Motives and Mechanisms

Motives and Mechanisms Theories include causal relations

and causal mechanisms. Mechanisms are an essential

component of theory.

Mechanisms Statements of causal relations tell

us that two factors are related Mechanisms tell us WHY

Describe the process through which X produces Y

Mechanisms are general For example:

Self-fulfilling prophecy (Merton) Network diffusion (Coleman) Threshold theory of collective action

(Granovetter) These theories explain different

phenomena, but rely on the same MECHANISM (Hedstrom & Swedberg 1998 Social Mechanisms: An Analytical Approach to Social Theory)

Mechanisms usually refer to lower-level processes

Causal mechanisms usually explain higher-level phenomena by referring to events at a lower level.

So, mechanisms explaining social behavior usually refer to individuals Social theories require understanding

why individuals act as they do

The challenge Typically, we cannot observe these

mechanisms While action is observable, motives

are not

What to do? Make simplifying assumptions These assumptions don’t describe the

full complexity of human beings, but are useful for developing social theories

Common assumptions Individuals will maximize

Wealth Power Prestige

Macro-level

cause

Individual internal states

Situational mechanisms

Transformational mechanisms

Types of Mechanisms

Behavioral mechanisms

Macro-level Outcome

Individual action

Situational mechanisms Explain how macro-level

phenomena affects individuals

Individualism

Lack of Purpose

Example. Durkheim: IntegrationLack of purpose

Individual Suicide

Suicide Rates

Transformational mechanisms

Explain how individual actions combine to produce group-level phenomena

Example. Individual Suicide Suicide RatesProtestantism

Individualism

Individual Suicide

Suicide Rates

Transformational Mechanisms

Aggregation Strategic Interaction (game theory)

Behavioral mechanisms How individual internal states affect individual behavior

In other words, how people act given their motives and situations

Protestantism

Individualism Individual Suicide

Suicide Rates

Example: Individualism Individual Suicide

Behavioral assumptions An important source of causal

mechanisms in sociology

Max Weber (1864-1920)

Max Weber (1864-1920) on ‘orientations to action’ I. Consequentialist

Instrumental action (zweckrationalitat)

People choose a course of action that they believe is the most effective to attain their most preferred end (or goal)

Works for any end Has to do with the ‘rationality’ of the

means, not the ‘rationality’ of the ends

‘orientations to action’ cont’d II. Non-consequentialist action

Value-rational (wertrational) Action motivated because of

Duty, right, or its own sake Sir Thomas More. “A Man for All Seasons”

Affective Action motivated by emotion (affect)

Crimes of passion

Reflex Habit

Nota Bene Non-consequentialist action occurs regardless of its consequences for the individual’s welfare

Typical asumptions Typical sociologist assumption:

People are value rational People have been socialized

Typical economist assumption People are instrumentally rational

A caveat Neither view is completely

accurate

Motives differ Fehr & Gintis report evidence

suggesting that people vary Some are instrumentally rational

(self-interested) Others are more value rational

(“strong-reciprocators”)

Are we hard-wired? While sociologists have

traditionally emphasized socialization as a source of values, work by evolutionary psychologists suggests that evolution is a factor

Evolution produces widely shared human values

Behavioral assumptions and social order Social order is high to the degree that

individuals obey rules and laws If people are instrumentalists with selfish

goals, they may undermine social order criminal behavior

If people are value-rational who always want to ‘do the right thing,’ they will tend to uphold the social order (at least in their own societies)

September 11

Analyzing Theory Identify

Cause Outcome Mechanisms

Applying Theory Ask: What are the empirical

implications?