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MOTIVATION AND STUDENTS LEARNING

Definition

The following definitions of motivation were gleaned from a variety of psychologytextbooks and reflect the general consensus that motivation is an internal state orcondition (sometimes described as a need, desire, or want) that serves to activate orenergize behavior and give it direction (see Kleinginna and Kleinginna, 1 !1a)"

• internal state or condition that activates behavior and gives it direction#

• desire or want that energizes and directs goal$oriented behavior#

• influence of needs and desires on the intensity and direction of behavior"

%ranken (&'' ) provides an additional component in his definition

• the arousal, direction, and persistence of behavior"

*hile still not widespread in terms of introductory psychology textbooks, manyresearchers are now beginning to acknowledge that the factors that energize behaviorare likely different from the factors that provide for its persistence"

Importance of motivation

+ost motivation theorists assume that motivation is involved in the performance of alllearned responses# that is, a learned behavior will not occur unless it is energized" Thema or -uestion among psychologists, in general, is whether motivation is a primary or secondary influence on behavior" That is, are changes in behavior better explained by

principles of environmental.ecological influences, perception, memory, cognitivedevelopment, emotion, explanatory style, or personality or are concepts uni-ue tomotivation more pertinent"

%or example, it is known that people respond to increasingly complex or novel events(or stimuli) in the environment up to a point and then the rate of respondingdecreases" This inverted$/$shaped curve of behavior is well$known and widelyacknowledged (e"g", 0erkes 2odson , 1 '!)" 3owever, the ma or issue is one ofexplaining this phenomenon" 4s this a conditioning (is the individual behaving

because of past classical or operant conditioning), another type of external motivationsuch as social or ecological, an internal motivational process (e"g", cognition, emotion,or self$regulation), or is there some better explanation5

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The relationship of motivation and emotion

6motion (an indefinite sub ective sensation experienced as a state of arousal) isdifferent from motivation in that there is not necessarily a goal orientation affiliatedwith it (3uitt, &''7a)" 6motions occur as a result of an interaction between perceptionof environmental stimuli, neural.hormonal responses to these perceptions (oftenlabeled feelings), and sub ective cognitive labeling of these feelings (Kleinginna andKleinginna, 1 !1b)" 6vidence suggests there is a small core of core emotions(perhaps or !) that are uni-uely associated with a specific facial expression (4zard,1 ')" This implies that there are a small number of uni-ue biological responses thatare genetically hard$wired to specific facial expressions" 8 further implication is thatthe process works in reverse if you are motivated to change how you feel and yourfeeling is associated with a specific facial expression, you can change that feeling by

purposively changing your facial expression" 8s most people would rather feel happythan otherwise, the most appropriate facial expression would be a smile "

E planations of infl!ences"ca!ses of aro!sal and direction ma# $e different frome planations of persistence

4n general, explanations regarding the source(s) of motivation can be categorized aseither extrinsic (outside the person) or intrinsic (internal to the person)" 4ntrinsicsources and corresponding theories can be further subcategorized as either

body.physical, mind.mental (i"e", cognitive.thinking, affective.emotional,conative.volitional) or transpersonal.spiritual"

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4n current literature, needs are now viewed as dispositions toward action (i"e", theycreate a condition that is predisposed towards taking action or making a change andmoving in a certain direction# %ranken, &'' )" 8ction or overt behavior may beinitiated by either positive or negative incentives or a combination of both" Thefollowing chart provides a brief overview of the different sources of motivation(internal state) that have been studied" *hile initiation of action can be traced to eachof these domains, it appears likely that initiation of behavior may be more related toemotions and.or the affective area (optimism vs" pessimism# self$ esteem# etc") while

persistence may be more related to conation (volition) or goal$orientation"

So!rces of Motivational Needs

behavioral.external

• elicited by stimulus associated.connected to innatelyconnected stimulus

• obtain desired, pleasant conse-uences (rewards) orescape.avoid undesired, unpleasant conse-uences

social

• imitate positive models

• ac-uire effective social competence skills

• be a part of a dyad, group, institution, or community

biological

• increase.decrease stimulation (arousal)

