MODULE : INTRO TO PERSPECTIVE LEARNING

CRITICAL THINKING AND COMMUNICATION THE USE OF REASON IN ARGUMENT CHAPTERS ONE AND TWO

CHAPTER 1

ARGUMENT AND CRITICAL

THINKING THOUGHT

Critical thinking is based on subject knowledge.

The types of knowledge can affect your thinking patterns

You will jump to conclusions or insist that you know best

Independent Study ( homework) requires critical thinking

Critical thinking employs not only logic but broad intellectual criteria such as clarity, credibility, accuracy, precision, relevance, depth, breadth, significance, and fairness.

There are 2 types of subject knowledge :

1. Uncontested Knowledge • What you learned in school, facts, laws principles, which can be

checked and proven are taken as true unless proven otherwise

2. Contested Knowledge• Open to question – theories, ideas, perspectives can be

challenged ,disputed• Contested knowledge needs to be examined critically• The aim is not to give the answer- the aim is to show , after

consideration of all sides of the issue, what the writer believes to be the convincing answer

You have to face a potential obstacle : YOURSELF

Critical thinking calls for the ability to:

• Recognize problems, to find workable means for meeting those problems • Understand the importance of prioritization and order of precedence in problem solving • Gather and marshal pertinent (relevant) information • Recognize unstated assumptions and values • Comprehend and use language with accuracy, clarity, and discernment • Interpret data, to appraise evidence and evaluate arguments

Critical thinking calls for the ability to..contd•Recognize the existence (or non-existence) of logical relationships between propositions• Draw warranted conclusions and generalizations • Put to test the conclusions and generalizations at which one arrives • Reconstruct one's patterns of beliefs on the basis of wider experience • Render accurate judgments about specific things and qualities in everyday life

CRITICAL THOUGHT

Process of CriticalThought

Step 1: Access

Step 2: Explore

Step 4: Integrate Step 3 ; Evaluate

These critical thinking skills include separating relevant from irrelevant

information, distinguishing between verifiable facts and

value claims, determining the credibility of a source, recognizing inconsistencies in a line of

reasoning, and determining the strength of an argument or a

claim.

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Critical Thinking Checklist

Rulesfor Critical Thinkers

1. Because you are not God, it is inevitable some of the beliefs and viewpoints you firmly hold are completely wrong.

2. You must understand the viewpoints of those who disagree with you before you are fully able to understand your own viewpoints.

3. Until you can summarize another viewpoint so well those who hold it agree with your summary, you do not understand that viewpoint.

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Rulesfor Critical Thinkers

4. You should always assume those who disagree with your viewpoint are as intelligent and as noble-minded as you are.

5. You must be willing to seriously consider alternative viewpoints and to change your mind in order to be a critical thinker.

6. A retreat into relativism is a retreat away from critical thinking. Not all viewpoints are equally valid.

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1. All reasoning has a purpose.

2. All reasoning is an attempt to figure something

out, to settle some question, to solve some

problem.

3. All reasoning is based on assumptions.

4. All reasoning is done from some point of view.

5. All reasoning is based on data, information, and

evidence.

The Elements of Critical Thinking

The Elements of Critical Thinking . ..contd…

6. All reasoning is expressed through, and shaped by,

concepts and ideas.

7. All reasoning contains inferences by which we draw

conclusions and give meaning to data.

8. All reasoning leads somewhere, has implications and

consequences.

ARGUMENTATION AND ARGUMENT

Argumentation: What is it?

It is a reasoned, logical way of asserting the soundness of a position, belief, or conclusion.

It takes a stand—supported by evidence—and urges people to share the writer’s perspective and insights.

Overview of an Argument

• Awareness of Point of View• Awareness of Purpose and Audience• Statement of Central Question or Issue• Understanding Key Concepts

Internal Elements of an Argument

• Deduction: Awareness of Inferences and Assumptions• Induction: Analysis of Information and Evidence

Elements of an Argument

• Definition• Assumptions• Premises and Syllogisms• Deduction• Sound Arguments (validity)• Induction• Evidence• Examples• Testimony• Statistics

Definition

• Helps answer the question “What is it?”

• Provides clarity for a topic

• Three methods of defining:

• Synonyms

• Examples

• Stipulations

Assumptions

• Arguments are defended through reasons, examples, data, information, etc.• Arguments are also founded on assumptions (the beliefs of the writer and/or reader)• Assumptions can be expressed or can be unexamined and unstated

Premises, Syllogisms, and Deduction

• Premises: stated assumptions used in an Argument• Syllogism: joining of two premises to produce a conclusion• Deduction: mental process of moving from one statement through another to a conclusion

Sound Arguments

• Depend upon two criteria:• All premises must be true• The syllogism must be valid• Truth: depends on whether or not the assertion corresponds to reality• Validity: depends on whether or not the conclusion follows from the premises• Invalid Syllogism: the premises may be true but may not lead to the conclusion

When people think of an argument, they usually think of a fight between two people (‘they’re having an argument’).

