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“Integration of Virtual Reality and 360 Degree Video into the Rail Industry”
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Table of Contents
LIST OF TABLES ..................................................................................................................... 4
LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................... 4
Chapter One ......................................................................................................................... 5
Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 5
1.1 Background ................................................................................................................. 5
1.2 Study Objectives ......................................................................................................... 9
1.3 Research Questions .................................................................................................... 9
1.4 Methodology ............................................................................................................. 10
Chapter Two ....................................................................................................................... 11
Concepts and Applications of Virtual Reality and 360 Degree Video ................................ 11
2.1 Conceptualizing Virtual Reality: History and Applications ....................................... 11
2.2 Categorizing VR Systems ........................................................................................... 15
2.3 Constituents of a Virtual Reality System .................................................................. 21
Chapter Three ................................................................................................................. 25
A Review of VR Risks and Hazards .................................................................................. 25
3.1 VR Use and Health-Related Issues ............................................................................ 25
3.2 VR Systems and Physical Side-Effects ....................................................................... 29
Chapter Four ....................................................................................................................... 33
Virtual Reality: Case of the Rail Industry ............................................................................ 33
4.1 VR Implementation and Opportunities in the Rail Industry: Case Studies ............... 33
4.1.1 Educational System for Railway Maintenance through Mixed Reality (Song &
Kim, N/A) ..................................................................................................................... 33
4.1.2 Virtual Reality Techniques for Training Rail Drivers and Track Manual
Interventions on a French Line (David & Lourdeaux, 2001) ........................................ 36
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4.1.3 Emerging State-of-the-art Virtual Reality Adoption in the Rail Industry (Case of
UK Rail Industry) (Pauley, 2015) .................................................................................. 41
Chapter Five ........................................................................................................................ 44
Discussion and Conclusions ................................................................................................ 44
Bibliography ........................................................................................................................ 48
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List of Tables
Table 1: Comparison of Various VR Systems ...................................................................... 16
Table 2: Potential Factors that relate with Simulator Sickness in a VR Environment ........ 27
Table 3: Effects Resulting from VR Exposure ...................................................................... 29
Table 4: VR-Specific Risks .................................................................................................... 30
List of Figures
Figure 1: An HMD System with Two Screens ...................................................................... 17
Figure 2: A Semi-Immersive Projection ............................................................................... 19
Figure 3: Components of VR System ................................................................................... 22
Figure 4: Interaction between the Hardware Devices ........................................................ 23
Figure 5: System for railway maintenance using Mixed Reality ........................................ 34
Figure 6: Hardware Architecture for Training .................................................................... 38
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Chapter One
Introduction
1.1 Background
Over the past decades, Virtual Reality (otherwise referred to as VR) has continued to gain
overwhelming attention and continued developments across different fields such as
training and education, health, games, military operations and other industrial
operations, etc. Beyond that, the technology has given rise to other emerging
applications like augmented reality in aeronautics (Chevalet & Bonnefoy, 2003), data
visualization and exploration for decision-making (Eddy & Lewis, 2002) and tele-
operation and tele-presence in robotics (Kantonen, Woodward & Katz, 2010). VR refers
to the tendency to manipulate interactively around a computer-generated environment.
Being a good communication medium for all interested parties to have access to an
enhanced understanding and common representation is the main driver for VR usage. As
put by Fuchs (2006), VR is a “scientific and technical domain exploiting the possibilities of
computers and behavioural interfaces to simulate in a virtual world the behaviour of 3D
entities, which interact in real time with each other and one or more users in pseudo-
natural immersion through sensorimotor channels”. VR, precisely, entails an immersive
reality experience that is computer-simulated and has the capacity of transporting
viewers into a closed virtual reality from their physical state. An experience with VR in
the entertainment field can be likened with people sitting in their living room, putting on
their goggles, and of a sudden, feeling immersed in the sights and sounds of a different
planet (like what obtains in Star Wars). While they remain physically present in the living
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room, VR technology makes it possible to manipulate one’s senses while interactively
feeling as though the planet is real.
Unlike the VR, the 360 degree sometimes referred to as the ‘spherical’ video has limited
interactivity, hence, one can majorly see through a spherical camera rig or the eyes of a
stationary. It is limited in the sense that, although the angle of view can be controlled,
one’s position in an immersive environment cannot be controlled. Albeit differently, both
the 360 degree video and VR have been widely deployed across diverse fields.
Besides their attempts to visualize and present all kinds of information and ideas, VR also
ensures that concrete images about something that is unknown or abstract, to varying
degrees, are presented. Like words in a textbook where readers can coin their own
perceived and cognitive interpretations to texts according to their background or
contexts, VR can help people process networks of information exchanges across
industries. This makes it critical and relevant in the rail industry where VR technology has
been positively appraised for its ability to improve safety, save money and time (Sadler,
2016).
Apparently, key among the most sought after development needs in the rail industry are
the need to reduce the amount of time needed on track, the need to upgrade signaling
(traffic lights for railway) for enhanced reliability and the potential effect on train services
among others. The traditional method where designers have to go all the way to plot
new locations for signals and map out ways through which drivers can view these signals
have been described as “time-consuming” as it requires frequent access to the railway
which is often very tedious. On most railway track projects, several tasks run
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concurrently. Telecom teams and signaling teams need to install safety systems and train
controls; track engineers are expected to install new tracks; in the same vein, civil
engineers and other maintenance experts are focused on buildings and the train
platform. Shutting down the station under this condition for upgrades and to allow
stakeholders function effectively can cause disruptions for passengers; and for the
railway operators, it could be very expensive.
As an answer to these challenges, this study proposes the integration of VR through the
instrumentality of a 360 degree video by attempting to see the extent to which the rail
industry has mitigated the aforementioned difficulties. In this context, this study seeks to
know how different actors and stakeholders (track engineers, civil engineers, drivers, and
other specialists) in the industry can make decisions based on their spatial perception of
VR information on a rail system.
There is no doubt that VR offers opportunities to develop both cognitive and perceptuo-
motor skills such as hazard perception, decision-making and problem-solving without
necessarily exposing operators to hazards and risks. Besides the scope of the study – rail
industry – this strategy has been deployed in other hazardous industries such as defence,
health and aviation.
In Blickensderfer et al (2005) for instance, a history of simulation as used in pilot training
was reviewed. Flight simulators have equally been demonstrated by other authors (e.g.