• activate senses (taste, touch, smell, etc"

• decrease hunger, thirst, discomfort, etc"

• maintain homeostasis, balance

cognitive • maintain attention to something interesting or threatening

• develop meaning or understanding

• increase.decrease cognitive dise-uilibrium# uncertainty

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• solve a problem or make a decision

• figure something out

• eliminate threat or risk

affective

• increase.decrease affective dissonance

• increase feeling good

• decrease feeling bad

• increase security of or decrease threats to self$esteem

• maintain levels of optimism and enthusiasm

conative

• meet individually developed.selected goal

• obtain personal dream

• develop or maintain self$efficacy

• take control of one9s life

• eliminate threats to meeting goal, obtaining dream

• reduce others9 control of one9s life

spiritual

• understand purpose of one9s life

• connect self to ultimate unknowns

Theories of motivation

+any of the theories of motivation address issues introduced previously in thesematerials" The following provides a brief overview to any terms or concepts that havenot been previously discussed"

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%ehavioral

6ach of the ma or theoretical approaches in behavioral learning theory posits a primary factor in motivation" :lassical conditioning states that biological responses toassociated stimuli energize and direct behavior (3uitt 3ummel, 1 ;a)" <perantlearning states the primary factor is conse-uences the application of reinforcers

provides incentives to increase behavior# the application of punishers providesdisincentives that result in a decrease in behavior (3uitt 3ummel, 1 ;b)"

&o'nitive

There are several motivational theories that trace their roots to the information processing approach to learning (3uitt, &''7b)" These approaches focus on thecategories and labels people use to help identify thoughts, emotions, dispositions, and

behaviors"

<ne cognitive approach is attribution theory (3eider, 1 =!# *einer, 1 ;>)" Thistheory proposes that every individual tries to explain success or failure of self andothers by offering certain ?attributions"? These attributions are either internal orexternal and are either under control or not under control" The following chart showsthe four attributions that result from a combination of internal or external locus ofcontrol and whether or not control is possible"

<ne cognitive approach is attribution theory (3eider, 1 =!# *einer, 1 ;>)" Thistheory proposes that every individual tries to explain success or failure of self andothers by offering certain ?attributions"? These attributions are either internal orexternal and are either under control or not under control" The following chart showsthe four attributions that result from a combination of internal or external locus ofcontrol and whether or not control is possible"

Internal E ternal

No &ontrol A$ilit# L!c(

&ontrol Effort Tas( Diffic!lt#

4n a teaching.learning environment, it is important to assist the learner to develop aself$attribution explanation of effort (internal, control)" 4f the person has anattribution of ability (internal, no control) as soon as the individual experiences somedifficulties in the learning process, he or she will decrease appropriate learning

behavior (e"g", 49m not good at this)" 4f the person has an external attribution, then the person will have a believe that nothing the person can do will help that individual in alearning situation (i"e", responsibility for demonstrating what has been learned is

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completely outside the person)" 4n this case, there is nothing to be done by theindividual when learning problems occur"

8 second cognitive approach is expectancy theory (@room, 1 >) which proposes thefollowing e-uation

Motivation ) *erceived *ro$a$ilit# of S!ccess +E pectanc#, -&onnection of S!ccess and Re.ard +Instr!mentalit#, -

Val!e of O$tainin' Goal +Valance/ Val!e,

Aince this formula states that the three factors of 6xpectancy, 4nstrumentality,and @alance or @alue are to be multiplied by each other, a low value in one willresult in a low value of motivation" Therefore, all three must be present inrelatively high levels in order for motivation to occur" That is, if an individualdoes not believe he or she can be successful at a task OR the individual doesnot see a connection between his or her activity and success OR the individualdoes not value the results of success, then the probability is lowered that theindividual will engage in the re-uired learning activity" %rom the perspectiveof this theory, all three variables must be high in order for motivation and theresulting behavior to be high"

