1)

1 6 1 6

2 24 8 3

3 54 27 2


128

The Respiratory Structure and Breathing Mechanism of Insects

• Tracheal system is the respiratory system of insects

• Tracheae composed of a network of air tubes

• Air enters the tracheae through spiracles, located both sides of the thorax and abdomen

• Spiracles have valves which can be opened and closed to allow air movement

• Rings of chitin reinforced the tracheae

• This prevent collapsing of the tracheae

• The tracheae branch into finer tubes called tracheoles

The Structural Adaptation of Tracheoles for Gaseous Exchange

Structure Function

1. Branch penetrate into the

body tissues Oxygen can be channeled directly to the cells

2. Large number of tracheoles Large total surface area for the diffusion of gases.

3. Tips of the tracheoles have

one cell thick Easy diffusion of respiratory gaseous

4. Contain fluid at the tip Respiratory gases can be dissolved


129

The Breathing Mechanism of Insects

Inhalation Exhalation

1. The abdominal muscles relax 1. The abdominal muscles contract

2. The spiracles are open 2. The spiracles are close

3. Air pressure inside the tracheae is

lowered

3. Air pressure inside the trachaea is

increase

4. As a result air is drawn in 4. Forces air out through the spiracles

The Respiratory Structure and Breathing Mechanism of Fish

• Gills are the respiratory structures specialized for gaseous exchange in water.

• Fish have four pairs of gills, four on the right and another four on the left.

• The gills are supported by a gill arch and protected by the operculum.

• Each gill has two rows of thin filaments, arranged in a V-shape.

• The filaments consist of numerous thin-walled lamellae.

A

C B

Gill arch

Lamellae Filament


130

The structural adaptation of gills for gaseous exchange

Structure Function

1. Large surface area of filaments

and lamellae

Increases the efficiency of gaseous exchange in

fish.

2. One cell thick of the gill

filaments membrane

Allows the fast absorption of respiratory gases into

the blood capillaries

3. Enriched of blood capillary at

the filaments Efficient transport of respiratory gases

4. Surrounded by water(moist) at

the gill filaments Enable respiratory gases to be dissolved easily

5. Countercurrent exchange

mechanism at the gills surface

Efficiency of gaseous exchange of respiratory

gases

The Breathing Mechanism of Fish

Inhalation

The volume of buccal

cavity is increases and

pressure is decreases

Water with dissolved

oxygen is drawn into

the mouth

Mouth open and cause

the floor of the buccal

cavity is lowered

The operculum are

closed


131

Exhalation

The Respiratory Structure and Breathing Mechanism of Amphibians

The structural adaptation of the skin for gaseous exchange

Structure Function

1. Skin is thin Efficient exchange of gases between the skin and the

air

2. Constantly moist Respiratory gases can easily dissolve

3. A network of blood

capillaries Rapid transports respiratory gases

Water flows through the

lamellae of gills and gaseous

exchange between the blood

capillaries and water occurs

The volume of buccal

cavity is decreases and

pressure is increases

Mouth is closed and

the floor of the buccal

cavity is raised.

The high water pressure forces

the operculum to open and

water to flow out through the

operculum.


132

The structural adaptation of the lungs for gaseous exchange

Structure Function

1. Numerous inner partitions

Increased the surface area for efficient gaseous

exchange in the lungs

2. One cell thick and moist of

the membranes of the

lungs

Efficient diffusion of respiratory gases in and out rapidly

3. Rich network of blood

capillaries Rapid transportation respiratory gases to body cells.

THE BREATHING MECHANISM OF FROGS

Inhalation

Air is drawn into bucco -

pharyngeal cavity through

nostrils

The glottis close

Volume of buco-

pharyngeal cavity

increase and pressure

decrease

The bucco-

pharyngeal floor

is lowered


133

Exhalation

• Bucco-pharyngeal floor is rised and nostril open

• Cause the volume of bucco-pharyngeal cavity decrease and pressure inside buccal

cavity increase

• When the lung muscles contract, air is expelled from the lungs

Glottis opens, the

nostrils are closed

Volume of buco-pharyngeal

cavity decrease and

pressure increase

The bucco-pharyngeal

floor is raised

Air is pushed into lung from

the bucco-pharyngeal cavity

and lung expand


134

THE RESPIRATORY STRUCTURE AND THE BREATHING MECHANISM OF HUMANS

The structural adaptation of the alveoli for gaseous exchange

Structure Function

1. Contain numerous of

alveoli

Provides a large surface area for efficient gaseous

exchange

2. Moist inner surface

epithelial cells of alveolus Easy dissolve of respiratory gaseous

3. Covered by a dense

network of blood

capillaries

Rapid transportation of respiratory gases to and from

the alveoli

4. One cell thick Rapid exchange of respiratory gases across the

membranes

Breathing Structure of humans

• Gaseous exchange in humans occurs in the alveoli of the lungs

• Air passes through the nostrils into the nasal cavity, pharynx, glottis, larynx and trachea

• Trachea is supported by C-shape ring of cartilage

• Their functions are to :

1. Keep trachea open permanently to receive air

2. Prevent the trachea from collapsing during inhalation

• The lower end of trachea divide into two tube of bronchi which enter left and right of the

lungs

• Bronchus branches into smaller tube called bronchioles

• Each bronchioles end in a cluster of microscopic air sacs called alveoli


135

A

H

I

J

Bronchiol

e

Alveolus

B

C

D E

F

G

Nostril

Nasal Cavity

Pharynx

Larynx

Glottis

Trachea

Bronchus

Lung


136

The Human Breathing Mechanism

Inhalation

External intercostals

muscle contract

Ribcage move

upward and outward

Internal intercostals

muscle relax

Diaphragm muscles contract

and diaphragm become

flatten

High atmospheric pressure on the

outside forces air into the lungs

Volume of the thoracic cavity


decrease


137

Exhalation

External intercostals

muscle relax

Ribcage move downward

and inward

Internal intercostals

muscle contract

Diaphragm muscles relax and

diaphragm curved upward

High atmospheric pressure on the

outside forces air into the lungs

Volume of the thoracic cavity


decrease


138

Comparison Between The Human Respiratory System And Those Of Other Organisms

Similarities

Structure Function

1. Large surface area to volume ratio Efficient gaseous exchange.

2. One cell thick of cells lining the

respiratory structures This allows gas diffusion efficiently

3. Moist of the surfaces respiratory

structure

This allows respiratory gases easy to

dissolve

Differences Between The Human Respiratory System With Those Of Other Organisms

Characteristics Protozoa Insects Fish Amphibians Humans

Respiratory

system None

Tracheal

system Gills

Skin and

pulmonary

system

Human

respiratory

system

Respiratory

organs None Tracheae Gills

Skin and

lungs Lungs

A large surface

area to volume

ratio is achieved

by having

Unicellular,

flat, and

small

bodies

Numerous

tracheoles

Numerous

filaments

and

lamellae

Lungs and

entire

surface

area of the

skin.

