Mt Apo and other national parks in the Philippines

Mt Apo and other nationalparks in the Philippines

Richard E. Lewis

In 1984 international attention was focused on Mt Apo National Park in the Philippines when theIUCN declared it one of the world's most threatened protected natural areas. Human settlementshad destroyed large areas of the park and in 1983 the Philippine Government reclassified overhalf of the park for agricultural development, although this was revoked in 1986. The authorlived in the park while working on the Philippine Eagle Conservation Programme, witnessing theproblems first-hand. He describes the park and the problems it faces, which he believes could beovercome.

Mt Apo National ParkMt Apo National Park (72,814 ha) is located onthe southern island of Mindanao in the Philip-pines. It covers the volcanic massif formed byMt Apo, at 2954 m the highest peak in thePhilippines, and Mt Talomo (2674 m). MtTalomo is extinct, and its many peaks are theeroded remnants of an old crater rim. Mt Apo'slast recorded eruption was in 1640, with most ofthe lava being deposited on the western slopes(Kellman, 1970). Although it now appearsdormant, there are still numerous vents belowthe peak, from which issue steam and sul-phurous gases.

There is little seasonal variation in the climatearound Mt Apo, which lies just outside thecyclonic belt that affects the central andnorthern Philippines. Rain falls in every monthof the year, although it tends to be greatestbetween June and December.

VegetationNo comprehensive floral survey has beenundertaken, and some parts of the park remainunexplored. The vegetation types described arebased upon surveys of the eastern slopes con-ducted by the Bureau of Forest Development(ASEAN Experts Group on the Environment,1983) and by Kellman (1970).100

In the peak area, massive boulders are inter-spersed with small bushes, and short grassesgrow on the flat areas. Below about 2700 mextensive mossy forest begins and extends overMt Talomo. This forest is one of the mostspectacular sights in the park. The gnarled andtwisted oak trees (Lithocarpus spp. andPodocarpus spp.), Syzygium malagsam andDaciycarpus cumingii are covered in moss andepiphytes and form a canopy 5-10 m high. Mostof the year it is dark and damp, and in manyplaces one can walk over a network of moss-covered roots with the forest floor a metre or sobelow.

Below about 1500 m the mossy forest gives wayto drier forest whose canopy is 20 m high, withoccasional emergent trees up to 40 m tall. Themost common emergents are Shorea spp.(especially S. almon) and Lithocarpus spp.Canopy trees also include these species, as wellas Astrocalyx calycina, Syzygium spp. andCinnamomum spp. Less important treesinclude Arthocarpus spp., Canarium spp., Ficusspp., Lasianthus spp., Clethra canescens andvarious species of the Longaniaceae. TheAlmacega tree Agathis dammara is found here,but unfortunately many have been killed orremoved. It is a source of resin and also a muchprized wood in the furniture industry. Some ofthe older strangling figs Ficus spp. are hollow,

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having killed the host tree. These are normallyleft alone by local people who believe they areinhabited by spirits. Most of this forest (especi-ally at the lower altitudes) is secondary growthdue to landslips, logging and cultivation. Treeferns (Cyathea contaminans and C. elmeri) arecommon in clearings and on forest edges, as areSaurauia spp. and screw-pines (Pandanus spp.).

At about 1000 m the forest develops into a truedipterocarp forest (Shorea spp., Parashoreaspp. and Dipterocarpus spp.) (FAO, 1981),with a higher canopy and trees 50 m tall, ormore. Most of this forest has already beencleared, but remnants can still be found on thesides of gorges, for example, along the Sibulanriver. Figure 1 shows the areas occupied byforest in the park during the 1970s and the mainsettlements in the area.

Rufous hombill Buceros hydrocorax, endemic to thePhilippines and found throughout the park

(R. E. Lewis).

Below: Figure 1. Map of Mt Apo National Park (adaptedfrom Sorongon, 1982).