The third cognitive approach is cognitive dissonance theory which is in somerespects similar to dise-uilibrium in Biaget9s theory of cognitive development(3uitt 3ummel, &''7)" This theory was developed by Ceon %estinger(1 =;), as social psychologist, and states that when there is a discrepancy

between two beliefs, two actions, or between a belief and an action, individualswill act to resolve conflict and discrepancies" The implication is that if anappropriate amount of dise-uilibrium is created, this will in turn lead to theindividual changing his or her behavior which in turn will lead to a change inthought patterns which in turn leads to more change in behavior"

S!mmar#

To summarize the cognitive approaches, notice the relationship between*illiam Dames9 (as cited in 3uitt, &'' ) formula for self$esteem (Self0esteem )S!ccess " *retensions ) and the attribution and expectancy theories ofmotivation" 4f a person has an external attribution of success, self$concept isnot likely to change as a result of success or failure because the person willattribute it to external factors" Cikewise, if the person has an 4nternal.8bilityexplanation, his or her self$concept will be tied to learning to do a new activity-uickly and easily (4 do well because 4 am naturally good at it)" 4f failure ordifficulty occurs, the person must -uickly lower expectations in order to

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maintain self$esteem" 3owever, if the person has a 4nternal.6ffort explanationand high expectations for success, the person will persevere (i"e", staymotivated) in spite of temporary setbacks because one9s self$esteem is not tiedto immediate success"

<n the other hand, cognitive dissonance theory suggests that individuals willseek balance or dynamic homeostasis in one9s life and will resist influences orexpectations to change" 3ow, then, does change or growth occur" <ne source,according to Biaget, is biological development" 8s human beings maturecognitively, thinking processes and organizations of knowledge (e"g", schemas,

paradigms, explanations) are reworked to more accurately reflect one9sunderstanding of the world" <ne of those organizations involves explanationsor attributions of success or failure" 8fter puberty, when biological changeslows down considerably, it is very difficult to change these attributions" 4tre-uires a long$term program where constant feedback is provided about howone9s behavior is responsible for one9s success"

*s#choanal#tic theories

The psychoanalytic theories of motivation proposed a variety of fundamentalinfluences" %reud (1 ') suggested that all action or behavior was a result ofinternal, biological instincts that are classified into two categories life (sexual)and death (aggression)" +any of %reud9s students broke with him over thisconcept" %or example, 6rikson (1 7) and Aullivan (1 !) proposed thatinterpersonal and social relationships are fundamental, 8dler (1 ! ) proposed

power, while Dung (1 =7, 1 ;) proposed temperament and search for soul or personal meaningfulness"

1!manistic Theories

<ne of the most influential writers in the area of motivation is 8braham+aslow (1 =>), who attempted to synthesize a large body of research related tohuman motivation" Brior to +aslow, researchers generally focused separatelyon such factors as biology, achievement, or power to explain what energizes,directs, and sustains human behavior" +aslow posited a hierarchy of humanneeds based on two groupings deficiency needs and growth needs" *ithin thedeficiency needs, each lower need must be met before moving to the nexthigher level" <nce each of these needs has been satisfied, if at some futuretime a deficiency is detected, the individual will act to remove the deficiency"The first four levels are

1) Bhysiological hunger, thirst, bodily comforts, etc"#

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&) Aafety.security out of danger#

7) Eelonginess and Cove affiliate with others, be accepted# and

>) 6steem to achieve, be competent, gain approval and recognition"

8ccording to +aslow, an individual is ready to act upon the growth needs ifand only if the deficiency needs are met" +aslow9s initial conceptualizationincluded only one growth need$$self$actualization" Aelf$actualized people arecharacterized by 1) being problem$focused# &) incorporating an ongoingfreshness of appreciation of life# 7) a concern about personal growth# and >) theability to have peak experiences" +aslow later differentiated the growth needof self$actualization, specifically naming two lower$level growth needs prior togeneral level of self$actualization (+aslow Cowery, 1 !) and one beyondthat level (+aslow, 1 ;1)" The growth needs in this revised formulation are