Carretta & Dunlap, 1998; Hays et al, 1992). VR simulators have been demonstrated in
these studies and their applications cut across aviation skill acquisition and training. How
effective such trainings will be depends on nature of training, the time required to get
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trained and the amount. Simulators have been found to be effective for such flying tasks,
landing and take-off training. It has also been found to be effective in training sessions
for aircraft maintenance personnel (Vora et al, 2002). In a virtual environment, the
acquisition of naval fire-fighting skills has also proven (Tate et al, 1997). Through
rehearsals, evidence reveals that spatial awareness of locations can be taught and
learned.
Evidences from the surgical and medical fields have also shown that VR simulations can
play a huge role by ensuring that surgical skills are acquired (Gurusamy et al, 2008). The
tendency of VR to improve safety has been proven in the mining industry (Schofied et al
2001). In Kizil (2003), it was suggested that the utilization of VR-based training will, in no
doubts, curb fatality numbers and other kinds of injuries.
Also in a virtual environment, evidence suggests that motorcyclists, car drivers,
emergency vehicle drivers and truck drivers can acquire relevant driving skills (Fisher et
al, 2002; Strayer et al, 2004; Uhr, 2004; Lindsey, 2005; Parkes & Reed, 2006; Liu et al,
2009). Not only do trainees acquire the skill for mobility, they also acquire skills on
hazard related issues, fuel efficiency and safety-related attitudes.
This current study posits that in addition to the above studies, this technology can be
integrated into the rail industry. By tapping into the potential possibilities and keeping up
with recent trends and investigations, the railway system can be improved since people
can be trained in virtual environments. A step into such development informed the need
for this current study of VR and 360 degree video integration into the rail industry.
Chapter two of this study will discuss virtual reality in-depth, its applications and the
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concept of the 360 degree video. Chapter three will examine risks and hazards that can
occur from the implementation or non-implementation of VR technology in the rail
industry. This Chapter will also examine recent technological trends and VR opportunities
in the rail industry while Chapter four will focus on recent developments regarding the
efficiency of VR and 360 degree video in the maintenance of the industry.
1.2 Study Objectives
Following the aim and background of this study, the following specific objectives shall be
looked into;
1. Identify those hazards and risks which could occur from the implementation and
non-implementation of VR technology in the industry.
2. Examine the available opportunities for engineers and other personnel in the rail
industry based on their spatial perception of VR information.
3. Examine how efficient the 360 degree video and VR technology have been in the
maintenance of the rail industry.
1.3 Research Questions
1. What are the hazards and risks that could occur from the implementation and
non-implementation of VR technology?
2. What are the available opportunities for engineers and other personnel in the rail
industry based on their spatial perception of VR information?
3. How efficient have the 360 degree video and VR technology been in the
maintenance of the rail industry?
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1.4 Methodology
The study shall rely mainly on relevant secondary case studies, journals, research
proceedings, articles and other up-to-date findings on virtual reality and 360 degree video
and as relate with the rail industry.
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Chapter Two
Concepts and Applications of Virtual Reality and 360 Degree Video
2.1 Conceptualizing Virtual Reality: History and Applications
Although it might be difficult to accurately imply the real world, VR systems and
application date back to the 1950s where, according to Cline (2005), the device was used
specifically for vehicle simulator. Although the idea of inclusion in an artificial
environment is not new, VR remains a new and revolutionary technology (Costello,
1997). In some studies, it has been regarded as an extension of old time innovations such
as wide screen cinema, IMAX, Sensorama and flight simulation (Heilig, 1962). Viewers are
presented with screens through such innovations, and the purpose of this screen is to
give a powerful sense of presence by taking up a large portion of a visual field. The first
development of HMD (Head Mounted Display) was recorded in 1965 by Sutherland who
upon his determination just after the introduction of the minicomputer in the 1960’s,
come to the realization of potentials a computer can produce. Previous innovations allow
the generation of images through the video camera, but in his findings, Sutherland
discovered that images can be generated from a computer for flight simulation. In 1984,
both McGreevy and Fisher (two NASA Ames scientists) built on the idea of Sutherland
and worked on a virtual workstation project. This idea soon became a reality, called
VIVED (Video Environment Display), making it the first commercially available HMD from
NASA. This development was significant and unprecedented for some reasons. First, it
gave rise for more development in the VR industry; Secondly, NASA had a commercially
available HMD at a relatively cheap price (Costello, 1997).
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Asides the space industry, VR usage became increasingly frequent and common in other
fields, including the field of fire safety. As explored in the Introductory Chapter, several
authors have also examined VR utilization across other fields, focusing on the use of VR
for training purposes, safety, gaming, etc. Reason is not far-fetched as it generally
attempts to simulate physical presence in imaginary worlds and the real world through
computer-simulated environments. A typical example of VR application is the Virtual
Stonehenge by English Heritage and Intelä. This is an application that promotes virtual
tourism, and can also be applied as an architectural, historical or educational tool.
In an attempt to interface critical thinking and real textbook biology with visceral
response, action and fun, a University of California based group in San Diego worked on a
Virtual Explorer learning tool. This virtual environment which they called ‘Fantastic
Voyage’ is made to allow users shrink down to cellular scales in order for them to
navigate through the human vascular system, while examining the various components
that make up the immune system and its interplay with how bodies respond to foreign
invaders.
In collaboration with Bravo Multimedia, a simulator called truck driVR was developed by
Amoco for the evaluation of their tanker drivers’ skills. The simulator uses Virtual
Research FS5 HMD and an Intergraph PC. The simulation comprises of about twenty-one
events that include a car backing out of the drive, a deer crossing a road, an emergency
or an ambulance car driving past, all occurring both in rural and urban routes. Drivers are
assessed by making them to take charge of a Kenworth truck hauling 40,000 gallons of
fuel. This is done to examine their ability to withstand the series of events occurring,
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Like the Stonehenge, there is also an internet version that can be utilized by creating a
connection between the Intel’s corporate site and a personal computer. This model
allows a user to navigate the environment across 10 eras. Users are also allowed to move
backwards and forwards in time from as far back as 8500 BC to 2000 AD from a fly over
the scene approach or from any angle, and can see moonlight, daylight, and sunrise. The
Internet model was created on a PC for other educational purposes using Superscape’s
VRT authoring software (Costello, 1997). VR Solutions Limited of Salford in conjunction
with English Heritage have also developed an additional to the Internet model using the
GIS (geographic information system) data of surrounding landscapes and photographs of
the stones. This model was named a photorealistic VR model of Stonehenge. Other
projects on VR are currently underway as parts of the research and development projects
in other organizations such as Rolls Royce, IBM, Intel and Boeing. In recent times,
companies like Samsung (as seen in Samsung Gear VR headset) and Facebook (Oculus Rift
headset) have also joined the league of tech companies who have shown interest in this
technology (Magyari, 2016).