Numerous

alveoli

Respiratory

structures

Plasma

membrane Tracheoles

Filaments

and

lamellae

Lungs and

skin Alveoli

Respiratory

openings None Spiracles Mouth Nostrils Nostrils

Network of

blood capillaries None None

The

filaments

The skin

and lungs The alveoli


139

GASEOUS EXCHANGE ACROSS THE RESPIRATORY SURFACE AND TRANSPORT OF

GASES IN HUMANS

The Process of Gaseous Exchange across the Surface of the Alveolus and Blood

Capillaries

• Differences of partial pressure effect the diffusion of a gases between two regions

• Partial pressure refer to portion of atmospheric pressure of one gases

Name of gases Percentage at atmosphere

(%) Partial pressure (mmHg)

Oxygen 21

Carbon dioxide 0.03

Partial pressure of oxygen inside alveolus(1)

is higher compare to partial pressure oxygen

in the blood capillary(2) 1

2 Oxygen from alveolus(1) will diffuse into blood

capillary(2)

By simple diffusion


140

Note: Respiratory gaseous are Oxygen and Carbon dioxide

PO2 = Refer to partial pressure of oxygen

PCO2 = Refer to partial pressure of Carbon dioxide

The Transport of Respiratory Gases in Humans

Transportation of Oxygen

Alveolus

Blood

capillary

PO2 alveolus >

PO2 Blood

capillary

O2 diffuse into

blood capillary by

simple diffusion

Haemoglobin

+

O2

PO2 Blood capillary

> PO2 Body tissues

O2 diffuse by simple

diffusion

Body

Tissues

Haemoglobin

+

O2

Oxyhaemoglobin

Disassociate

into

Combine to

form

form

Oxygen used for

cellular respiration

1

2

Partial pressure of carbon dioxide inside blood

capillary(2) is higher compare to partial

pressure carbon dioxide in the alveolus(1)

Carbon dioxide from blood capillary(2) will

diffuse into alveolus(1)

By simple diffusion


141

Transportation of carbon dioxide

• Carbon dioxide produce by cellular respiration transported to the lungs in three ways

• Dissolve in blood plasma (7%)

• Form of carbaminohaemoglobin(23%)

• Form of bicarbonate ions (70%)

Carbon dioxide

exhaled out from

the lung

Body Tissues

Blood

capillary

PCO2 body

tissues >

PO2 Blood

capillary

CO2 diffuse into

blood capillary by

simple diffusion

Haemoglobin

+

CO2

PCO2 Blood capillary

> PO2 alveolus

CO2 diffuse into

alveolus by simple

diffusion

Alveolus

Haemoglobin

+

CO2

Carbaminohaemoglobin

Disassociate

into

Combine to

form

form


142

The Relationship between the Rate of Respiration and the Oxygen and Carbon

Dioxide Content in the body

Activity

Process Resting Vigorous activity During fear

Breathing rate

Normal between 18

to 20 breaths per

minute

Normal supply of

oxygen for

cellular

respiration

Increases to 30

breaths per minute

To supply more

oxygen for cellular

respiration

Increases to 30 breaths

per minute

To supply more

oxygen for cellular

respiration

H2CO3

Body tissues

Blood

capillary

PCO2 Body

tissues >

PCO2 Blood

capillary

CO2 diffuse

into blood

capillary by

simple

diffusion

CO2 + H2O H2CO3

Carbonic

anhydrase

form

H+ + HCO3

Alveolus

Carbonic

anhydrase

H2O + CO2

Break

into

PCO2 Blood

capillary > PCO2

Alveolus

CO2 diffuse into

alveolus by simple

diffusion

Disassociate

to


143

Heartbeat rate

Normal between 60 to

70 beats per minute

Normal oxygen

and glucose can

delivered by

blood

Increases to 120

beats per minute.

More oxygen and

glucose can

delivered by blood

Increases to 120 beats

per minute.

More oxygen and

glucose can

delivered by blood

Energy requirement

Normal energy

requirement

For normal

contraction and

relaxation of

muscles

More energy

requirement

For intense

contraction and

relaxation of

muscles

More energy

requirement

For intense

contraction and

relaxation of

skeletal muscles

Ventilation rate

Ventilation rate

increase

Normal

exchange O2 and

CO2 between

alveolus and

blood capillary

Ventilation rate

increase

Faster exchange

O2 and CO2

between alveolus

and blood

capillary

Ventilation rate

increase

Faster exchange O2

and CO2 between

alveolus and blood

capillary

Secretion of

Adrenalin hormone None None

Adrenal glands secrete

the adrenaline hormone

Preparation for

‘fight or flight’

situation


144

THE REGULATORY MECHANISM OF OXYGEN AND CARBON DIOXIDE CONTENTS IN

THE BODY

Regulation of Carbon dioxide concentration

Increase

CO2 + H2O H2CO3 H+ + HCO3-

Disassociate

Blood become

acidic

Effectors

Intercostals muscles

Diaphragm muscles

Detected

by

Peripheral

chemoreceptor

Aortic body

Carotid body

Central chemoreceptor

Medulla oblongata

Stronger the contraction

of Intercostals muscles


of Diaphragm muscle

Increase breathing rate

Increase ventilation rate

Normal Carbon dioxide concentration

Effectors

Cardiac muscle


of cardiac muscle

Increase heartbeat

rate

Integrating centre

Medulla oblongata

Impulse

transmitted

to

Impulse

transmitted to


145

Regulation of Oxygen Concentration

THE IMPORTANCE OF MAINTAINING A HEALTHY RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

The Main Substances In Cigarette Smoke That Affects Health

Substances Effect to the health

1. Heat

Cause the surface of alveolus dry.

This will reduce the ability of an oxygen to dissolve into

alveolus.

2. Tar

Tar from smoke of cigarette will deposit in the alveolus.

This will reduce surface area of alveolus and reduce rate of

gaseous exchange.

3. Carcinogenic compound

Eg. Tar, benzene and

formaldehyde.

Will disturb cell cycle mechanism and mitosis become

uncontrolled.

Lead to lung cancer

Impulse

transmitted to

Impulse

transmitted to

High

altitude

Normal O2

Concentration

Decrease

concentration of

O2 in blood

Integrating centre

Medulla oblongata

Detected by

Effectors


Diaphragm muscles

Peripheral

chemoreceptor

Aortic body

Carotid body

Stronger the contraction of


Stronger the contraction of

Diaphragm muscle

Increase breathing rate

Increase ventilation rate

Effectors

• Cardiac muscle


of cardiac muscle

Increase heartbeat rate


146

4. Sulphur dioxide(SO2)

and Oxide of Nitrogen

(NO)

These gases can combine with water vapor in the lung and

become acid.

Thus will corrode the lung.

5. Carbon monoxide

Have more affinity to combine with haemoglobin compare to

oxygen

Form carboxyl haemoglobin.