JDAVAO CITY

DAVAO GULF

km DigosJ

- — - National Park boundary

^ = ^ = Roads

-1500-Altitude (metres)

I 1 Forest areas (from ASEAN Experts Groupon the Environment, 1983)

National parks in the Philippines 101



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FaunaThe most famous inhabitant of the park is thePhilippine eagle Pithecophaga jefferyi, and thePhilippine Eagle Conservation Programme(PECP) is based there. The birds of the parkhave been recorded, but little is known of theirbiology. Of the total number of bird speciesrecorded there, 61 species are endemic to thePhilippines and 14 of these are endemic toMindanao (Table 1).

The larger mammals in the park are deer Cervusmariannus, the Philippine warty pig Sits bar-batus philippensis and the crab-eating macaqueMacaca fascicuhris. Other mammals includethe Philippine flying lemur Cynocephalusvolans, civet cats Paradoxurus hermaphroditisand Viverra tangalunga, fruit bats Pteropusvampyrus and Acerodon jubalatus, theMindanao flying squirrel Hylopetes mindanen-sis, and the Mindanao tree shrew Urogaleeveretti. The endangered Philippine tarsierTarsius syrichta may possibly still be found inthe park, but it is primarily a species of lowlandforest, most of which has already been des-troyed. In the mossy forest lives the insectivorePodogymnura truei, a relict species restricted tothe highlands of Mindanao. Its only congener P.aureospinula is found on the island of Dinagat(Figure 2) (W. Poduschka, pers. comm.).

Little is known of the reptiles in the park. Arecent survey of these by the PECP is soon to bepublished (Kennedy and Catibog-Sinha, inprep.).

The importance of Mt Apo NationalParkHauge et a\. (1986) have estimated the rela-tive importance of the various islands withinthe Philippine archipelago, with regards to theirvertebrate wildlife. The three most important(in terms of number of species and degree ofendemicity) are Mindanao, Luzon andPalawan, in that order. Protecting the naturalbiotas of these three islands would preserve 86per cent of all the Philippine vertebrates and 70per cent of the 'single-island endemics'.

Mt Apo National Park contains forest habitattypical of central Mindanao, supporting both102

Table 1. Birds of Mt Apo, endemic to Mindanao (classificationbased on Bruce, 1980; Kennedy, an unpublished checklist)

Trichoglossus johnstoniaePrioniturus waterstradtiHalcyon hombroniLeonardina woodiRhinomyias goodfellowiRhipidura

nigrocinnamomeaBasilornis mirandaAethopyga primigeniusA. boltoniDicaeum propriumD. nigriloreLophozosterops

goodfellowiHypocryptadius

cmnamomeusErythrura coloria

Mindanao lorikeetMindanao racket-tailed parakeetBlue-capped wood kingfisherBagobo babblerGoodfellow's jungle flycatcherBlack and cinnamon fantail

Apo mynaHachisaka's sunbirdApo sunbirdSlaty-breasted flowerpeckerOlive-capped flowerpeckerApo white-eye

Cinnamon white-eye

Red-eared parrotfinch

The only other species endemic to Mindanao, the sharp-tailedcuckoo-shrike Coracina mcgregori can be found on MtKatanglad and Mt Malindang. It may possibly also exist on thenorthern side of Mt Apo.

Philippine endemic plants and animals andMindanao highland endemics. It is one of theonly two ASEAN* Natural Heritage Parks inthe country (the other is Mt Iglit on Mindoro)(Figure 2), and one of only two large forestedparks on Mindanao.

The forests in the park are also an invaluablewatershed for Davao City, the second largestcity in the country, whose water supply is pipedfrom the foothills of Mt Apo. The main agri-cultural crops of the lands surrounding the parkare coconut and paddy rice, the latter needingan abundant and constant water supply. Mostdays the peak is hidden by clouds in the after-noon, often with the cloud level as low as 1000m. The Philippine Eagle Centre staff andKellman (1970) have recorded yearly rainfall atthis height as being almost twice as much as thatreceived by Davao City.