Generally, the designs of the above VR systems and indeed any VR environment can take
four steps: specifying the VR content; specifying the virtual environment, and the degree
of immersion for immersive VR environment; specifying the interaction methods
between participants and the virtual objects and the degree of interaction; and lastly,
specifying the method of interaction among multiple participants, and the extent of
interaction for collaborative competitive application (Li, 2012). Interaction in this context
means the tendency of participants to modify the VR environment. When the interaction
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is collaborative, it means more than one participant interacts in a virtual reality
environment with same virtual objects at the same time (Li, 2012).
The aim of utilizing VR experiments is to ensure that the inability of representing a full
objects or scale test, which are most of the times tedious to build is addressed. Field
studies like unannounced drills on the other hand make provision for good ecological
validity (Andree et al 2013). Meanwhile, it is almost impossible to assess from real world
studies complete experimental control. Since virtual reality experiments are
experimental in nature and it is possible to easily design replicable experiments with
acceptable efforts and costs, it makes it widely acceptable. Another benefit of using a
virtual reality system is that it has the ability to reproduce dangerous and complex events
with maintaining the complete control of the experiment in a safe environment, for
instance a laboratory (Boyle and Lee, 2010). Albeit avoiding irritant smoke, a VR system
can reproduce smoke-filled environments.
More so, a lot of virtual reality environments are basically visual experiences in spite that
there are chances to have additional sensory information, that includes touch and sound,
and it is not impossible, through the use of olfactometers, for odours to be reproduced
(Lundström et al., 2010).
In a typical VR application, interaction and immersion present the most important
phenomena; therefore implementing techniques which allow a user to be immersed in a
virtual environment through the instrumentality of sensory-motor interfaces is vital. In
this case, the aim is to relate with virtual processes. The user gets sets of information via
these sensory-motor interfaces (it includes force feedback via a haptic arm; return
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immersive 3D on a big screen, etc.). The interaction with the virtual scene entails
interactions with interface of sensorimotor control as haptic arms for seizure of virtual
objects, the motion capture system which can control a virtual avatar, data gloves etc.
The VR, mostly known to be an extension of the simulation, stands out on the basis that
it offers users good levels of immersion (such as touch or sound). Hence, it allows
industries of nowadays to simulate different processes efficiently and effectively. It
provides an avenue for interaction with simulation models. In Kalawsky (1996), some key
benefits VR techniques provide include: inherent flexibility/adaptability; allows high rates
of interactivity; simulation of complex systems; slow and fast time simulation;
macroscopic and microscopic visualization; allows a feeling of immersion. These benefits
inform Zhuang and Wang’s (2010) expressions of VR which they define as a high end
human-machine interface that works on the combination of technologies like pattern
recognition, sound systems, networking, graphics, artificial intelligence and image
processing and others to produce interaction and computer simulation, which in turn
produce a feeling of presence via multiple synthetic feedback sent to sensorial channels
(e.g. virtual).
2.2 Categorizing VR Systems
Categorizing VR systems, according to Costello (1997), is a difficult task however majority
of available configurations belong into one of the three main types with each ranked
based on the degree of presence it allows or the sense of immersion it provides.
Presence, otherwise called immersion relates to how powerfully a user’s attention is
focused on tasks at hand. It is generally assumed therefore that immersion presence is a
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product of a whole lot of parameters that include field of regard, stereoscopic view,
image complexity, update rate of the display and of course, the level of interactivity
(Costello, 1997). As an illustration, rather than providing a monoscopic view, a
stereoscopic view of a VR environment will enhance the sense of immersion of a user.
Noteworthy is that the rate of immersion that is achievable is due to the activity of
several factors. Meanwhile, in isolation, no single parameter can achieve the desired
result.
Good comparison, based on their performances, has been provided between the
categories of VR system (Kalawsky, 1996). The three categories of VR include: full
immersive VR (also called Head-coupled); the semi-immersive VR (projection) and the
non-immersive VR (desktop).
Table 1: Comparison of Various VR Systems
Performance
Features Full Immersive VR
(Desktop VR or
Head-mounted)
Semi-Immersive VR
(Augmented reality
system or hybrid)
Non-Immersive VR
(Window on World
system or Fish
tank)
Sense of
Immersion
Medium-High Medium-High None-low
Lag Medium-High Low Low
Field of regard High Medium Low
Sense of
situational
awareness
(navigation skills)
High Medium Low
Scale (perception) High Medium-High Low
Resolution Low-Medium High High
Kalawsky (1996) in Costello (1997); Bamodu and Ye (2013)
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As described by Costello (1997), the head-coupled or full immersive VR provides the most
direct VR experience of all the categories. This category is by far the most commonly
known VR implementation where a user either puts on some form of head-coupled
display or Head Mounted Displays (HMDs). Such display could be BOOM (Binocular Omni-
Orientation Monitor) (Bolas, 1994).
Head Mounted Displays utilize small monitors that directly face the eyes since it can
provide either of the stereo, monocular or binocular images. In similar ways to shutter
glasses, stereo images are produced. The only difference is that both screens are placed
very near to the eye, although the image the wearer puts its attention will be much
farther away because of the optical system of the HMD. Monocular images can be
provided by only one display screen and by displaying identical images on each screen,
binocular images can be provided. Below is an example of a HMD system that comprises
of two screens and capable of producing not only stereo images, but stereo sounds
owing to the inbuilt speakers.
Figure 1: An HMD System with Two Screens
Costello (1997)
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Common among the available displays of a typical HMD is the Liquid Crystal Display
(LCD). The Cathode Ray Tubes (CRT) may also be used by more sophisticated and
expensive HMDs. Unlike the LCD, the CRT enhances image resolutions. Basically, HMD
can fully and in some instances, partially exclude users’ views of the actual world and
increases the field of view of computer-based world. This is beneficial in that users can
receive visual image when they have their heads turned to look in any direction; in other
words, users are provided with a 360° view. While fully immersive VR systems are
capable of given a full sense of presence as earlier explained, various parameters are
responsible for the sense of immersion and these factors comprise of the update rate,
resolutions, the HMD field of view, and the illumination and contrast of the display.