=) :ognitive to know, to understand, and explore#

) 8esthetic symmetry, order, and beauty#

;) Aelf$actualization to find self$fulfillment and realize one9s potential#and

!) Aelf$transcendence to connect to something beyond the ego or to helpothers find self$fulfillment and realize their potential"

+aslow9s basic position is that as one becomes more self$actualized and self$transcendent , one becomes more wise (develops the ability to efficiently andeffectively make decisions and solve problems based on personal experience)and becomes fluid in interacting with the environment in a wide variety ofsituations" +aslow9s ultimate conclusion that the highest levels of self$actualization are transcendent in nature is especially important as it comes fromsomeone who spent most of his professional life investigating the topic"

Forwood (1 ) proposed that +aslow9s hierarchy can be used to describe the

kinds of information that individual9s seek at different levels" %or example,individuals at the lowest level seek copin' information in order to meet their

basic needs" 4nformation that is not directly connected to helping a person meethis or her needs in a very short time span is simply left unattended" 4ndividualsat the safety level need helpin' information " They seek to be assisted inseeing how they can be safe and secure" Enli'htenin' information is sought

by individuals seeking to meet their belongingness needs" Guite often this can

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be found in books or other materials on relationshipdevelopment" Empo.erin' information is sought by people at the esteemlevel" They are looking for information on how their ego can be developed"%inally, people in the growth levels of cognitive, aesthetic, and self$actualization seek edif#in' information " *hile Forwood does not specificallyaddress the level of transcendence, 4 believe it safe to say that individuals atthis stage would seek information on how to connect to something beyondthemselves or to how others could be edified and empowered"

+aslow published his first conceptualization of his theory almost ' years ago(+aslow, 1 >7) and it has since become one of the most popular and oftencited theories of human motivation" 8n interesting phenomenon related to+aslow9s work is that it en oys such wide acceptance despite a lack of evidenceto support the hierarchy as he described it (*ahba Eridgewell, 1 ; # Aoper,+ilford Hosenthal, 1 =)"

The few ma or studies that have been completed on the hierarchy seem tosupport the proposals of *illiam Dames (1! &.1 &) and +athes (1 !1) thatthere are three levels of human needs" Dames hypothesized the levels ofmaterial (physiological, safety), social (belongingness, esteem), and spiritual " +athes proposed the three levels were physiological, belonginess, and self$actualization# he considered security and self$esteem as unwarranted" 8lderfer(1 ;&) developed a comparable hierarchy with his 6HI (existence, relatedness,and growth) theory" 3is approach modified +aslow9s theory based on the work of Iordon 8llport (1 ', 1 1) who incorporated concepts from systemstheory (Eoulding, 1 = ) into his work on personality "

Alderfer2s 1ierarch# of Motivational Needs

Level of Need Definition *roperties

Irowth

4mpel a person to makecreative or productive

effects on himself and hisenvironment

Aatisfied through usingcapabilities in engaging

problems# creates a greatersense of wholeness andfullness as a human being

Helatedness4nvolve relationships withsignificant others

Aatisfied by mutuallysharing thoughts andfeelings# acceptance,confirmation, under$standing, and influence are

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elements

6xistence4ncludes all of the variousforms of material and

psychological desires

*hen divided among people one person9s gain isanother9s loss if resourcesare limited

+aslow recognized that not all personalities followed his proposed hierarchy"*hile a variety of personality dimensions might be considered as related tomotivational needs, one of the most often cited is that of introversion andextroversion " Heorganizing +aslow9s hierarchy based on the work of 8lderferand considering the introversion.extraversion dimension of personality resultsin three levels, each with an introverted and extroverted component" Thisorganization suggests there may be two aspects of each level that differentiate

how people relate to each set of needs" 2ifferent personalities might relate moreto one dimension than the other" %or example, an introvert at the level of<ther.Helatedness might be more concerned with his or her own perceptions of

being included in a group, whereas an extrovert at that same level would paymore attention to how others value that membership"