The history of the parkMt Apo National Park was created in 1936 toprotect the unique scenery of the volcano andthe surrounding rain forest. Although originally76,900 ha, small areas were lost from the park in

*Association of South-East Asian Nations (Philippines,Thailand, Singapore, Malaysia, Brunei and Indonesia).

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Altitudes (metres)

Mt Apo

Mt Katonglad

Mt Canlaon

Mt Malindang

Mt Iglit

Rainforest (based on thePhilippine Conservation StrategyAnon., 1983)

Figure 2. Map of the Philippines illustrating the rain forest and protected forest areas mentioned in the text.

1957 and 1965, and then again in 1965 the parkwas reduced to 33,764 ha. The park wasrestored to 72,814 ha the following year(Anderson eta/., 1983).

Various tribal peoples live in the park: theManobos live in the west, around Ilomavis, andvarious tribes of Bagobos live in the south andeast. Both groups are shifting cultivators andstill hunt in the forest. The Bagobo village ofTudaya (Figure 1) has been in existence at leastall this century and was, until recently, thehighest settlement (1000 m) in the park. Inprevious times the Bagobos worshipped thespirit of the volcano, 'Sandawa'. This religionstill exists in parts of the mountain, althoughvirtually all Bagobos are now Christian andlittle is practised of their native culture. In thevery north of the park live the Aetas (alsoknown as Negritos). These people are theearliest colonizers of the country and are veryNational parks in the Philippines

different from the Malay-types like Bagobosand Manobos. The Aetas are not permanentsettlers but nomadic hunters within the forest,dependent on the forest for their livelihoods.These native groups retain important knowl-edge about the plants of the forest and the use ofthe forest as a sustainable resource. Any Jong-term plan for the park has to include a realisticfuture for these people.

Currently the predominant crop in the moun-tains is coffee, which is grown as a cash crop andcarried by pony to the road terminals. Theseplantations are maintained over many years;each year they are underbrushed and the coffeebushes mulched with the cut vegetation. Most isgrown below productive capacity as the bushesare not pruned properly and many are too old.Maize and Manila hemp Musa textilis are alsogrown as cash crops and cassava, taro and sweetpotato for domestic consumption.

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Many parts of the park are now non-viable asforest reserves. In the mid-1970s it was esti-mated that 20 per cent of the park had alreadybeen converted to open lands (Anderson et al,1983). Probably over 50 per cent of the park isnow deforested, and the resultant fragmenta-tion of the forest increases the threat to wildlife.Philippine eagles, for example, require largeareas of forest (Lewis, 1986) and the remainingareas around Mt Apo probably do not supportmore than 15 pairs (Kennedy and Catibog-Sinha, in prep.), an already dangerously lownumber. The nearest forests to Mt Apo are atleast 20 km away, which must limit immigrationand emigration and increase the likelihood oflocalised extinction from genetic deteriorationor environmental catastrophe.

AdministrationNational parks are administered by at least tendifferent bodies, including three Ministries andtwo universities. The majority, including MtApo National Park, come under the jurisdictionof the Parks and Wildlife Division, a depart-ment of the Bureau of Forest Development(BFD), which is part of the Ministry of NaturalResources (MNR). However, as a non-revenueearner for the BFD (most of which is concernedwith the monitoring of logging), the Parks andWildlife Division has been under-budgeted andunder-staffed.

Mt Apo National Park is administered by twoseparate regional BFD offices, Region XI basedat Davao City and Region XII at Cotabato City(Figure 2). This has led to problems with eachregion working independently of the other overpark issues.