This will reduce the supply of oxygen to the cell

Method to Maintaining A Healthy Respiratory System

Method Function

1. Don’t smoke To ensure no harmful substances from the cigarette entering

the lung.

2. Regular Exercise To maintain the health of respiratory system.

3. Stay away from smokers To avoid from becoming a passive smoker that have the

same effect with active smokers

4. Wear a mask during

haze To avoid foreign particle from entering into our lung.

RESPIRATION IN PLANTS

• Gaseous exchange in plant are through the stomata and lenticels

• Stoma consists of a pore surrounded by two guard cells

• Guard cells contain a large number of chloroplasts in which photosynthesis takes place

Respiration at Stomata

Intake of Oxygen

• In day time stoma in the epidermis of the leaf open

• Concentration oxygen at atmosphere(1) is higher from concentration oxygen in air

spaces in the leaf(2)

• Oxygen from the atmosphere diffuses through stoma into intercellular air spaces


147

• Concentration oxygen air spaces(2) in the leaf is higher compare to concentration

oxygen in spongy mesophyll cell(3) and palisade mesophyll cells(4)

• Oxygen diffuse from air spaces into the cell by simple diffusion

• Follow the concentration gradient

Carbon Dioxide Releases

Cellular respiration in palisade mesophyll cells(4) and spongy mesophyll cell(3) produce

carbon dioxide

This will cause concentration of carbon dioxide in the palisade mesophyll cells(4) and

spongy mesophyll cell(3) is higher compare to concentration of carbon dioxide in leaf air

spaces(2)

Excess carbon dioxide(which is not used in photosynthesis) will diffuse out from palisade

mesophyll cells and spongy mesophyll cell into leaf air spaces

By simple diffusion

Concentration carbon dioxide in leaf air spaces(2) is higher compare to concentration of

carbon dioxide at the surrounding(1)

Carbon dioxide diffuse out to the surrounding through stomata

1

2

4

3


148

Respiration at Lenticels

• Lenticels are raised pores found on the stems and roots of plants

• The cells around the lenticels are arranged loosely

• To allow the diffusion of gases into and out of the stem and root tissues

• At the lenticels

• Oxygen from atmosphere diffuses

• Into the air spaces

• Between cork cells which are loosely arranged

• Then diffuses into the cells at the stem

1

2

4

3


149

Compensation Point

Situation when the rate of photosynthesis and rate of transpiration is equal

Carbon dioxide produce during cellular respiration is reused for photosynthesis in

chloroplast

Glucose produce during photosynthesis is reused for cellular respiration in

mitochondria

No net gain or loss in glucose and carbon dioxide

At P

• Low light intensity, only respiration occurs

• Large quantity of CO2 is produced

• Sugar used in respiration more rapidly than it is produced in photosynthesis

• For cellular respiration

• As light intensity increases the quantity of CO2 produce decreases

• Because part of CO2 used for photosynthesis

At Q

• At this point of light intensity all the CO2 release from respiration is used up during

photosynthesis

• No net gain or loss in CO2 and sugar produced

• Rate of photosynthesis is equal to the rate of respiration

• This point is called compensation point

• Net gaseous exchange is zero

Rele

as

e o

f C

O2

inc

rea

se

s

Ab

so

rpti

on

of

CO

2 in

cre

as

es


150

At R

• As light intensity increases, the rate of photosynthesis become faster than the rate of

respiration

• The CO2 needed is obtained from the atmosphere

• At the same time excess O2 is releases into the atmosphere

Effect on Living Things When the Rate of Photosynthesis and Rate of Respiration

Remains At Compensation Point

Effect Explanation

1. No growth in plant reduce food supply to the organism

2. Reduce the production of

oxygen

Reduce cellular respiration

Thus reduce energy(ATP) produce


151

CHAPTER 8

DYNAMIC ECOSYSTEM

“Sesungguhnya kepala yang

ditusuk dengan besi itu lebih

baik daripada menyentuh

kaum yang bukan sejenis

yang tidak halal baginya” (HR.

At-Thabrani & Baihaqi)

Produce

heat


152

CHAPTER 8 - DYNAMIC ECOSYSTEM

The Abiotic and Biotic Components of the Environment

Environment consists of two components

o Abiotic component - non-living component

o Biotic component - living component

The abiotic component

pH value (soil and water)

Effect on the distribution of organisms (in the habitat)

Majority of organisms survive well at neutral environment

Pineapple live well at acidic soil

Coconut plant live well at alkaline soil

Aquatic organisms killed if pH of water change drastically

Light intensity

Affects the distribution and growth of plants and animals

Sun is source of energy for photosynthesis

Vary intensities of sunlight effect distribution type of plants

High intensity of sunlight - Tall trees which exposed to more sunlight

Under the cover of shady trees - Ferns and vines

Under the canopy - Birds, frogs

Light intensity is low (ground) - Mosses, Ants and Earthworms

Bacteria and fungi – live in the soil decompose organic material

Temperature

Affects the physiological activity of plant and animals

Most organisms survive within the temperature at range of 0°C and 45°C

Drop of temperature will decreases of metabolic activity in living organisms

Enzyme less active at low temperature

Higher than 45°C enzymes denatured

Produce

heat


153

Humidity

Amount of water vapour present in the air

Affects the rate of water loss by plant and animals

Humidity low more water evaporates from the moist surfaces

Humidity is higher at night but lower at day time

Snakes, frogs liverworts, mosses prefer humid area

Topography

Physical features of the land

Influences the humidity, temperature and light intensity of an ecosystem

Determines the distribution and growth of organisms

The main topography are:

1. Altitude

Higher altitude have lower

atmospheric pressure and

temperature

Different plants grow at different

altitude

Higher altitude - Eg: pine trees

Lower altitude - Eg.: Shorea sp.

2. Gradient or steepness of a slopes

Steep slope result in rapid drainage

of water and run-off of soil

Soil layer become thinner and drier

Not a suitable habitat for organisms


154

Microclimate

Climate in the microhabitat

Includes the humidity, temperature, light

intensity and atmospheric conditions

Affects the population and distribution of

organisms

The Biotic Components

1. Green plants

(producers)

o Use the light energy from the sunlight to synthesized

substances (photosynthesis)

2. Primary consumers

(herbivores) o Obtain their energy by consuming producers

3. Secondary consumers

(carnivores) o Obtain their energy by eating primary consumers

4. Tertiary consumers

(carnivores) o Prey on secondary consumers to obtain the energy

5. Decomposers

(bacteria and fungi)

o Microorganisms that break down waste products and

dead bodies of other organisms into simpler substances

to be use again by plants

3. Aspect of a slope

Slopes of the mountains facing

direction of wind receive more rain

than the slope shaded from the

wind

Organisms from different slope are

different


155

List the abiotic component and biotic component from the diagram above

Abiotic Component Biotic Component


156

FOOD CHAIN, FOOD WEB AND TROPHIC LEVELS

Food Chain

Shows a sequence of organisms through which energy is transferred

Starts with producer and will ends with a top of consumer

Each organism is the food of the next organism in the chain

Trophic level is each stage in food chain

Food Chain

Food chain is interconnected form a food web

Most organisms are feed on more than one organism

Thus belong to more than one trophic level

Exercise: Draw a food web from animal given( snake, grasshopper, green plant, owl,

mouse and frog)