A Reor'ani3ation of Maslo.2s and Alderfer2s 1ierarchies

Level Introversion E troversion

Irowth

Aelf$8ctualization(developmentof competencies Jknowledge, attitudes, and skillsand character )

Transcendence (assisting

in the development ofothers9 competencies andcharacter# relationshipsto the unknown,unknowable )

<ther(Helatedness)

Bersonal identification withgroup, significant others(Eelongingness)

@alue of person bygroup (6steem)

Aelf(6xistence)

Bhysiological, biological(including basic emotionalneeds)

:onnectedness, security

+aslow9s work lead to additional attempts to develop a grand theory of motivation, atheory that would put all of the factors influencing motivation into one model" 8nexample is provided by Ceonard, Eeauvais, and Acholl (1 )" These authors propose= factors as the sources of motivation 1) 4nstrumental +otivation (rewards and

punishers), &) 4ntrinsic Brocess +otivation (en oyment, fun), 7) Ioal 4nternalization(self$determined values and goals), >) 4nternal Aelf :oncept$based +otivation

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(matching behavior with internally$developed ideal self), =) 6xternal Aelf :oncept$ based +otivation (matching behavior with externally$developed ideal self)"4ndividuals are influenced by all five factors, though in varying degrees that canchange in specific situations"

%actors one and five are both externally$oriented" The main difference is thatindividuals who are instrumentally motivated are influenced more by immediateactions in the environment (e"g" operant conditioning) whereas individuals who areself$concept motivated are influenced more by their constructions of external demandsand ideals (e"g", social cognition)"

%actors two, three, and four are more internally$oriented" 4n the case of intrinsic process, the specific task is interesting and provides immediate internal reinforcement(e"g", cognitive or humanistic theory)" The individual with a goal$internalizationorientation is more task$oriented (e"g", humanistic or social cognition theory) whereasthe person with an internal self$concept orientation is more influenced by individualconstructions of the ideal self (humanistic or psychoanalytic theory)"

Social Learnin'

Aocial learning (or observational ) theory suggests that modeling (imitating others)and vicarious learning (watching others have conse-uences applied to their behavior)are important motivators of behavior (3uitt, &''>)"

Social &o'nition

Aocial cognition theory proposes reciprocal determination as a primary factor in bothlearning and motivation (3uitt, &'' )" 4n this view, the environment, an individual9s

behavior, and the individual9s characteristics (e"g", knowledge, emotions, cognitivedevelopment) both influence and are influenced by each other two components"Eandura (1 ! , 1 ;) highlights self$efficacy (the belief that a particular action is

possible and that the individual can accomplish it) and self$regulation (theestablishment of goals, the development of a plan to attain those goals, thecommitment to implement that plan, the actual implementation of the plan, andsubse-uent actions of reflection and modification or redirection" The work of 8mes(1 &) and 2weck (1 ! ) discussed below is a ma or component of social cognitiveviews on motivation"

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Transpersonal or Spirit!al Theories

+ost of the transpersonal or spiritual theories deal with the meaningfulness of a person9s life or ultimate meanings" 8braham +aslow (1 =>) has also been influentialin this approach to motivation" <ther influential scholars included Iordon 8llport(1 ==), @ictor %rankl (1 !), *illiam Dames (1 ;), :arl Dung (1 =7, 1 ;), Ken*ilber (1 !)"