Unlike full-immersive systems, the semi-immersive systems borrow considerably from
other developed technologies in the field of flight simulation. Apart from the fact that
they are relatively new, Costello (1997) describe these systems as high performing
technology with graphics computing system which can come with either of the following;
a multiple television projection systems, a large screen projector system or a large screen
monitor. They are also referred to as augmented reality system or hybrid systems reason
being that, according to Dani and Rajit (1998), they provide high levels of immersion
while maintaining the simplicity of the physical model of non-immersive VR system.
These systems, through wide field views, are capable of increasing the sense of presence
or immersion a user experiences. Nevertheless, projected image qualities are important
factors to be considered. More so, calibrating the geometry of projected images to
screen shape is important in order to prevent any form of distortion, and the resolution
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will also determine texture quality, the ability of define shapes, colours and user ability to
read text on-screen. Ideally, 1000 – 3000 lines are the resolution range of projection
systems. To achieve maximum levels, however, it is worth adopting the more expensive
multiple projections. In essence, semi-immersive systems give a higher sense of presence
than the non-immersive ones, and they also produce greater appreciation of scale.
Additionally, images provided can be higher than HMDs in terms of resolution and it also
gives users ability to share their VR experiences. As illustrated by Costello (1997), such
systems give value to educational implementation since, unlike the head-mounted
immersive systems, it allows simultaneous experience and it also allows stereographic
imaging through some shuttered glasses in the form of graphics system via
synchronization. An example of a semi-immersive projection system (wide-screen) with
shutter glasses is shown below:
Figure 2: A Semi-Immersive Projection
Costello (1997)
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The system above, called a liquid crystal shutter (LCS) is considered a vital technology in
the field of semi-immersive systems. It consists of a liquid crystal with a lightweight
headset placed over both eyes. Albeit expensive, commercially available examples of this
system include the 3D Max Shutter Glasses System and the CrystalEyes Shutter Glasses.
They are expensive given the level of performance associated with the VR
implementation (Costello, 1997). There are challenges, however, with current interaction
systems for implementation. First is the need to take into cognizance the applications
such systems may be utilized for. “For a flight simulation system it is possible to simply
used an inceptor (joystick) which can be interpreted by the aircraft model as the flight
control input” (Costello, 1997; p.7). Secondly, multi-user issues must be considered given
that it is almost the major advantage of the system. Thus, the handover of control among
users must be considered as technology evolves.
As regards the non-immersive systems, they are the least immersive implementation of
VR systems as the name rightly suggests and are also referred to as the Desktop VR
System, Window on World system or Fish tank (Bamodu and Ye, 2013). Using the desktop
system, the virtual environment is viewed through a portal or window by utilizing a
standard high resolution monitor. Interaction with the virtual environment can occur by
conventional means such as keyboards, mice and trackballs or may be enhanced by using
3D interaction devices such as a SpaceBallä; or DataGloveä (Costello, 1997).
The non-immersive system has advantages in that they do not require the highest level
of graphics performance, no special hardware and can be implemented on high
specification PC clones, making it the VR with the least sophisticated components
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(Bamodu and Ye, 2013). This also means that these systems can be regarded as the
lowest cost VR solution which can be used for many applications. However, this low cost
means that these systems will always be outperformed by more sophisticated
implementations, provide almost no sense of immersion and are limited to a certain
extent by current 2D interaction devices. Additionally, these systems are of little use
where the perception of scale is an important factor. However, one would expect to see
an increase in the popularity of such systems for VR use in the near future. This is due to
the fact that Virtual Reality Modeling Reality Language (VRML) is expected to be adopted
as a de-facto standard for the transfer of 3D model data and virtual worlds via the
internet. The advantage of VRML for the PC desktop user is that this software runs
relatively well on a PC, which is not always the case for many proprietary VR authoring
tools (Costello, 1997). Furthermore, many commercial VR software suppliers are now
incorporating VRML capability into their software and exploring the commercial
possibilities of desktop VR in general.
2.3 Constituents of a Virtual Reality System
Like most of the available technologies today, the VR system consists of two main
subsystems: software and hardware. The software comprises further of application
software and database, while the hardware consists of I/O devices, the VR engine or
computer, output devices and the input devices.
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Figure 3: Components of VR System
(Bamodu and Ye, 2013; p.22)
VR Hardware:
As described earlier, the hardware of the VR systems consists of the input and output
devices and the VR engine. The input devices send signals about a user’s action to the
system in order to provide relevant reactions in real time back to the user via the output
devices. Simply put, they are the platform through which users interact with the VR
world. The input devices can be categorized into point input device, tracking device,
voice device and bio-controllers (Bamodu and Ye, 2013). In Dani and Rajit (1998), the
tracking devices are used for tracking a user’s position, reason they are also called
position sensors. They comprise data gloves, electromagnetic, optical, neural, ultrasonic,
gyroscopic and electromagnetic sensors and muscular controllers (Craig, William and
Jeffrey, 2009). The mouse is an example of an input device, however, in a VR system; the
technology of the mouse has more functionality with a 3D capability. Examples of such
mouse are the space ball or 6DOF mouse. Table 4 illustrates how the input devices relate
with the VR engine and the output devices.
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Figure 4: Interaction between the Hardware Devices
The VR computer system or engine in typical VR systems has to be chosen in line with the
required application. Some of the noteworthy factors are image generation, graphic
display, and time consuming task in the system. The selection of engine is dependent on
the level of immersion, input and output devices, user, application field, and the graphic
output required given that it is responsible for generating and calculating graphical
models, texturing, mapping, lighting, object rendering, simulation and display all in real-
time (Bamodu and Ye, 2013). In addition, the engine also serves as an interface with
input and output devices, and controls the interaction with a user. Another important
factor to put into consideration is the computer processing power. This is defined by
Bamodu and Ye as the amount of senses that can be rendered over a particular
timeframe. Approximately every 33ms, the engine is expected to recalculate the VR and
produce over 24fps simulation in real time (Burdea and Philippe, 2003). Meanwhile, it is
expected also that the graphic engine should be able to produce stereoscopic vision. As
regards the VR engine, it could be a standard PC with distributed computer systems
interconnected via powerful speed communication network; a strong graphics
accelerator; or a PC enhanced processing power (Burdea and Philippe, 2003).
Just as the VR engine gets instructions from the input device, the output devices get
feedback from the VR engine. This feedback passes on to the user via the corresponding
output device to stimulate the senses. Some frequently used classifications of output
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devices based on the senses are the haptic (force or contact), audio (aural) and the
graphics (visual). Others like taste and smell are at present uncommon. The audio is an
important aspect of the VR and has the capability to produce 3D sounds, and varying
sounds across diverse locations in order to produce a more realistic VR application. As
regards the graphics, the HMD and the stereo display monitor are two common possible
options. The HMD produces a higher level of immersion has earlier described and this
makes it possible for the brain to interpret and provide a 3D view of the virtual world.