Grasshoppers Snakes

Frogs (Producers) (1° consumers) (2° consumers)

4th trophic level

Grass

(2nd trophic level 3rd trophic level 1st trophic level

(3° consumers)


157

Food chain can be arrange in the form of a pyramid of numbers

Pyramid of numbers is diagrammatic representation of the number of organisms at each

trophic level in a food chain, arranged in ascending order

Base of the pyramid is producers

Producers absorb solar energy and convert into chemical energy(photosynthesis)

Energy is used for cell division, growth and reproduction

Primary consumers eat producers and the energy is transferred to next trophic level

Only 10% of the energy are transferred from one trophic level to another

90% energy loss to the environment by:

o Heat

o Respiration

o Excretion

o Defaecation

Organisms dies the energy made available to other organisms by decomposers

Food chain rarely have more than 4 trophic levels between producers and consumers

Producers

Primary

consumers

Secondary

consumers

Tertiary

consumers

Energy flow


158

Calculate the energy received by snake:

THE INTERACTION BETWEEN BIOTIC AND ABIOTIC COMPONENT

Symbiosis

Close relationship between two or more different species which live closely together.

Classified into 3 categories:

1. Commensalism

2. Mutualism

3. Parasitism

Commensalism

The interactions between two organisms which one organism gain benefit while other

organism gain or lose nothing.

Commensal is organism that gain benefit

Host are the organism gain or lose nothing

Epiphyte is commensalism in plant

Examples

Energy input from the

sun during

photosynthesis

90% Energy

lost

Paddy Grasshopper Frog Snake

100 000 kJ

90% Energy

lost

90% Energy

lost

10

100

X 100 000 kJ == ==

10 000 kJ

10

100

X 10 000 kJ == ==

1000 kJ

10

100

X 1000 kJ == ==

100 kJ

Grasshopper Frog Snake


159

Staghorn ferns

Bird’s nest fern

Pigeon orchids

All plant get more light intensity, thus more photosynthesis

Pigeon orchid

Staghorn fern

Epizoid commensalism in animal

Examples

Barnacles which live on the shells of crabs

Barnacles get transportation

Remoras which attached to sharks and rays

Remoras fish get protection from predator and food from shark leftover f

Sea anemone with the clown fish

clown fish get protection from predator because the tentacles of sea

anemone have poison


160

Crab and barnacle Clownfish and sea anemone

Shark and Remora fish

Problem Faced By Epiphyte and Adaptation to Overcome the Problem

Problem Structure Function

1. Difficulty in

obtaining soils

and minerals

Root system with ants’

nests in them

Ants bringing garbage and dead

leaves to their nests

When these organic substances

decompose, humus is formed

Increase the bulk of soil and its

mineral content for the epiphytes


161

Corrugated leaves with

grooves

Can direct fallen leaves and dust

particles to the roots

Dead leaves rot to become humus

Dust particles accumulate to

become a component of soil

2. Difficulty in

obtaining water

Have corrugated leaves

with grooves

Can direct rainwater and dew to

their roots

Have succulent leaves The leaf can store water

Have leaves with a

thick cuticle To reduce transpiration

Have aerial roots with a

layer of velamen

Can absorb moisture from the

atmosphere

3. The problem of

securing

themselves onto

host plants

Have sticky clasping

roots Have better grip onto the host

4. The problem of

seed dispersal

Produce an enormous

number small and light

spores

Spores can be easily carried by wind

Corrugated leaf


162

Mutualism

The interaction between two organisms in which both organisms benefits

Example: Algae and fungi in lichen (both plants),

Algae produce food for itself and for the fungus

Fungi supplies carbon dioxide and nitrogenous products for the algae to produce

foods.

Example: Hermit crabs and sea anemones (both animals),

The sea anemone attach themselves to the shells of hermit crab

Sea anemone obtains transport and leftover food from the hermit crab

The hermit crab obtains protection from its predators because of the poisonous

tentacles of the sea anemone

Example: Rhizobium bacteria and legume plants (one animal and one plant)

Rhizobium bacteria in the root nodules fix the nitrogen in the atmosphere and convert

it to nitrates which are absorbeb by the plant to build protein

The legume plant provides food such as carbohydrates and protection to the

Rhizobium bacteria

Lichen

Hermit crab and sea anemone


163

Parasitism

Interaction between two organisms where one organism gain benefits (the parasite)

while the other is harmed (the host)

Two types of parasites:

Ectoparasites

live on the external surface of the host’s body

To gain food, protection and transportation

Examples of ectoparasites are flea and ticks

Endoparasites

o Live in the body of the host

o Example of endoparasites which is animal is tape worms

o Attached to the lining of the host intestine’s

o Host loses nutrient to the parasite

o Example of endoparasites which is plants is Rafflesia sp.

o Has thread-like filaments that penetrate through the roots of the host plant

o Absorb nutrients from the host

Tape worm Rafflesia


164

Saprophytism

Interaction in which living organisms obtain food from dead and decaying organic matter

Saprophytes is organism which obtain food from decayed organic matter

Example of saprophyte are fungi mushroom, bread mould and bracket fungus

These fungi have root structures called hyphae

Hypae secrete cellulase enzymes to hydrolise complex substrate (food substances) into

simple sugar

The products are absorbed by hyphae into saprophyte

Mushroom Decomposer bacteria

Bread mold (Mucor sp.)

Spore

Hypae


165

Prey-predator

o Relationship where a smaller organism called pray is hunted and eaten by stronger

animal called predator

o The predator eats the prey and the prey eaten by the predator

o Example is an owl is predator while a rat is prey

o The prey-predator relationships help to regulate the population of organisms in

ecosystem and maintain the balance of nature which is called dynamic equilibrium

Exercise from the graft below, describe the relationship between rat and owl


166

January - April

o The rat population increase due to foods availability

o The increase of rat population causes the increase of owl population

o Because more food supply(rat) in the habitat for the owls

April - August

o More owl hunting the rat for food will cause the population of rat decrease

o When there is less number of rats, the population of owl also decreases.