Achievement Motivation

<ne classification of motivation differentiates among achievement, power, and socialfactors (see +c:lelland, 1 !=# +urray, 1 7!, 1 >7)" 4n the area of achievementmotivation, the work on goal$theory (Bintrich, &''') has differentiated three separate

types of goals master# 'oals (also called learning goals) which focus on gainingcompetence or mastering a new set of knowledge or skills# performance 'oals (alsocalled ego$involvement goals) which focus on achieving normative$based standards,doing better than others, or doing well without a lot of effort# and social 'oals whichfocus on relationships among people (see 8mes, 1 &# 2weck, 1 ! # /rdan +aehr,1 =)" 4n the context of school learning, which involves operating in a relativelystructured environment, students with mastery goals outperform students with either

performance or social goals" 3owever, in life success, it seems critical thatindividuals have all three types of goals in order to be very successful"

<ne aspect of this theory is that individuals are motivated to either avoid failure (moreoften associated with performance goals) or achieve success (more often associatedwith mastery goals)" 4n the former situation, the individual is more likely to selecteasy or difficult tasks, thereby either achieving success or having a good excuse forwhy failure occurred" 4n the latter situation, the individual is more likely to selectmoderately difficult tasks which will provide an interesting challenge, but still keepthe high expectations for success"

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Other Theories

8t this point there is little agreement about the identification of basic human needs,how they are ordered, and which theory of motivation might be most basic or correct"2rawing on the work of +aslow (1 =>) and those who have criti-ued his theory,Hyan and 2eci (&''') suggested three needs, although they are not necessarilyarranged hierarchically (1) autonomy, (&) competence, and (7)relatedness" Thompson, Irace and :ohen (&''1) stated the most important needs forchildren are (1) connection, (&) recognition, and (7) power" Fohria, Cawrence, and*ilson (&''1) provided evidence from a sociobiology theory of motivation thathumans have four basic needs (1) ac-uire ob ects and experiences# (&) bond withothers in long$term relationships of mutual care and commitment# (7) learn and makesense of the world and of ourselves# and (>) to defend ourselves, our loved ones,

beliefs and resources from harm" The 4nstitute for +anagement 6xcellence (&''1)suggested there are nine basic human needs (1) security, (&) adventure, (7) freedom,(>) exchange, (=) power, ( ) expansion, (;) acceptance, (!) community, and ( )expression"

Bink (&'' ) suggested there are three basic drives (1) autonomy, (&) mastery, and (7) purpose" The concept of autonomy suggests that human beings are not as easilymodifiable as behavioral theorists would suggest" The use of reinforcement for

physical or mechanical tasks works reasonably well (i"e", there is little or no cognitive processing involved") 3owever, for any tasks that re-uire even a low level ofcognitive skill, offering a larger reward sometimes results in e-ual or lower

performance" Hather, if people are allowed to be self$directed (i"e", use skills in theconative.volitional domain), they will be more highly engaged in task performance"The concept of mastery suggests that achievement motivation is an importantcomponent of human behavior" Beople will engage in activities for no other reasonthan it offers an opportunity to get better at doing something" This is especially true if it offers the opportunity to engage in Bink9s third component, a purposeful activity that

provides for the greater good"

Bink9s conceptualization fits well with :onley9s (&'';) ideas about leadership inorganizations" 3e proposed three levels of meeting human needs (1) survival, (&)success, and (7) transformation" 3e related this hierarchy to three different groups(1) employees, (&) customers, and (7) investors and suggested that meeting the needsof these different groups at where they are can lead to a more satisfied personal life"+ost importantly, he proposed that measurement of the intangibles related tomeaningfulness and purpose are ust as important, if not more important, thanmeasuring the tangibles associated more with survival"

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Aeligman (&'11) offers yet another viewpoint" 3is earlier work on the types ofhappiness (Aeligman, &''&) has been modified to focus more on a high level of well$

being, called flourishing, rather than happiness" 3is most recent theory includes fivecomponents that he labels as B6H+8

1" *ositive emotion this was the first element in Aeligman9s (&''&) theoryof happiness and is the focus of such researchers as %redrickson (&'' )"