Actually, an argument is a piece of reasoning for the truth of a certain claim.

Thus, one person can give an argument for or against something.

Premises and Conclusion

An argument has any number of supporting claims, and 1 supported claim.The supporting claims are the premises of the argument.The supported claim is the conclusion.Example: ‘We shouldn’t get pepperoni on the pizza, because pepperoni makes me sick.’

1 premise: ‘Pepperoni makes me sick’Conclusion: ‘We shouldn’t get pepperoni on the pizza’

Attacking Arguments

A good argument needs to satisfy 2 criteria:

1. The conclusion should follow from the premises; the truth of the premises should make the conclusion (likely to be) true

2. The premises should be acceptable; the premises should (likely to be) true

An argument is valid if it satisfies the first criterion. Otherwise, it is invalid.

An argument is sound if it satisfies both criteria. Otherwise, it is unsound.

You attack arguments by showing that it does not satisfy one (or both) of the criteria of a good argument. Either you show that the premises are unacceptable, or you show that it is unreasonable to draw the conclusion as stated, even if the premises would be true.

You do not attack an argument by showing that its conclusion is false!

FallaciesBad arguments are called fallacies. There are many fallacies of which many people think that they are good arguments.

Fallacies usually follow certain patterns, so there are several categories of common fallacies.

Appeal to Authority

Inappropriate Authority:According to my dad …Einstein said … [something about evolution]

Unidentified Authority:Studies show …Experts agree …Scientifically proven!

Appeal to the Masses:Everybody knows …

Appeal to Emotions (Fear, Pity, Vanity, etc)Fear:

If you don’t believe in God, God sure won’t be happy about that!

Pity:I deserve an A in the class because my mom was really sick and so I couldn’t concentrate

Vanity:Intelligent people like yourself deserve a big car

Appeal to Ignorance

An appeal to ignorance is made when one argues that something is the case since no one has shown that it is not the case:

Smoking is ok, since no one has proven that it is bad for your health.

Our factory output shouldn’t be restricted for environmental reasons, since no one has shown that the green house effect really exists.

Perfectionist Fallacy

The perfectionist fallacy presents us with a kind of ‘all or nothing’ false dilemma:

We shouldn’t give aid to countries where people are starving, because we can’t eradicate hunger completely.

Since no one has proven with absolute certainty that God exists, it is just as rational to believe that God does not exist as it is to believe that God does exist.

Slippery SlopeA slippery slope fallacy makes a dubious assumption that one thing will lead to another

If the “experts” decide today that we should have fluorides in our tea, coffee, frozen orange juice, lemonade, and every cell of our bodies, what’s next?

Tranquilizers to avoid civil disorders?

What about birth-control chemicals to be routed to the water in certain ethnic neighborhoods?

Begging the QuestionCircular reasoning:

- God exists because the bible says so. …- What, why we can trust what the Bible says?

- Easy, the Bible is the word of God.

- Of course my salary is higher than yours, because my work is more important. …

- You’re asking me why it is more important? Well, my salary is higher, isn’t it?

The “True Scotsman” Fallacy:

- All Germans like beer. … Oh, your brother-in-law is German and he doesn’t like beer?

- Well, he is not a true German then, is he?

TOULMIN MODEL QUALIFIER strongly DATA CLAIM

Twelve hours ago Recommended Patient fell from treatment is to motorcycle; had flush and close blow to head and wound, administer scalp wound; was penicillin, provide pale ,dizzy, lethargic bed rest and feverish

WARRANT RESERVATION In the absence of Penicillin is most Preventive measures, effective, unless the injuries of this kind patient is allergic. lead to infection

BACKING Previous clinical Experience has Shown this

AN ARGUMENT CHAIN

Claim

Level of Dispute Reasoning

Accepted Claim

Reasoning

Evidence

TIPS TO FOLLOWDo’s

• Assume your thinking is inaccurate and illogical• Know your weaknesses and work on them ( sitting on the fence or jumping to conclusions.• Even if you only agree 51%, it shows that you’ve weighed the evidence and used it to come to a conclusion.

Don’t’s

• Assume that “criticise” is negative• It’s about pointing out strengths as much as weaknesses• Waste time questioning uncontested knowledge ( is over 70% of the Earth’s surface really covered by oceans ?) • Get upset or annoyed if an opinion is different from yours.• Work on distancing yourself from these emotions.

EXERCISE FOR STUDENTS

Look at the statement below and decide whether you agree or disagree.

“ Using Facebook extensively can diminish a person’s intellectual ability”

Possible Responses :

1. Why argue with something as ridiculous as this?2. It’s definitely true / definitely false3. It’s true ! A friend of mine spent all day on facebook and ended up

dropping out of college.4. Who Cares?5. I don’t know6. I’d say it’s 50% true and 50% false.7. I agree/disagree for a number of reasons but I’d need more

information before I give a definite answer.

Note : Choose one of the responses above. We will discuss this in class .