o Not enough food(rat) to support all the owl population in the habitat

August - December

o The decrease in population of owl causes the rat to survive and breed

o Thus population of rat increases back

o The increase of rat population causes the owl population increase back

o The population cycle repeated

o The population is said to be in dynamic equilibrium state

The Interaction Between Biotic Components In Relation To Competition

Competition

Interaction between organism living together in a habitat and competing for the same

resources that are in limited supply

Common basic needs such as water, sunlight, space, minerals, foods and mates

Organisms which are strong(dominant) can obtain the basic need obtain

Organisms which are weak have migrate to other areas or die

Two types of competition

1. Intraspecific competition: Competition between of individuals in same species

2. Interspecific competition: Competition between of individuals in different species


167

Graph A shows Intraspecific competition

Graph B shows Intraspecific competition

Graph C shows Interspecific competition

Paramecium aurelia is more dominant compare to Paramecium caudatum

Because Paramecium aurelia absorb more nutrient compare to paramecium caudatum

Thus can propagate more rapidly than Paramecium caudatum

A B

C


168

COLONIZATION AND SUCCESSION IN AN ECOSYSTEM

Ecosystem

• A community of organisms which interact with their non-living environment and function

as a unit

Ecology term Explanation

1. Habitat

• A natural environment where organism live

• Provides basic resources of life such as food, shelter, living

space, nesting sites and mates

2. Species

• A group of organisms that look alike and have similar

characteristic

• Share the same roles in an ecosystem

• Are capable of the interbreeding to produce fertile offspring

3. Population • Group of organisms of the same species living in the same

habitat at the same time

4. Community • Several populations of different species living in the same habitat

in an ecosystem

5. Niche

• An organisms role in the ecosystem

• Include it habitat and interaction with other organism

• Example: Goat eat grass at field and will be hunted by tiger


169

Colonisation and Succession

• Colonisation a process in which plants start to inhibit an uninhabited place

• And form a colony in the place

• Pioneer species is the first plant species to colonies a new habitat

• Successors species which takes over the place of the pioneer species

• Succession is the process whereby a pioneer species is replaced gradually and consecutively

by another species (successors species)

• Climax community are the stable and matured community in a habitat and succession

process has stop


170

Problem Faced By Plant At The Mangrove Swamp And The Adaptation

Problem structure Function

1. Soft and muddy soil

(Support problem)

• Extensive cable root in

Avicennia sp. and Sonneratia

sp.

• Prop root in Rhizophora sp.

• Buttress root in Bruguiera sp.

• Anchoring wider area of

soil for support

2. Low levels of oxygen

(Respiration problem)

• Pneumatophores root in

Avicennia sp. and Sonneratia

sp.

• Prop root in Rhizophora sp.

• Buttress root in Bruguiera sp.

• Root project above the

water thus allow

gaseous exchange

3. High salinity of water

(Water loss by osmosis

at root)

• Root have higher osmotic

pressure (concentration) than

concentration of sea water

• Prevent water loss from

root by osmosis

• Leaf have hydathode pores • To excrete excess salt

from the plant

4. High intensity of

sunlight and high

velocity coastal wind

(Transpiration problem)

• Leaf have thick cuticle • To reduce water loss

by transpiration

• Succulent leaf • Able to store water

5. Seed dispersal • Viviparity seed

• Seed germinate while

still attach to the parent

• When the seed mature

and fall from the parent

tree

• It stick to muddy soil

and didn’t wash away

by sea current


171

Buttress root

Prop root

Viviparity seed

Extensive cable root


172

Colonisation and Succession in Mangrove swamps

Note: To answer this question you should include

• Name of species of plant and their of root system

• Root trap mud and decaying matter

• Cause ground/ soil become higher, drier and firmer

• Not suitable for the growth of................................

• But more suitable for the growth of...........................

At Zone I

• Extensive cable root / Pneumatophor in Avicennia sp. and Sonneratia sp. trap mud

and decaying matter

• This will cause the ground/ soil become higher, drier and firmer

• This condition not suitable for the growth of Avicennia sp. and Sonneratia sp

• But more suitable for the growth of Rhizophora sp.

Zone I Zone II Zone III

Extensive cable root

/ Pneumatophor in

Avicennia sp. and

Sonneratia sp.

Prop root in

Rhizophora sp.

Buttress root

in Bruguiera sp

Muddy

bank


173

At Zone II

• Prop root in Rhizophora sp. trap more mud and decaying matter


• This condition not suitable for the growth of Rhizophora sp.

• But more suitable for the growth of Bruguiera sp

At Zone III

• Prop root in Bruguiera sp trap mud and decaying matter


• This condition not suitable for the growth of Bruguiera sp

• But more suitable for the growth of terrestrial plant(Pandanus sp.)

• This process continue until climax community is achieved

Distribution of Plant at Coastal Area

Keys:

Rhizophora sp.

Muddy bank

Terrestrial plant

(Pandanus sp.) Avicennia sp.

Sonneratia sp.

Bruguiera sp

Note: Avicennia sp. located at

coastal area

Sonneratia sp. located at

delta of river


174

The Importance to Preserve and Conserve the Mangrove Swamp

Importance Explanation

1. Protection from strong

wind/ tsunami

Have dense network of prop root/ buttress root

GIVE MECHANICAL SUPPORT TO THE PLANT

2. Prevent the shore from

soil erosion

Have dense network of prop root/ buttress root

TRAP THE SEDIMENT

3. Shelter for terrestrial

animal

Habitat for terrestrial animal

EXAMPLES LIKE MONKEY, BIRD AND SNAKE

4. Nursery for aquatic

animal

Act as breeding area for aquatic animal

EXAMPLES LIKE FISH, PRAWN, COCKLE

5. Source of protein Have many aquatic organism which provide food for

human

6. Building material Mangrove trees used as pilling and building material such

jetty

7. Source of energy Mangrove tree is used as charcoal

8. Eco-tourism Generate extra income to the local fishermen

9. Nutrient cycling

Decomposition of decaying matters produces detritus /

heterotrophic microorganisms,

Forming a food source for the juveniles of a variety of

bivalves/shrimps / fishes


175

Process of Colonisation and Succession in a Pond

Note: To answer this question you should include

• Identify the adaptive characteristics of pioneer species

• Identify the adaptive characteristics of successors

• Explain the changes in habitat caused by pioneer species (pond become more

shallow)

• Not suitable for the growth of................................

• But more suitable for the growth of...........................

Unused pond is not suitable for the growth of

plant because the soil is infertile

Submerged plants like Hydrilla sp.,

Cabomba sp will colonies the area

Have fibrous roots penetrate deep into the

soil to absorb nutrients and bind sand

particles together

When the pioneer dies and decompose,

more organic matter released inside the

pond.

This organic matter is converted into humus

at the pond base.

The humus and soil that erode from the bank

of the pond will cause the pond become

shallow.

This condition is not suitable for the growth

of submerged plant but more suitable for

floating plant


176

Floating plant such as Lemna sp., Eichornia

sp. and Nelumbium sp.

Can reproduce rapidly by vegetative

propagation and cover the pond surface.

The submerged plant die because can’t do

photosynthesis.

The decomposed remains of submerged

plant add more organic matter at the base of

the pond.

At the same time, more erosion occurs at the

bank which causes the pond become

shallower.

This condition is not suitable for floating

plant but more suitable for emergent plant

The emergent plant can live in water as well

as on land, for examples sedges and

cattails.