In the past, administration of the park has beenhampered by the presence of rebels. Conditionsare still unsettled in the northern areas of thepark, but I found that a great deal of work couldstill be accomplished. There is a lot of publicsympathy towards conservation and this wasreflected in the attitude of both the military andthe rebels who tended to leave us alone. Thesouthern area of the park has always been safeand visitors trek to the peak unharassed.Working in the park demands patience, butprogress can be achieved. It is to be hoped thatconditions may improve in the highlands.104

ThreatsIn March 1983, under new legislation governingland classification, 44,772 ha of the park weredeclared 'alien and disposable', transferringthem from the Ministry of Natural Resources tothe Ministry of Human Settlements. The justifi-cation for this was that the lands in questionwere already under cultivation, but a BFDsurvey estimated that only about 35 per cent ofthese lands were under crops. The PhilippineEagle Centre and surrounding forest were inone of the 'alien and disposable' areas and werescheduled to be developed for plantations. Thisaction brought strong protest from the inter-national community, which halted the imple-mentation of the new law. As a result the parkwas placed 'in limbo' with neither ministryacting. Legally the park was reduced to a mere28,032 ha. At this size, it was questionedwhether the park was a viable biological entity.Other parks were affected by the same law. Thesituation changed in June 1986 when theAquino government revoked the March 1983law and the disputed areas returned to theMinistry of Natural Resources, Mt ApeNational Park reverting to 72,814 ha.

The biggest threat to the park is the massiveinflow of lowlanders, who have no knowledge oliving in the mountains. They enter the foresalong the logging roads, clearing and settlincthe already 'thinned forest' (Lewis, 1986). Theslash-and-burn clearings are known as kaingin:and the clearers kaingineros. The kainginero i<one of the largest social problems in th«country. Efforts are under way to resolve thisnotably on the island of Palawan (Gaon, 1984)When they have no chain-saws, the kainginero;cut down the trees by axe 3-5 m from th<ground to avoid the labour of cutting througlthe wide buttresses at the base of the tree. Althe undergrowth is burnt back during the dnseason (January-May around Apo). The crop:are grown between the fallen tree trunks, as iithe mountains it is impractical to saw the tree:for lumber, unless needed for local hous(building. During the drought of 1982/83, conditions were so dry that kaingineros were able tcfire the intact forest and uncontrolled fires ragecover Mindanao. Mt Apo suffered less thaimany parts of the island.




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In the early to mid-1970s, 2000 ha of forest werelogged on the high plateau of Kapatagan(Figure 1) (Pollisco, 1982) and now a townshipexists there with a satellite village Pog-Pog,established at 1200 m. The new generations ofBagobos, in places like Tudaya and Mitondo,have no alternative but to go higher in themountains as the lower areas are populated. A1975 survey (Anderson et al, 1983) put the totalnumber of inhabitants in the park at 15,000.Probably a realistic figure now would be over20,000.

A new road is under construction (completionexpected in 1995) to link Tudaya with the mainhighway at Astorga. Although this will be aboon for the villagers exporting their produce, itwill probably mean another inflow of peopleinto the park, and create good conditions forillegal logging.

Uncontrolled hunting and collecting still con-tinue in the park. Hunting and trapping areprimarily for pigs and deer; monkeys are alsoshot when they raid kaingins. Epiphytes, bam-boos and rattans are commonly collected forhousehold use. It is not known what impact thisexploitation is having inside the forest, butrattans have certainly been depleted in manyareas. Parrots are still collected illegally in the

park, primarily for the domestic market. Manycolourful butterflies and orchids are also underpressure from uncontrolled collection. Theorchid 'Waling-Waling' Vanda sanderianafetches very high prices even on the domesticmarket. Butterfly collection is presently a morespecialized pursuit, but may be having anequally strong effect on some species. Theswallowtail Graphium sandawanum, which isconfined to Mt Apo, is threatened as the forestis destroyed (Collins and Morris, 1985).

RecommendationsReorganization and committed finance areneeded for the Parks and Wildlife Division.Ideally, Mt Apo National Park should be whollycontrolled from one region by a full-time parkwarden. Otherwise control should be returnedto the central office of the BFD at Quezon City.More forest guards need to be assigned to pro-tecting the park; presently they are too few, andtrained in forestry and logging rather than inwildlife and park management. The AustralianGovernment together with AREA (Associa-tion for Research Exploitation and Aid) hasoffered to train park rangers and help create aPhilippine ranger service (Warren, 1982).