VR Software:
Components of VR system software comprise of software and tools that are used in the
design, development and maintenance of virtual environments and the place information
is saved. These tools are categorized into development and modeling tools. Development
tools in the context of VR content creation consist of Application Program Interfaces
(APIs), VR software development kits (SDK) and virtual world authoring tools. In VR,
software development flexibility and real time interaction is important because it
requires integrative and complex technologies like tracking technology, 3D computer
graphics, haptic and sound processing technology. According to Bamodu and Ye, a lot of
work is required to start the development of a VR system hence the preference to utilize
the VR development tools as against the basic codes in OpenGL, Java or C/C+ that comes
with low level of system reliability. Owing to the difference in flexibility varying software
packages have to offer, careful consideration should be considered when selecting VR
development tools. Examples of VR modeling tools include Maya and Creator. Software
like Solidworks, Pro/E, CATIA or UG can be used for engineering specific applications.
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Chapter Three
A Review of VR Risks and Hazards
While a lot of studies have emerged across academic and commercial institutions, the
potential applications of VR and the 360 degree video technology are still underway as
more studies imply better innovations and effective useable systems. In spite these
attempts, concerns have been raised regarding the downside of exploiting this new
technology, and this suggests that users may experience not only psychological side
effects, but also physiological and physical consequences from using VR equipment.
Some of the early reports albeit received wide coverage in the media have been
countered, suggesting that they may be inaccurate, sensational and misleading. In this
section, the study shall be exploring those potential hazards the literature on VR has
reported. In this regard, indications of the risks and hazards of VR systems particularly as
relate with the railway industry would be better understood from the account of its
implementation within a broad range of other industries.
3.1 VR Use and Health-Related Issues
Often times, new inventions especially in the technological world attract some resistance
and public backlash. This could be due to a number of reasons, according to Wilson
(1996). The technology for instance might exert negative impacts on people’s lives, their
environment. With the introduction of VDUs (Visual Display Units), Howarth (1994) and
Wilson (1996) draw some insights regarding the speculations that surround VR
equipment usage in the early 80’s. Following the introduction of VDUs, there were
growing concerns about the psychological, physical and physiological impacts particularly
26
as regards the technological limitations of VDUs (screens) as of that period. Since VR
technology is constantly evolving and continuously being improved by varying
manufacturers, it becomes a challenge when one tries to define health related problems
of VR. Therefore, the need to consider this wide range of HMDs in the market is
important and also to appreciate the approaches to their designs and attributes.
As parts of the health issues associated with the use of VR, user population of any new
invention must be considered (Costello, 1997). In this regard, custom fitting in a
workplace can be easy to achieve reason being that users may be limited unlike a public
space (e.g. gaming, entertainment, etc.) where a potentially massive user base is
expected. Unlike the workplace, those in the public space may have very little to no
understanding regarding safety or health issues on the usage of VR equipment in the
right and appropriate manner.
In a CNBC report titled “virtual reality: are health risks being ignored?” Magyari (2016)
acknowledged that there has been a troubling lack of concern regarding the health and
safety risks associated with VR usage and likely impacts on emotional and physical well-
being. According to the author, issues of anxiety and stress immediately after wearing a
full occlusion headset for some minutes have been found among a large percentage of
users. In addition to that, certain physical disorder such as motion sickness, nausea and
severe eyestrain have been found. In a research carried out at the UCLA Keck Center for
Neurophysics using laboratory rats, new side effects have emerged
(http://cnbc.com/2016/01/08/virtual-reality-are-health-risks-being-ignored-
commentary.html). Among the side effects found are abnormal patterns of activity in the
27
brains of the lab rat, cybersickness and traces of about 60% of neurons shutting down in
the VR environment was found.
Therefore, as part of what users must consider for safety reasons is the demand of the
task itself (Costello, 1997). For instance, a task that continuously induces head movement
on users will be less comfortable than one that requires fewer movements of the head
(such as reading a paper). The complex interplay of the various factors should also be
parts of the consideration. If the headset is heavy or if there are lags in the system,
tracking may become uncomfortable. However, tracking tasks may not be a problem
when headset is light and system lag is low (Costello, 1997).
Certain potential factors that may contribute to simulator sickness symptoms in a virtual
reality environment have been provided below:
Table 2: Potential Factors that relate with Simulator Sickness in a VR Environment
VR System/Simulator Individual Task
Refresh rate Postural stability Sitting vs. standing
Position-tracking error Perceptual style Self-movement speed
Phosphor lag Mental rotation ability Method of movement
Motion platform Illness and personal
characteristics
Rate of linear or rotational
acceleration
Flicker Gender Unusual maneuvers
Field of view Flicker fusion frequency
threshold
Luminance level
Contrast Adaptation Head movements
Inter-ocular distance Experience with real-world
task
Global visual flow
Colour Ethnicity Duration
Calibration Concentration level Degree of control
Binocular viewing Age Altitude above terrain
28
Time lag (transport
delay)
Type of application
Scene content Vection
Viewing region
Update rate (frame
rate)
Seeing that the above factors occurs at the onset of simulator sickness makes it clearer
that the beginning of symptoms could be a result of an extreme and complex interaction
occurring between these factors in each of the 3 platforms. This may be the situation for
the symptoms raised, and the current focus of several studies is in the determination to
understand the most necessary factors in the onset of particular symptoms. Ultimately,
there is the question of which side effects DO actually occur, and which are more fanciful
notions brought about by the general hype surrounding the technologies, symptoms and
applications. There have certainly been rigorous investigations, and no one involved in
the virtual environment disagrees with the fact that unpleasant symptoms can occur but
little is known (Costello, 1997; Mangyari, 2016). Presently, unanswered questions include
concerns such as the duration of symptoms, coping methods adopted by VR users,
predicting individual susceptibility, and the impact on the VR tasks and consequently,
activities such as operating heavy machinery or driving.
Highlight of likely side effects as seen in the literature have been compiled below. These
side effects are categorized into the psychological, physiological and physical aspects.