The rhizomes of this plant grow horizontally

across the habitat.

Their extensive roots bind the soils particles

together and penetrate deeply into soil to

absorb mineral salt.

These plant spread rapidly and colonies the

habitat.

When these plants die, their decomposed

remains and bank erosion will cause the

pond become shallower.

This condition of the pond become more

favorable for the growth for the land plants

like small herbaceous.


177

POPULATION ECOLOGY

The Quadrate Sampling Technique

Percentage area

coverage

Arial coverage of all quadrate(m2)

Number of quadrate X Quadrate area

100% X =


178

Calculate the density of Mimosa pudica.

Note** Area = Height X Width

1M

1M

Density of

Species

Total Numbers Of Individual In All Quadrate .

Number of quadrate X Quadrate area =


179

Calculate the percentage frequency of Mimosa pudica

Percentage

frequency Number of quadrate sampled

100% X =

Number of Quadrate

Containing the species.

Population

Size

First capture X Second capture

Second capture with mark =

1M

1M

A student caught ten snails in a garden. He marked and

released them. After a week, he caught eight snails and

four of them were marked. What is the population size of

the snails in the garden?


180

BIODIVERSITY

Classification of Organism

Kingdom Characteristics

Monera

(Prokaryotae)

Unicellular organisms

Absence of nuclear membrane

Cell wall present

Simple organization

No tissue formation since the organisms are unicellular

Examples are cyanobacteria and bacteria

Protista

Most of them are unicellular

Nuclear membrane present

Some of the organisms in this kingdom have both plants and animal

characteristics

Simple organization without tissues

Examples are Paramecium sp. and Amoeba sp.

Fungi

Without chlorophyll

Most of them have hyphae

Cell wall made of chitin

Produce spores

Examples are mould, mushroom and yeast

Plantae

Multicellular plants

Chlorophyll present

Most of the organisms have tissues

Examples are fern, mosses and flowering plant

Animalia Multicellular animals

Chlorophyll absent

Most of the organisms in this kingdom are able to carry out

locomotion

Examples are Fish, birds and mammals


181

The Hierarchy In The Classification Of Organisms

Hierarchy Acronym

Kingdom Kaum

Phylum Perempuan

Class Cemburu

Order Orangnya

Family Feelnya

Genus Gedik

Species Sekali

Each organism is given a scientific name according the Linnaeus binomial system

Each organism has two name in Latin

The first name begin with capital letters refer to the Genus while the second name which

begin with small letter refer to species

Example

Common name Scientific name

Durian Durio zibenthinus

Oil palm Elaeis guineesis

Lion Panthera leo

Frog Bufo melanostictus


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The Importance of Biodiversity

Importance Explanation

1. Source of food

Plant and animal provide food source to sustain the

human need

Plant provide fruits and animal provide meat

2. Maintain global climate Plants absorb carbon dioxide gases and help reduce

global warming

3. Valuable Natural resources Many of our medicinal drugs come from plants.

4. Economic value All of our wood products come from nature

5. Knowledge We can learn more about our earth by observing a

diverse ecosystem

6. Eco-tourism Generate income and provide more job opportunities

7. Recreational areas Provide more healthy lifestyle and can reduce stress

8. Esthetics value Inspire an artist to produce a masterpiece

THE ROLE OF USEFUL MICROORGANISM IN THE ECOSYSTEM

Role Explanation

1. Decomposition

Organism that secretes digestive enzymes to break

down organic matter and animal waste into simple

molecule are called decomposer.

Their role in ecosystem are to return the nutrient

contain within the remains of organic matter to

atmosphere, soil and water.

Examples of decomposer are saprophytic bacteria and

fungi.

2. Alimentary Canal of

Termites

Triconympha sp. present in alimentary canal of termites

secrete cellulase enzyme.

This helps termites to digest cellulose from the plant

cell wall.


183

3. Digestive System In

Humans

The symbiotic bacteria are found in human colon.

These bacteria will digest fibers in colon to produce

Vitamin B12 and vitamin K.

4. Nitrogen cycle refer diagram

Nitrogen Cycle

Nitrogen at

atmosphere

Denitrification

Decomposer NH3

NH4+

Nitrogen

fixation bacteria

Fixation

Animal

protein

Plant

protein

Assimilation

by plant root

Nitrates

(NO3-)

Nitrobacter sp.

Nitrites

(NO2-)

Decomposition

Nitrosomonas sp.

Nitrification

Nitrification

Die

Live in root nodule – Rhizobium sp.

Live freely in the soil – Nostoc sp.


184

Nitrogen fixation

Nitrogen fixing bacteria fix atmospheric nitrogen and convert into ammonium compound

such as ammonia(NH3) and ammonium(NH4+) in the soil

Examples of nitrogen fixing bacteria are Rhizobium sp.(live in root nodule of legume) and

Nostoc sp.(live freely in the soil)

• Ammonium compound will be converted into nitrites(NO2-) by Nitrosomonas sp. bacteria

• Nitrites(NO2-) will be converted into nitrates(NO3-) by Nitrobacter sp. bacteria

• Nitrates(NO3-) are taken by plant root and used to synthesis plant protein

• Animal eat the plant, the organic nitrogen is transferred into the body of animal and become

animal protein

• When the animal and plant die, decomposer (decomposer bacteria and fungi) will decompose

the plant protein and animal protein into ammonium compound

• The nitrifying bacteria will convert nitrates(NO3-) back into atmospheric nitrogen

Atmospheric Fixation

High energy of lightning will break nitrogen molecule

These molecule will combine with oxygen molecule to form oxides of nitrogen

These oxide of nitrogen will dissolve in rain water to form nitric acid and nitrous acid

