MotivationOrganizational Behavior – Session 7-10

Dr. S. B. Alavi, 2009.

2 from 33

Table of Contents• Reinforcement Theory• Equity Theory• Maslow’s Theory• ERG Theory• Two-factor (Hygiene-Motivation) Theory• McClelland’s Theory of Needs• Cognitive Evaluation Theory• Expectancy Theory• Motivational Aspects of Social Cognitive

Theory

3 from 33

Definition• Motivation:

– The process that accounts for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort towards attaining a goal.

4 from 33

Reinforcement theory• Dominated the motivation literature until early

1960s.

• Conceptualizes motivation entirely in terms of observable behaviors.

• Assumes that behavior is caused by events external to the person.

5 from 33

Reinforcement theory (Con.)

• Behavior can be understood in terms of simple laws that apply to both human beings and animals.

6 from 33

Reinforcement theory (Con.)

• Individuals exhibit a particular behavior because

they have been reinforced (rewarded) for that behavior in the past.

• Behavior modification:The process of using reinforcement principles to change behavior.

7 from 33

Reinforcement theory (Con.)

• Skinner (1974) defined consequences that influence the probability of behaviors:

– Positive reinforcement increases the probability of behaviors that they were contingent upon.

– Negative reinforcement increases the probability of behaviors by taking away or reducing its intensity.

– Punishments reduce the probability of behaviors.

8 from 33

Reinforcement theory (Con.)

Punishment

Positive Reinforcement

+ May be effective

Punishment

Positive Reinforcement

-Only short term

suppression of the undesirable behaviors.

9 from 33

Reinforcement theory (Con.)

• Using punishment frequently, may create a fearful atmosphere, which undermines

learning and the effectiveness of communication.

• Some important points for using rewards effectively:– Use reward to get individuals engaged in an

activity, and then gradually withdraw the reward when they show some interest.

– Make sure that it is clear to individuals what behavior the reward is contingent.

– Reward genuine achievements, such as high levels of effort and persistence. Avoid rewarding performance that required little or no effort.

10 from 33

Reinforcement theory (Con.)

• Some important points for using rewards effectively: (Con.)– Use the most modest reward that will work.– Make sure that the time between the desired

behavior and the reward is not so great that reward has no effect.

– Make sure that rewards are realistically available.– Make sure that you treat employees fairly!

11 from 33

Equity theory

• By J. Stacy Adams• described the employment relationship as an

exchange relationship– Employees contributed inputs– Employees received outcomes in return.

• Inputs: – Education, Previous work experience, Effort on the

job, Training, and etc.

• Outcomes: – Pay, Recognition, Praise by supervisors,

Promotion, and etc.

12 from 33

Equity theory (Con.)

• Every employee compares himself/herself with other employees.

• When an inequity is perceived, there are 6 choices:

Changing InputsChanging Outcomes

Distorting perception of self or others

Changing inputs or outcomes of the referent

Choosing a different referent Leaving the field

1 2

345 6

13 from 33

Equity theory (Con.)• Procedural justice = the perceived fairness of the

process used to determine the distribution of rewards– has strong impact on

• Organizational commitment, • Trust in managers, intention to quit,• Organizational citizenship behaviors

• Distributive justice = Fairness of allocation– is more important for

• Job satisfaction.

Procedural Justice

Perceived Distributed Justice

Strongly Influences

14 from 33

15 from 33

Maslow’s Theory (Hierarchy of needs)

• Maslow hypothesized that within every individual there exists a hierarchy of five needs:– Physiological: bodily needs;– Safety: security, protection from physical and

emotional harm;– Social: affection, belongingness, acceptance,

friendship;– Esteem: self-respect, autonomy, recognition,

attention;– Self-actualization: the drive to become what one

is capable of becoming;

16 from 33

Maslow’s Theory (Con.)

• According to Maslow, when each of these needs becomes substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant.

17 from 33

Maslow’s Theory (Con.)

• This theory can give us an insight into motivation in terms of needs.

• It has been argued that Maslow’s theory has cultural limitations.

• There is no strong empirical evidence for the hierarchy of needs.

18 from 33

ERG Theory (Alderfer, 1970)

• Three dimensions of ERG theory

• ERG theory proposes that– More than one need may be operative at the

same time– Order of needs may differ in different cultures– If fulfillment of a higher level need is prevented,

the desire to satisfy a lower level need increases.