Mt Apo as seen from Mitondo (/?. E. Lewis).




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A ground survey is needed to assess thenumber, and nature, of settlements and theareas of remaining forest. Landsat and aerialphotographs are already available. Forest areasstill exist outside the park, on its northernboundary, and even if already logged they maystill have good potential for park inclusion. It isimportant that the forest area of the park isincreased to counteract the clearances, other-wise the park's viability as a representative bio-tope will be lost. Although new areas of forestneed to be included, the denuded areas, such asat Kapatagan, should not be fully excluded fromthe park lest this encourage further settlements.A zonation policy is needed with a core zonefully protected and subject to strict control overusage. Settled areas of the park would be asecondary zone, still under park guidance, andwith any developments aimed at creating abuffer to, and alleviating demands on, theforest. Agro-forestry techniques would produceincome for the settlers as well as maintain stablesoil conditions. Large areas of the park thathave been degraded to cogon grass Imperatacylindrica should be reclaimed. Cogon areas,which are created by repeated burning, areextremely unproductive and can only providegrazing when new shoots are growing. Presently15-20 per cent of the whole country is estimatedto be covered in cogon grass, and a further 20per cent is considered to be marginal land un-suitable for lowland agriculture (Anon., 1983).If these lands are put to a more productive usethen pressure on the forest would be alleviated.Few lowlanders want to live in the harsh condi-tions high in the mountains.

Public participation in educationDuring the drought of 1982/83, part of themossy forest on Mt Apo was burnt in a fire thatwas probably started accidentally by campers.In late 1983 a reafforestation programme wascarried out Many of the seedlings planted wereexotics, but it was felt that these would still beuseful in maintaining the soil and providingsuitable conditions for the indigenous forest toregrow. The seedlings were provided by theBFD and two climbing groups, MACADAC(Mt Apo Climbers' Association of Davao City)and the parent group, the National Mountain-106

eering Federation, provided the labour. TheFederation mobilized all of its affiliated clubsthroughout the country.

Philippine Airlines provided reduced air faresso that hundreds of volunteers could convergeon Apo for the replanting. This national conser-vation action was the first of its kind, and illus-trates the sympathy and awareness that are nowdeveloping in the country. The project was aninitial success, but it is still too early to knowhow well the indigenous trees will recolonize.The BFD and MACADAC are still plantingseedlings and clearing fire-breaks.

In 1984 'Friends of Mt Apo National Park' wasset up by the BFD in Davao City. It includesmembers of the general public, interested localgroups, regional government officials andmembers of the BFD. The aim is to developpublic participation in the running of the park,providing a direct input to the Parks and Wild-life Division and co-ordinating the efforts of thevarious groups.

Although most Filipinos know the park, too fewunderstand its significance. A conservationeducation programme is needed not just inDavao, but throughout the country. Little rainforest ecology and conservation is taught inschools, and at graduate level the courses areprimarily concerned with forestry. A conser-vation campaign using newspapers, radio andtelevision could reach even those living in themountains. From discussions I had in Davao,the media are quite willing to undertake this,but lack the necessary information. At present,the only book on Mt Apo is the guide written byRey Sorongon (1982), a member of MACA-DAC. More literature is needed, as are infor-mation boards at all the park entrances. TheHaribon Foundation, a national conservationgroup, is preparing education materials con-cerned with rain-forest conservation, and hasalso proposed a study of the national parksystem in the Philippines.