Nitric acid will react with mineral in the soil to form nitrites and nitrates

N2 + O2 2NO

2NO + O2 2NO2

2NO + H2O HNO2 + HNO3


185

Industrial Fixation

Haber process will convert nitrogen into inorganic fertilizers

Nitrogen will react with hydrogen to produce ammonia

Farmer using the fertilizer and it absorbed by plant root

HARMFUL MICROORGANISMS

Transmission of the disease

Method of Transmission Explanation

1. Contaminated food and

drink

Bacteria enter alimentary canal by eating unclean food

and contaminated water

Bacteria from faeces of infected people can reach food

through unwashed hand

Examples of diseases are cholera and typhoid

2. Droplet transmission

When infected people sneeze, speak and cough the

droplet containing virus from mouth and nose release

and float in the air

These droplet may breathed in by other people and

cause the person infected and fall ill

Examples of diseases are colds and tuberculosis

3. Vectors

Organism that are carries of a disease

Mosquito Anopheles which carry Plasmodium sp. will

cause malaria if bite a healthy person

Houseflies that carry Vibrio sp. bacterium will cause

cholera disease

N2 + 3H2 2NH3 Nickel catalyst

500 0C


186

4. Contagious Disease

Spread by direct contact with infected person or by

sharing personal items

o Examples of disease are skin disease tinea or

ringworm

Spread by sexual intercourse

o Person who have sexual intercourse with many

partner will have higher risk

o Examples or disease are AIDS and syphilis

Methods of Controlling Pathogens

Method Explanation

1. Antibiotic

Chemical produce by microorganism

Kill bacteria by interfering with their metabolism

Examples are penicillin produce by Penicilium notatum,

streptomycin produce from Streptomyces griseus

2. Vaccine

Produced by modified or weakened bacteria or virus

Injected into our body to stimulate the production of

antibody

Examples are BCG and Sabine vaccine

3. Antiseptic

Produced clinically in laboratory

Used on cut and wound to kill or inhibit the growth of

microorganism

Examples are Iodine solution and Alcohol

4. Disinfectants

Solution that very acidic

Used to kill microorganism on the floor or sterilize

surgical equipment

Examples are formaldehyde, phenol and carbolic acid


187

Uses of Microorganisms in Biotechnology

Function Explanation

1. Production of antibiotics

and vaccines

Antibiotic

Extracted from the microorganism

Kill bacteria by interfering with their metabolism

Vaccine

Weaken or dead pathogen in injected into the body to

stimulate immune system to produce antibody

Examples are BCG and Sabine vaccine

2. Cleaning of oil spills

Bacteria enhance the oil emulsification by breakdown

alkenes bond

Thus improve cleanup of the oil spills

3. Waste treatment

Decomposer bacteria will decompose organic matters

in the sewage

Reduce the nutrient content in the sewage before

released into river/ environment

Thus prevent eutrophication

4. Food processing

fermentation of glucose by yeast will produce ethanol

Ethanol is widely used in food, alcoholic beverages

and industry

5. Production of bioplastic

Cultivated bacteria will produce polyhydroxyalkanoate

(PHA)

PHA is used for production of bioplastic

Bioplastic easily biodegraded by microorganism

6. Production of energy from Biomass.

Decomposer bacteria decompose organic matters

(cowpat) and produce methane gas

This gas can be used as source of energy


188

CHAPTER 9

ENDANGERED

ECOSYSTEM

Telah tampak kerosakan di darat dan

di laut disebabkan kerana perbuatan

tangan manusia; Allah menghendaki

agar mereka merasakan sebahagian

dari (akibat) perbuatan mereka, agar

mereka kembali (kejalan yang benar).”

(Q.S. Ar Rum (30) : 41)


189

CHAPTER 9 - ENDANGERED ECOSYSTEM

Human Activities that Endanger an Ecosystem and Their Impact

o There is 4 major human activities that endanger ecosystem which are;

• Deforestation

• Intensive farming and excess fertilizer

• Burning of fossil fuels

• Dumping domestic and industrial waste

DEFORESTATION

Permanent removal of trees from the forest

• Forests are cleared for agriculture and development

The Good Effects of Deforestation/Development

Good Effect Explanation

1. Provide job opportunities to the citizen o Generate income to the country

2. Build residential area o Provide a better place for shelter

3. Build infrastructures o School for better education for citizen

o Hospital for better health

4. Build highway/road o Reduce time for travelling

5. Build shop/ shopping complex o Provide citizen with better life style

6. Build sewages system o Provide better sanitary to the citizen


190

The Bad effects of deforestation/Development

Bad Effect Explanation

1. Soil erosion

• Without leaf from tree, rain will hit directly the ground and

make the soil become loose

• Without root, the current of water become faster and wash

away the upper layer of soil

• This will cause soil become infertile

2. Flash flood

• The erode soil carried away by moving water and deposited

at the bottom of river

• Contribute sedimentation of the river and cause river

become shallow

• Water will overflow from the river during heavy rain

• Cause destruction to vehicles and properties

3. Landslide

• The absence of plant root system make the soil structure

unstable

• During heavy rain the top layer of soil disintegrate easily

• Can cause the loss of life and destruction of properties

4. Loss of biodiversity • Many species of flora and fauna loss their habitat and can

cause extinction

5. Increasing level of

carbon dioxide

• No more plant to absorb CO2 from atmosphere for

photosynthesis

• Can cause greenhouse effect

6. Climatic change • No more plant to do transpiration

• Cause increasing of the temperature

7. Destruction of water

catchment area • Reduce the water supply for the consumer

8. Loss of valuable

resources • Loss of plant that have medicine properties to treat cancer

Note: In Assay question soil erosion, land slide and flash flood are considered ONE point NOT

three point


191

Intensive farming and excess fertilizer

• Using of inorganic fertilizer such as phosphate(PO4+), Nitrate(NO3

-) and

sulphate(SO4-)

• The excess fertilizer leaching into the river and cause the nutrient in river increase

• This phenomenon is called eutrophication

Burning of fossil fuels

o Cause increasing the level of carbon dioxide at the atmosphere which lead to greenhouse

effect and global warming

o Also cause air pollution

Dumping domestic and industrial waste

Endangered other organism because toxic substances and other pollutant from dumping

absorbed into the ground

This will polluting water source

POLLUTION

Undesirable change in the chemical, physical or biological characteristic in nature

Cause by human activities

Four type of pollution

1. Air pollution

2. Water pollution

3. Thermal pollution

4. Noise pollution


192

Air Pollution

Major human activities that contribute to air pollution are:

1. Burning of fossil fuel

2. Open burning

3. Industrial plant and Factories

Effects of Air Pollutant on Living Things and Environment

Source of

pollution Pollutant Effects

1. Factories

Sulphur dioxide Combine with rain water to form acid rain

Nitrogen oxide Combine with rain water to form acid rain

Dirt, Soot Cause asthma/ Respiratory disease

2. Motorised

vehicles

Carbon

monoxide

Combine with haemoglobin to form

carboxyhaemoglobin

Reduce oxygen supply for cellular

respiration

Lead/

Plumbum Cause retardation of brain in children

Smoke, soot Cause haze that reduce the distant of sight

Increasing risk of accident

3. Open burning

Carbon dioxide Increase level of carbon dioxide can cause

greenhouse effect

Smoke Cause haze that reduce the distant of sight

Increasing risk of accident


193

The Formation of Acid Rain

Effects of Acid Rain to Environments

Cause Effect

1. Affect human health Can cause skin and eyes irritation

2. Water become acidic Aquatic organism die such as fish and plankton

Disturb food chain

3. Soil become acidic Plant will die

4. Destroy photosynthetic

structure/ leaf Reduce crop yield

5. Corrode building/ monument Increase a cost for restoration

6. Leaching of mineral in soil Soil become infertile

NO SO2

NO SO2

Factories and vehicles release

oxide of nitrogen and sulphur

dioxide into the atmosphere

Sulphur dioxide and oxide of nitrogen

combine with water vapour to form sulphuric

acid and nitric acid

During rain, these acids will dissolve in

rain droplets and fall back as acid rain

3

1

2

NO + H20 H2N03

SO2 + H20 H2SO4


194

Water Pollution

Source of Water Pollution and the Effect to Environment

Source Effects

1. Inorganic fertiliser

Leaching of inorganic fertiliser from soil into pond will

cause eutrophication

Example of inorganic fertiliser are Sulphate(SO4-),

Phosphate(PO4-) and Nitrate(NO3

-)