The psychological is further divided however into the behavioural and the cognitive;
29
Table 3: Effects Resulting from VR Exposure
Psychological Physiological Physical
Cognitive Behavioural
Change in psychomotor performance
Mood changes, addiction, stress, isolation
Biochemical and Gastrointestinal change
Strange postural demands
Changes in perceptual judgment, perceptual shifts and disorientation
Visual asthenopic symptoms, simulator sickness, postural instability
Equipment fit, immersion injuries, physical discomfort hygiene
Cardiovascular change, dissociation of convergence/ accommodation
Costello and Howarth (1996)
Worthy of mention is that these are suggested symptoms, and by implication, certain
symptoms may develop only with specific types of VR implementation. In the following
discussions, each category is explained, with highlights of possible effects that can be
expected with the different implementations of VR.
3.2 VR Systems and Physical Side-Effects
Key among the demands of a desktop VR system is the postural demands. Like a standard
Personal Computer, a user of the desktop VR is expected to be sedentary at a worktop or
desk. Although safety tips and regulations have been put forward with safe and effective
installations, issues relating to posture remain a concern. On semi-immersive
implementations, posture issues may pose a bit more complexity, according to Costello
(1997). As expected, using a large screen implies that users may be standing, using some
interaction device and wearing shutter glasses. As an implication, there may be issues
with postural demands as users interact with VR environment.
30
As displayed in the Table below, users of a fully immersive HMD are more susceptible to
immersion injuries (Viirre, 1993; Gupta et al. 1996). According to Viirre, users are
functionally blind in terms of real world when they wear an HMD, hence, they could be
faced with collision problems with objects in the real world. Even when they have some
external visions, the author suggests also that users could face problems resulting from a
VR system cabling. In addition, sound cues are provided in many HMDs for users that cut
off aural stimulations. The condition then happens when users are fully engaged in virtual
environments that require specific amounts of movements and yet they get no or little
inputs from real world cues. It is necessary therefore that a user operates in safe and
secure areas with railings. For instance, safety barriers that are used in public space
applications are typical examples. Typically, users are enclosed in limited areas with
padded protection, and circular railing for effective immersion (Costello, 1997).
Table 4: VR-Specific Risks
Desktop VR Systems
Semi-Immersive Systems
Fully Immersive Systems
Physical
Repetitive Strain Injuries (RSI)
++ - -
Posture
++ ++ (dependent on the nature of
the task)
+++
Headset Weight and Fit
- - +++
Hygiene Issues
+ + +
Immersion Injuries
++
+++ High Risk ++ Medium Risk + Low Risk - No Risk
31
Following the above observations, one can conclude that studies into VR side effects, in
particular, the physical side effects is difficult and complex, and from the above, it is
apparent that worries and concerns regarding the three types of VR systems are
justifiable and germane. Research into this field have also shown that whether the side
effects of VR systems occur on the short term or long term, the effects can be
devastating, and these effects are hard to determine since VR techniques are relatively
evolving. Evidence also suggests that a lot of complex factors are involved in the
symptoms, some of which entail the characteristics of the user, the type of task that is
being used for, and the type of VR system. Given the large variation among individuals
and tasks, predicting the effect of any one task in an accurate manner on one user in a VR
system is practically unrealistic.
Therefore, in an industry like the railway, users of VR systems should be aware of any
potential side effects associated with each VR system implementation and the genesis of
symptoms before use (Costello, 1997). On desktop system, the problems are quite clear
enough and solid safe working practices and regulations are available. On the other side,
however, is the fully immersive systems where recent technologies are continuously
been researched across various industries. This is the reason users of this system face the
biggest immersive effect, and the genesis of several symptoms has been associated with
their usage. When an individual selects a VR system, careful consideration should be
taken to also understand the potential population for usage. If it is important to feel the
sense of immersion the fully immersive system has to offer, then it is necessary to
understand the health and safety implications. If health and safety problems inform a
32
user’s preference for the desktop system, chances that the powerful sense of immersion
would be lost should also be known. Be that as it may, users should be well informed
prior to implementation while also taking into consideration, the demand of the task, the
need of the user and potential population.
33
Chapter Four
Virtual Reality: Case of the Rail Industry
In the middle of the associated risks, hazards and side effects this study has revealed as
relate with the desktop, semi-immersive and fully immersive VR systems, along with the
opportunity and potential possibilities, attempts have been made to link VR technology
with railway technology. Aspects where this technology has been deployed in the rail
industry include training, railway education, railway maintenance, etc. (David and
Lourdeaux, 1999; Song, Back and Kim, N/A). As noted by David and Lourdeaux, the
application of VR technology into the industry can give room for training with 3-D real
images.
4.1 VR Implementation and Opportunities in the Rail Industry: Case Studies
4.1.1 Educational System for Railway Maintenance through Mixed Reality (Song & Kim,
N/A)
In Song and Kim (N/A), railway maintenance through educational system using mixed
reality and 360 degree video was explored. This system implies a platform where realistic
images of trains would be shown in the education room in 3-D space. In this set-up,
training information relies on trainees’ movements. Train is a general means of public
transportation that runs on track. Compared to other means of transportation, they can
transport a lot of goods, people and this gives it an edge coupled with the fact that it
moves on schedule. Owing to the capability and compartment of a typical train, it
34
attracts high level of maintenance, and consequently, maintenance officers with vast
expertise.
If maintenance officers must work optimally in the industry, they need to be trained and
one way to do this is to utilize existing train or real bogie for their training. While it
sounds appreciable, it could be dangerous as trainees stand the risk of injuries as a result
of their exposure and trouble understanding the complex structure of the industry. There
is also a risk that reduces. With an effective educational system using mixed reality, Song
and Kim concludes that these problems can be resolved. Through mixed reality, trainees’
immersion levels can be enhanced by giving them quality information required for train
maintenance with feelings of reality via mixed reality in a VE.
Figure 5: System for railway maintenance using Mixed Reality
35
The system of train maintenance comprises camera for shooting real images of trains,
indicators for displaying the 3-D real images installed in the training room, human body
movement detectors for extraction. Others include 3-D coordinate information that is
dependent on the movements of trainees in above-mentioned room; data storage means
for storing 3-D virtual images consisting of letters or computer graphics to effectively
train rail personnel.
When trainees enter the training room at first, their movement is detected by vision
sensor being a means for detecting human body movements, and then this provides 3-D
coordinate information on trainees’ movement and it also gives 3-D angle information by
infrared sensors installed in the room or body sensor that trainees put on. Projectors are
installed at least in four places in the room; it displays 3-D real image of train. The human
body movement detectors for extracting 3-D coordinate information relies on the
trainees’ movement, using vision sensor to obtain 3-D coordinate information in order to
determine the correlation with their bodies, position of trainees, and to extract
information regarding energy, power dynamics or force rotation of trainees.