In the past, management of native peoples hastended to take control from them in the beliefthat this would minimize environmentaldamage. However, on the island of Luzon, Rice(1984), working with the native Ikalahans,found that their approach to the forest changed




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New kaingin being cleared at j

when given more control over their own activ-ities. A formal agreement between the tribe andthe BFD stated what the BFD required of thearea (which is a valuable watershed) and left itto the tribe to organize itself. Previous to theagreement upwards of 400 ha of grassland wereburnt each year. In 1984 this was down to 40 ha ayear, but the Ikalahans were trying to reduce itfurther. The tribe fined individuals for irrespon-sible burnings. Certainly a scheme like this isrequired around Mt Apo. With good dialogueand some form of security of tenure, progresscan be achieved that is both beneficial for theforest and the people. Similarly, it has beensuggested (Siebert, 1984) that illegal settlersshould be offered land stewardship titles inreturn for legal agreement that they do notmove from the land they occupy. In conjunc-tion, agro-forestry assistance would be offeredto enable the farmer to utilize the land year afteryear. This could work only if new immigration iscontrolled and proper forest protection isenforced.

To the south of Mt Apo, in Alah valley, a craftindustry has been established for the productsof the T'boli people. Native crafts offer greatpotential in creating revenue for the localpeople of Mt Apo, especially if tourism isinvolved in the park. The farming of rattans andother minor forest products (such as orchids,National parks in the Philippines

i.'ly 1LKJU m altitude (R. E. Lewis).

butterflies, medicinals and spices) could alsogenerate a substantial income for thecommunity.

TourismIt is not known how many people visit the parkeach year, but it is certainly in the thousands. In1985 over 1000 people visited the PhilippineEagle Centre alone, and during Easter weekhundreds of Filipinos trek to the peak for en-joyment and pilgrimage. Sights on the Davaoside include the magnificent Tudaya Falls on theSibulan river. Hot springs are found in the park,and Lake Agco is near boiling point. Water istapped from the lake into a 5-m diameter tub,where it is mixed with cold water piped from anearby stream. After a day's hiking the effecthas to be felt to be believed. At Mitondo, Phil-ippine eagles can regularly be seen. For fourmonths in 1983 we had a hide near an eagle nestso that people could view the birds without dis-turbing them. As an education tool and a parkattraction, a hike through the rain forest then asight of the Philippine eagle is unsurpassed. Awilderness trekking programme in Khao YaiNational Park in Thailand has increasedrevenue for the local villagers and created newattitudes to the forest, resulting in less treecutting and poaching (Suvanakom and Dobias,1986).

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Visitors to the park should give themselvesthree to five days to enjoy the hike. It is not aneasy hike to the peak; steep terrain and possibleinclement weather face the hiker. Frosts areoccasionally recorded at the peak, and difficultconditions are normal between November andDecember. As yet there is no system of officialguides and porters for the park, but MACA-DAC is training people from the local com-munity of New Israel. Organized hiking isneeded to minimize the hikers' impact andcreate revenue for the park. As more and morepeople use the park, unintentional damage isincreasing. Lake Venado is threatened by toomany campers spreading around the lake. Mosthikers still use firewood for cooking, and theturf around the lake is damaged by fires andcompaction. Control is needed to prevent pol-lution of the lake, which is an important sourceof drinking water for hikers. Rangers areneeded at Lake Agco, Lake Venado and theforest above Tudaya, the three areas commonlyused for camping. Monitoring is necessary toprevent the collection of epiphytes or else thewell-known trails will soon be devoid of beauty.Litter is common on the trails, but this could belessened through informing hikers of theproblem. There should be a charge for peoplewishing to stay in the park, with a reduced ratefor local people. Money could also be generatedby rental of huts (presently at New Israel, LakeAgco and the Philippine Eagle Centre) andsupplying foodstuffs. Brad Warren of AREAbelieves that adventure tourism is ideal forPhilippine conservation (Warren, 1982). With a$10 million investment he estimates an addi-tional $200 million would be created annually,and imposing a 15% per cent tax on this wouldgenerate enough funds for park managementthroughout the country.

Other forest parks in thePhilippinesThe only other large park on Mindanao is MtMalindang National Park (50,000 ha). It hassimilar problems to Apo. A new national park,Mt Katanglad, has recently been proposed.Both Mt Malindang and Mt Katanglad holdPhilippine eagles. Some areas of lowland forestcan still be found on the western peninsula, and108

even if these have already been selectively log-ged, efforts should be made to create some formof reserve to allow the regeneration of the rainforest. It is unrealistic at present to try to pre-serve virgin lowland forest; economic pressuresare too great.