2. Pesticide/ herbicide

from farm Kill aquatic organism

3. Sewage effluent

Contain pathogen that can cause disease such as cholera

Increase nutrient content in the water which lead to

eutrophication

4. Heavy metal from

factory discharge

Heavy metal can be transferred from one trophic level to

another

When human eat contaminated fish it can cause cancer

5. Oil/ Grease spill

Reduce penetration of light and diffusion of oxygen from

atmosphere

Aquatic organism die because lack of light(can’t do

photosynthesis) and oxygen

6. Rubbish Sea animal die such as sea turtle because eating of plastic

bag which look like a jelly fish in the water

7. Radioactive waste Can cause cancer and leukaemia

8. Lead from leakage

lead pipe Can cause mental retardation in children


195

Eutrophication

Refer to increasing the nutrient contain in the water

Biochemical Oxygen Demand(BOD) refer to amount of oxygen needed by

microorganism to decompose organic matter in the water

Thus high level of water pollution will increase organic matter in the water

Which lead to high BOD and depletion of oxygen in the water

Causing death of aquatic organism

NOTE: High level of water pollution, High BOD

Inorganic fertilizer

(Sulphate(SO4-),

Phosphate(PO4-)

and Nitrate(NO3-)

Submerged plant die

(Can’t do photosynthesis) and

cause increasing decaying matter

in the water

Stimulate rapid growth of

algae (algal bloom) and

cover the pond surface

Nourish pond water

with nutrient

Leaching into

pond


decomposer bacteria and

cause increase BOD level

Aquatic organism die

because depletion level

of dissolve oxygen

1

2

3

4

5

6


196

Thermal pollution

Source Cause Effect

1. Untreated hot water from

cooling tower of electrical

power station and

factories

Reduce level of

dissolve oxygen Aquatic organism die

Increasing water

temperature

Aquatic organism die


algae which lead to

eutrophication

2. Glass building Reflection of heat Increase surrounding

temperature

THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT

The greenhouse effect

Human activities such

as open burning,

combustion of fossil

fuel will release

greenhouse gaseous

into atmosphere

Examples of greenhouse

gaseous are carbon dioxide,

methane and nitrous oxide

The sun light will warm the

earth surface and heat will

reflected back to

atmosphere

Causing increasing the

earth temperature and

this phenomenon is

known as global

warming

At atmosphere the heat will

trapped by greenhouse gaseous

and reflected back to earth

surface

5

1

2

3

4


197

The Effects of Global Warming

Cause Effect

1. Melting ice at the poles

Destruction of habitat poles animal such as polar bear

and penguin

Cause extinction of species

2. Increasing level of sea

water Occurrence of flood at low level area

3. Occurrence of drought The soil become dry and infertile

Decrease crop yield

4. Change in wind

direction and rain fall

distribution

Affect agriculture activities

5. Spread of disease Pest will migrate to new habitat when their habitat no

longer favourable

6. Human metabolic

process

Increasing of temperature will disturb rate of enzyme

reaction

Method to Overcome Greenhouse Effect

Method Explanation

1. Using public transport/ car

pooling Reduce the emission of carbon dioxide

2. Reduce open burning Reduce the emission of carbon dioxide

3. Education/ Campaign To instil awareness the importance to preserve

ecosystem

4. International treaty Limit greenhouse gaseous emission in the country

5. Use renewable energy Reduce the emission of carbon dioxide

6. Install catalytic converter Convert harmful gases into harmless substances

7. Replanting more tree Reduce level of carbon dioxide at atmosphere

Note: You can include any suitable method as long it relevant with the topic


198

Thinning Of the Ozone Layer

The destruction of ozone layer is cause by chlorofluorocarbon(CFC) gas at the atmosphere

CFC are group of chemical compound that contain of chlorine, fluorine and carbon

The main sources of CFC are

Source of CFCs Function of CFCs

1. Air conditioner and refrigerator Used as coolant agent

2. Aerosol can Used as propellant agent

3. Used in making of Styrofoam

container

Used as foaming agent


199

The Occurrences of Thinning Of the Ozone Layer

1. Ultraviolet radiation strike a CFC molecule at

atmosphere

2. Causes the chlorine molecule to break

away from the CFC

3. The free chlorine molecule collide with ozone

molecule

4. And combine with oxygen atom to form

chlorine monoxide and oxygen gases

5. When free atom of oxygen collide with the

chlorine monoxide

6. The two oxygen atoms form a molecule

of oxygen. the chlorine atom is released

and free to destroy more ozone


200

Effects of Thinning Of the Ozone Layer

Cause Effect

1. Damage chlorophyll Reducing rate of photosynthesis

2. Carcinogenic compound Can cause skin cancer(melanoma) and cataract

3. Weaken immune system Easily infected by diseases

4. Damage phytoplankton Disturb food chain

5. Increase the surrounding

temperature Damage the eggs of amphibian

Method to Overcome Thinning Of the Ozone Layer

Method Explanation

1. Replace the usages CFC with HCFC HCFC are more stable and not release

chlorine molecule

2. Replace the Styrofoam container

with plastic container Reduce emission of CFC to atmosphere

3. Fire ozone missile to

atmosphere To patch ozone hole at atmosphere

4. Reduce the usage of air

conditioner Reduce the emission of CFC gaseous


201

THE IMPORTANCE OF PROPER MANAGEMENT OF DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES AND

THE ECOSYSTEM

Measures Taken In the Management of Development Activities and the Ecosystem

Sustainable development is a method to reduce the damage done the human to the

ecosystem

These methods are to fulfill our demands for natural resources but at the same time it

also balance with the need to sustain the resources themselves.

Sustainable development can be achieved by using technological and non-technological

approach

Technology Approach

Method Explanation

1. Using unleaded petrol Reduce the emission of lead/ plumbum into the

atmosphere

2. Use of catalytic converter Convert hazardous gases into harmless

substances

3. Use of renewal energy Reduce emission of carbon dioxide into

atmosphere

4. Treatment of sewage

Prevent domestic waste and industrial waste from

polluted the sea

5. Production of biomass fuel Reduce emission of carbon dioxide into

atmosphere

Non-Technological Approach

Method Explanation

1. Implementation of law Fine the offender

2. Education/ campaign To instill awareness of importance of nature to public

3. Practice of biological control Reduce the usage of herbicide and pesticide

4. Efficiency use of energy Reduce emission of carbon dioxide into atmosphere

5. Preservation and

conservation

to ensure the balanced of ecosystem

Documents

Modul Teacher Copy Form 4