The 3-D angle information from infrared sensor or body sensors can blend 3-D coordinate
information and extract the action pattern information of trainees, virtual images with
the letter or computer graphics according to 3-D coordinates by means of extraction. The
body sensor sends the extracted 3-D angle information to operation control. In this case,
it is required to implement interface, and this interface is simply a communication
technology using Bluetooth module.
36
Operation control can utilize a variety of computer such as personal computers, laptop
computers, and industrial computers. It is required to implement more speakers to
convey information to trainees, and it is required to add voice information in the above-
mentioned data storage means. It equally gives them a voice guide about the
components of the train and for manipulations according to their needs.
4.1.2 Virtual Reality Techniques for Training Rail Drivers and Track Manual
Interventions on a French Line (David & Lourdeaux, 2001)
Track controllers may lose the control on some switches and this result to stoppage of all
the trains on the line. It generally comes from either a defect in a blade sensor or a stone
blocking a switch blade. If the traffic must continue as soon as possible, the controller
must demand from the driver, the next train to control, and probably, to switch the
blades manually.
Drivers’ reactivity and efficiency are therefore considered as important, but the
frequency of these technical problems is very low and keeping the drivers’ skills up-to-
date implies training them continuously along their driving life. Trainings about these
tasks are at the moment made on tracks but teachers are frequently faced with a lot of
issues when conducting these trainings as they have to deal with challenges on the
tracks. Moreover, training is expensive because it involves transportation on tracks.
Training is also time constrained and actually, it looks like a demonstration and is not an
interactive process between trainees and the teacher. The training in its actual form
barely gets to the required quality level to let the driver be efficient on required modules.
37
Consequently, impacts of poor training on traffic quality may result to reactions on the
path of the customers.
Using VR and a simulator in this instance is therefore considered as natural and
economical. Since there are no evidently real dangers in using the simulator, trainees can
make errors which are ideal and important in the learning process. Time is not limited
and the simulator is more accessible than tracks. More so, there is no weather condition
consideration and several different situations may be seen by each trainee.
A Look at the Current Training Method
The current training is based on a lot of factors; first, theoretical parts which are given to
trainee drivers in the classroom, and some forms of demonstration on tracks and on real
switch. The actor of this training is the line controller as the radio communication is a
part of the training. Some of the drawbacks of this training comprise:
Demonstrations are functions of the weather conditions and of the traffic on the
line.
During training, traffic is altered
The procedure can be done only by one trainee
The trainee cannot make errors which are known to be very formative
The line cannot be used for a long time; it is limited to half an hour
The teacher cannot show more than one physical implementation of a switch
One of the main difficulties in this procedure is the manner at which the driver leaves the
emergency situation. This kind of training is not adapted and does not reach the required
38
pedagogical objectives. Among the studied solution, VR was considered the most
interesting. The choice and paradigm of this emerging method of training was to
immerse trainee in a near real situation where acquired knowledge is not just a checklist
of things to do but is more focused on the technical know-how. VR gives some
opportunities to go farther than just reality; for instance, it could reveal hidden
mechanisms such as the components of a switch engine, a view of the tracks or
schematic views and complex abstract concepts.
Requirements for the Training Centre
The authors aimed at building a simulator centre for a group of five and six trainees.
While the other members of the group would be watching, only a member would be
immersed in the simulator. The training is planned in such a way that it would make parts
of the initial driving training. As revealed in the image below, the treadmill and the video
projector are the most impacting aspects of the project.
Figure 6: Hardware Architecture for Training
Components of the Architecture
39
Software: Red hat 6.0
SGI Performer 2.3
Linux Mandrake 7.2;
VRPN 5.3
Hardware
CPU: Duron at 800 MHz PC for device control and teacher actions
Dual Pentium III at 800 MHz for image synthesis
CPU switch
100 Mb/s net switch
Barco 6300 reality video-projector
Devices: Sound Blaster Live 1024
Ascension Flock-of-birds (2 sensors & an extended range antenna)
2 meter long customized treadmill
5dt glove
Microsoft Joystick
Immersion: Walking
Ability to walk along the tracks is a necessary aspect of the task, and as the author
desired, they wanted users to experience the same space and time feeling. This made
them to include a treadmill in the simulator. A standard sport training treadmill was
tested but it failed to meet the expected requirements, hence a new one with more
power, and 2 meters long was requested from a manufacturer as the first one lacked
enough power and ideal length. In order for the trainee to choose his preferred direction
40
and where he wants to go, a joystick is placed near him. The speed of the treadmill can
then be controlled by the user position and can be stopped by releasing the joystick.
Seeing
For the purpose of seeing displayed images, a large screen of about 2 meter high and 3
meter large was used, and it has a resolution of 1280 by 1024 by a LCD rear video
projector. This is also to calibrate the simulation to give a virtual world and create an
illusion of being in a real window. Movements are also taken into account by tracking
points of view. To avoid visual problems and sickness for some users, stereoscopic display
was avoided. An HMD was also not considered too much given that it is not compatible
with a treadmill. A multi-screen solution was ignored for reasons relating to cost and
usefulness, however, the field of view is considered large enough to give good immersion
at about 90° - 130°.
Interacting
Trainees are equipped with data glove touch, catch and handle objects in the VR world. A
magnetic tracker is placed on the hand to allow the system inform the position as well as
the hand’s orientation. Another tracker is placed on the back of the neck. This allows the
system adapt the point of view, function of the position of the user on front of the screen
and to allow the treadmill speed function appropriately. The magnetic tracker is not
placed on the head to avoid too invasive equipment.
Hearing
As previously discussed, sounds are important for immersion, and thus implemented in
this project using a synthesis system to generate acoustic virtual environment. Sounds
41
are generated for immersion and for user actions feedback as well. Some of the sounds
include background noise for immersion, engine sounds, crossing train and feedback
sounds such as beeping when a trainee catches an object.
Overcoming VR Drawbacks
Knowing that distance evaluation can be difficult, a system automatically places a user in
front of important elements in the VE function, a function of a user’s wishes and
movements. Coupled with the fact that the display is not stereoscopic, it allows a trainee
to interact with objects. Since it is not compulsory to reproduce movements in realistic
formats, actions are simplified. For instance, a user needs to keep a key and touch the
box with it to get it opened.
Description of the Software
The Software for this project is called “FIACRE”. It is a LAN of Linux PC (Mandrake and
Red Hat) and functions on the capability of open source software. Hardware devices are
controlled by public domain software known as the VRPN Package which feed the
simulation with data from devices by server/client architecture. Using an OpenAl library
maintained by the Loki entertainment company, a sound generator was designed as an
open source library.