Existence Relatedness Growth

19 from 33

McClelland’s Theory of Needs

• Focuses on three needs:– Need for Achievement– Need for Power– Need for Affiliation

• The following relation is well-Supported in research:

Achievement Need

Job Performance

20 from 33

Two-factor (hygiene-motivation) Theory• Herzberg investigated the question

‘What do people want from their jobs?’

• Results suggested that – Intrinsic factors such as advancement, recognition,

responsibility, and achievements seemed to be related to job satisfaction.

– Dissatisfaction was attributed to extrinsic factors such as supervision, pay, company policies, and working condition.

– Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction are not two opposite sides of a continuum

21 from 33

Two-factor Theory (Con.)

Motivators: Recognition, Responsibility, Advancement

Hygiene Factors:Pay, Policies, Work Condition, Supervision

Satisfaction No Satisfaction

Dissatisfaction No Dissatisfaction

22 from 33

Cognitive Evaluation Theory

• Stating that– Allocating extrinsic rewards for behavior that had

been previously intrinsically rewarding tends to decrease overall level of motivation.

• The popular explanation:– Individuals experiences a loss of control over his

or her own behavior so that the previous intrinsic motivation diminishes.

23 from 33

24 from 33

Expectancy Theory• Expectancy theories

– use rational approaches– suggest that individuals choose behaviors based

on expectations of the outcomes of actions, seeking to achieve the most desirable

outcome

25 from 33

Vroom’s expectancy theory• Integrates three components:

Motivation force = Valance × Expectancy × Instrumentality

– Valance is the importance that the individual places upon the expected outcome of a situation and is related to an individual’s expected incentive, preferences, and values.

– Expectancy is the belief that output from the individual (EFFORT) and the success of the situation are linked, e.g. if I work harder then this will be better.

– Instrumentality is the belief that the success of the situation is linked to the expected outcome of the situation, e.g. it's gone really well, so I'd expect praise.

26 from 33

Vroom’s expectancy theory (Con.)

• Implications for Leaders:– Identify positively valent outcome;– Increase expectancies;– Make performance instrumental toward positive outcome.

Effort Performance Outcome

Expectancy Instrumentality

27 from 33

Group Task

• Use expectancy theory to explain motivational processes of:

– An employee’s motivation to become a manager;

– An employee’s motivation to participate in a training program.

28 from 33

Motivational Aspects of Social Cognitive Theory

• Self-Efficacy refers to “beliefs in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments” (Bandura, 1997, p. 3)

• necessary knowledge and skills is not sufficient to perform a task successfully, but also

high self-efficacy is needed.

29 from 33

Motivational Aspects of Social Cognitive Theory (Con.)

• Consequences of Self-Efficacy:

– The more people believe in their capabilities for given domains and tasks, the more likely they will put effort into and persist with their activities, especially when there are failures (Bandura, 1997).

– An individual’s self-efficacy also influences what he or she chooses to do.

– Leaders high in leadership efficacy experience low level of anxiety (Hoyt et al., 2003).

30 from 33

Motivational Aspects of Social Cognitive Theory (Con.)

High Self-Efficacy Set high level goals

High Achievement

More likely to

May have

31 from 33

Motivational Aspects of Social Cognitive Theory (Con.)

• Sources of Self-Efficacy:– Mastery experiences: Successful experiences are likely to

enhance self-efficacy, while failures may reduce self-efficacy. These are the most influential sources of self-efficacy.

– Vicarious experiences: refer to those by which people appraise their capabilities in relation to others’ attainments. The information acquired from these experiences is likely to be more influential for one’s self-efficacy when the others are similar to the individual.

– Verbal persuasion: persuasion that one possesses certain capabilities can affect self-efficacy. However, verbal persuasion may be ineffective when it is used alone and inconsistent with other sources, especially mastery experiences.

– Physical and affective states: Personal efficacy may also be appraised when people interpret their physiological or affective states. People may judge their fatigue, aches, pains, and tensions to be signs of physical or affective incapability.

32 from 33

Motivational Aspects of Social Cognitive Theory (Con.)

• Empowerment and Self-Efficacy– Dimensions of empowerment:

• Meaning• Self-determination• Self-efficacy• Impact

33 from 33

Motivational Aspects of Social Cognitive Theory (Con.)

• Collective Efficacy:– Collective efficacy is defined as a group’s shared

belief in its conjoint capabilities to organize and execute the course of action required to produce given levels of attainments” (Bandura, 1997, p. 477).

– Sources of collective efficacy can be similar to sources of self-efficacy.