&" En'a'ement this was the second element in Aeligman9s (&''&) theoryand relates to the use of personal strengths (Beterson Aeligman, &''>#)in the involvement with challenging tasks that creates an experience offlow (:sikszentmihihaly, 1 1)" (complete the @alues in 8ctionAignature Atrengths Guestionnaire )

7" *ositive Relationships this is a new element in Aeligman9s theory,reflecting the work of many researchers as to the importance of socialconnections ( 3uitt 2awson , &'11)"

>" Meanin' and *!rpose this is the third element of Aeligman9s theory,defined as serving something larger than self" 4t is similar to +aslow9s(1 ;1) concept of transcendence and Bink9s (&'' ) concept of purpose"

=" Accomplishment or Achievement this is also a new element inAeligman9s theory of well$being and related to Bink9s concept of mastery"

S!mmar#

Fotice that there does not seem to be a lot of overlap in the motivating factorsmentioned by all theorists" %ranken (&'' ) suggested this lack of accord may be aresult of different philosophies of researchers rather than differences among human

beings" 4n addition, he reviewed research that showed a person9s explanatory orattributional style will modify the list of basic needs" Therefore, it seems appropriateto ask people what they want and how their needs could be met, then observing theirreactions when those are provided, rather than relying completely on any specifictheory (i"e" use an action research approach to identifying what motivates specificindividuals or groups# %errance, &''')" %or example, *aitley (1 ) advised having a

person imagine what life would be like if time and money were not an ob ect in a person9s life" That is, what would the person do this week, this month, next month, ifhe or she had all the money and time needed to engage in the activities and was securethat both would be available again next year" *ith some follow$up -uestions toidentify what is keeping the person from engaging in those activities presently, thisopen$ended approach is likely to identify the most important needs and potential goals

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of the individual" 8s the individual develops and implements an action plan to worktowards those goals, data can be collected on the effort expended and whether thateffort was sustained" 8fter several cycles it will become much clearer what is actuallymotivating the individual"

There is much work still to be done in this area before those interested in motivatingthemselves and others can rely on a theory as more than a good starting hypothesis"3owever, this body of research can be very important to parents, educators,administrators and others concerned with developing and using human potential" 4t

provides an outline of some important issues that must be addressed if human beingsare to achieve the levels of character and competencies necessary to be successful inthe information age"

Impactin' Motivation in the &lassroom

Aternberg (1 >) and Atipek (1 !!) suggested there are a variety of reasonswhy individuals may lack in motivation and Atipek provided a list of specific

behaviors associated with high academic achievement" This is an excellentchecklist to help students develop the conative or self$regulation component oftheir lives" 4n addition, teacher efficacy is a powerful input variable related tostudent achievement as it impacts a teacher9s motivation to engage students inthe teaching.learning process (Broctor, as cited in 3uitt, &''')"

There are a variety of specific actions that teachers can take toincrease motivation on classroom tasks (3uitt, &''=)" 4n general, these fall intothe two categories discussed above intrinsic motivation and extrinsicmotivation"

Intrinsic E trinsic

o 6xplain or show whylearning a particular content or skillis important

o 8llow students someopportunities to select learninggoals and tasks

o :reate and.or maintain

o Brovide clear expectations

o Iive corrective feedback

o Brovide valuable rewards for simple learning tasks

o +ake rewards available

o 8llow opportunities for

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curiosity

o Brovide a variety ofactivities and sensory stimulations

o Brovide games andsimulations

o Aet goals for learning

o Helate learning to studentneeds

o 3elp student develop plan of action

students to observe more correctexemplars

o 8llow for opportunities to

engage in social learning activities

o Brovide for scaffolding ofcorrective feedback

8s a general rule, teachers need to use as much of the intrinsic suggestions as possible while recognizing that not all students will be appropriately motivated by them" The extrinsic suggestions will work, but it must be remembered thatthey do so only as long as the student is under the influence of the externalfactors" *hen outside of that influence, unless the desired goals and behaviorshave been internalized, the learner will cease the desired behavior and operateaccording to his or her internal standards or to other external factors"