4.1.3 Emerging State-of-the-art Virtual Reality Adoption in the Rail Industry (Case of UK
Rail Industry) (Pauley, 2015)
Currently in the UK, the adoption of VR simulation capabilities in commercial training is
gathering momentum, and the rail industry is not an exemption. PAULEY, an Interactive
software platform developed a state-of-the-art VR immersive training suite which sits at
42
the hub of the National Training Academy for Rail (NTAR) (A £7million training centre in
Northampton).
VR Headsets and a touch screen technology are among the components used for this
setup. A combination of these with 3D modeling was used to deliver a real-life and
hands-on learning experience meant to give the next generation quality education and
inspirations for apprentices, engineers and upskill individuals in the rail industry, as well
as, those coming into the sector from other industries (Pauley, 2015).
Unlike the previous illustrations on VR application in the rail industry, this is the first time
VR headsets have been used in the rail industry for commercial training. Therefore, the
technology is expected to deliver full-immersion experiences to users while also bringing
about solutions to the burgeoning skills crisis in the sector and creating a world-class
centre of excellence. According to the information from Pauley (2015), over 4,000 pages
of training courses have been transformed into 25 interactive learning modules, thereby,
allowing students the opportunities to get good understanding on all the critical
components and warning systems found inside the train cabs, the high-tech ones in
particular. As compared to other past technologies, trainees only require VR headset in
order to familiarize themselves with the workings of the train, down to the nuts and
bolts, in an effective and safe learning environment. Without the VR, all these would not
be possible either on traditional paper-based techniques or railway tracks.
E-learning for several years and other digital training methods has strived to build an
experience that closely relates to the classroom environment. According to industry
analyst Juniper forecasts that globally, 30 million VR headsets by 2020 will be sold for
43
both individual and commercial use, with hardware retail revenues forecasted to be over
£3bn. This goes a long way to demonstrate the potentials of VR, not only in the rail
sector, but among tech-savvy individuals to help them build technical skills that are
needed across a host of other industries.
44
Chapter Five
Discussion and Conclusions
Key among the most sought after development needs in the rail industry are the need to
reduce the amount of time needed on track, the need to upgrade signaling (traffic lights
for railway) for enhanced reliability and the potential effect on train services among
others. The traditional method where designers have to go all the way to plot new
locations for signals and map out ways through which drivers can view these signals have
been described as “time-consuming” as it requires frequent access to the railway which is
often very tedious. On most railway track projects, several tasks run concurrently.
Telecom teams and signaling teams need to install safety systems and train controls;
track engineers are expected to install new tracks; in the same vein, civil engineers and
other maintenance experts are focused on buildings and the train platform. All these
specialties require serious levels of training, but shutting down the station under this
condition for training purposes, upgrades and to allow stakeholders function effectively
can cause disruptions for passengers; and for the railway operators, it could be very
expensive.
As an answer to these challenges, this study attempted to see the extent to which the rail
industry has adopted VR capabilities in solving the above issues. In this context, this study
seeks to know how different actors and stakeholders (track engineers, civil engineers,
drivers, and other specialists) in the industry can make decisions based on their spatial
perception of VR information on a rail system. Asides this, an attempt was made to also
identify those hazards and risks which could occur from the implementation and non-
45
implementation of VR technology in the industry; available opportunities for engineers
and other personnel in the rail industry based on their spatial perception of VR
information; and lastly, examine how efficient the 360 degree video and VR technology
have been in the maintenance of the rail industry.
Insights regarding the potential side effects of VR implementation posit the need for
users to be aware of any potential side effects associated with each VR system
implementation and the genesis of symptoms before use. For instance, the problems on
the desktop VR (non-immersive) are quite clear enough and solid safe working practices
and regulations are available. On the other side, however, is the fully immersive systems
where recent technologies are continuously been researched across various industries.
This is the reason users of this system face the biggest immersive effect, and the genesis
of several symptoms has been associated with their usage. When an individual selects a
VR system, careful consideration must be taken to understand the potential population
for usage. If it is important to feel the sense of immersion the fully immersive system has
to offer, then it is necessary to understand the health and safety implications. If health
and safety problems inform a user’s preference for the desktop system, chances that the
powerful sense of immersion would be lost should also be known. Findings suggest
therefore that users should be well informed prior to implementation while also taking
into consideration, the demand of the task, the need of the user and potential
population.
While it would be reasonable to expect that VR systems may cause the genesis of
symptoms such as simulator sickness, problems such as immersion injuries, the physical
46
discomfort of an HMD and system lags can actually be minimized. These considerations,
and the fact that a reasonably powerful sense of immersion can still be achieved with
semi-immersive large screen systems, explain the preference towards their use in some
cases.
This study also presented the summary of selected architecture of VR applications (semi-
immersive and full-immersive VR systems) in the rail industry for training purposes, the
creation of the virtual work environment, and the extent of their application and
immersion. Unlike the semi-immersive case on VR application in the rail industry, the
study findings showed that VR headsets, with a full immersion experience, have recently
been used in the rail industry for commercial training. Therefore, the technology is
expected to deliver full-immersion experiences to users while also bringing about
solutions to the burgeoning skills crisis in the sector and creating a world-class centre of
excellence. As compared to other past VR technologies, trainees only require VR headset
in order to familiarize themselves with the workings of the train, down to the nuts and
bolts, in an effective and safe learning environment. Without the VR, all these would not
be possible either on traditional paper-based techniques or railway tracks. By tapping
into the potential possibilities and keeping up with recent trends and investigations, the
railway system can be improved since it has been proven that rail workers can be trained
in VR.
Overall, this study has revealed that, indeed, there are promising results derived from
other domains which indicate that virtual environments, in spite the associated health
concerns, can be effectively used for safety related training, at least in some situations.
47
These results suggest that there is potential for virtual environments to be effective in
the rail sector. However, besides examinations of utilization or the subjective impressions
of trainees, there has been little systematic examination of the effectiveness of VE as a
training medium in the rail sector. Where evaluations have been undertaken recently,
the designs were done using state-of-the art technologies and the sample sizes are quite
large. This is a great improvement from what obtains in the past, but concerning the
fears that may arise from the implementation of any VR system, it must be noted that a
lot of complex factors are involved in the symptoms, some of which entail the
characteristics of users themselves, the type of task that is being used for, and the type
of VR system.
48
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