On Luzon there are four parks that contain rainforest, but unfortunately these are small (thelargest is 5000 ha) and/or isolated from otherforests. None holds Philippine eagles, which dooccur on Luzon. The largest tracts of forest arein the Sierra Madre mountains along the eastcoast. A large park of at least 50,000 ha shouldbe established there for the Philippine eagle,before the lowland forest is lost.

Palawan is still relatively undeveloped andoffers the greatest chance of immediate successwith forest conservation. It presently has oneforest park of approximately 5000 ha surround-ing St Paul's subterranean river. More areneeded. A summary of the situation is describedby Balmford and Quinnell (1988).

The two notable rain-forest parks outside thesethree islands are Mt Canlaon (approximately25,000 ha) on Negros and, the largest park inthe country, Mt Iglit (75,000 ha) on Mindoro.Mt Canlaon contains the endangered Visayanwarty pig Sus barbatus cebifrons (Cox, 1987),and Mt Iglit is home to the endemic buffalo, thetamaraw Bubalus mindorensis and the indigen-ous Mangyan peoples. Both parks are beingcleared on the borders and surfer from poach-ing. There are also plans for geothermal energydevelopment around Mt Canlaon, an activevolcano.

On Leyte, a new national park has been pro-posed (1982), Leyte Mountains National Park(approximately 40,000 ha). Although not yetfully surveyed it probably contains the endan-gered Cervus alfredi, the endemic deer of thecentral Philippines. Establishment of the parkwill probably be hampered by proposed plansfor extensive geothermal-industrial projects,road construction through the middle of thepark, and human resettlement programmes(Siebert, 1984). If this new park could be main-tained it will form a vital link, with Mt Canlaon,in the preservation of the central Philippines'wildlife.




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Logging concessions around the national parksneed to be managed on a sustainable yieldsystem, and human immigration prevented.This will provide a buffer zone between the fullyprotected forests of the parks and agriculturaldevelopment. Normally the mossy forest areasin concessions are not logged, as the small treesand steep terrain make it uneconomical. I sawan exception to this where a plateau in theKatanglad range, 1700 m, was being logged.The area was already being settled andhundreds of hectares of intact forest had beenburnt during the 1982/83 drought. Parks, water-shed areas and logging concessions will all havea role to play in rain forest conservation.

ConclusionsMt Apo National Park, along with most Philip-pine parks, needs administrative reorganiza-tion, new evaluation and protection. These canonly come about through committed finance.The BFD proposed a 4-year developmentscheme for Apo (1984-1988), which has beenshelved due to the lack of the necessary6,948,581 pesos ($347,429 at the 1984 exchangerate). Unfortunately, the new government isvirtually bankrupt with foreign debts over $25billion. Presently none of the parks come up tothe international standards defined by theIUCN (Roque, 1985), and although the BFDhas stated that the facilities of two parks are tobe improved (Agaloos, 1984), this is unlikely inthe present financial climate. The biggestproblem now is time. Forest clearance is stillcontinuing, uncontrolled, within the parks.Immediate short-term measures are needed toprovide a 'stop-gap', while long-term plans areimplemented. Five to ten years away may be toolate. No matter how little, work has to beginnow.

Acknowledgments

I would like to thank my colleagues in the PECP, BFD,Haribon and MACADAC, especially Florie Andrion, CoraBaylon, Boy Pena, Rey Sorongon, Tony Uy and EdViacrucis. Jean Arguillas, Dr Michael Green, Carl Jones,David Todd and Mark Witmer kindly commented on themanuscript.

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Anon. 1983. Philippine National Conservation Strategy. TheHaribon Foundation, Manila.

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https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605300027575


Documents

Mt Apo and other national parks in the Philippines