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Chapter V
MUSLIM COMMUNITY IN A FLUX:
EDUCATION, GULF-MIGRATION AND SOCIAL MOBILITY
It is an undisputable fact that changes of a deep rooted nature are taking
place in the Muslim community of Kerala in contemporary times. Such changes
are not merely confined to any particular walk of life of the community or any
particular section of it. Though the extend of change in various aspects of the
Muslim life and among various sections of that community varies, the fact remains
that such changes are multi-layered and are found in areas like education,
occupation and geographical mobility. Consequent on this a new middle class is
emerging within the community. When compared to the middle class in other
castes and communities it is true that this group is numerically small and a little
more conservative in outlook. But, at the same time, compared to their brethren
within the community, they are more modernist in outlook with a world view that
is at odds with the rest of the community. This Chapter seeks to analyse the
changes in the educational attainment of the Muslims and their general social
mobility. This analysis is based primarily on field data though secondary sources
have also been used to complete it.
1.1. Educational Mobility
Among the most important factors that leads to the progress and mobility of
a community, education is very significant [Hasan and Menon, 2005; Jawaid, et.al,
2007; Mohammed, 2007; Nair.G, 1978]. Hence education is a highly valued asset
and key to the overall development of human beings in modern societies. In this
matter, Kerala leads all other Indian states as it has a very long standing tradition
of organized education and the distinction of being the most literate state. Even
prior to independence and integration of the state, there were endeavors for social
and educational reforms at the initiative of native rulers [Pillai V, 1940; Engineer,
1995; Hardy, 1972; Mohammed, 2007]. Kerala was the first state to introduce free
and compulsory primary education [Pillai V, op.cit.; Nair.G, op.cit.; Gangadharan,
2004]. Since independence, through a series of socio-economic development plans
152
the state has achieved dramatic social development. When the Muslims realized
the fact that education was the prime factor for social and economic prosperity,
they began to adopt steps to achieve educational advancement as was done by
others. Although these initiatives were successful in many respects, still the
community has to go a long way in this regard.
Today, the preference of the community is definitely towards modern
education and only the poor go to Madrassas because of their locations, convenient
timings and lack of economic means to send their children to secular schools. No
one from middle class families among Muslims sends their children to Madrassas,
instead they (including girl children) send their children to study in modern schools
and, if possible, in English medium schools. In fact, this trend is on the increase
and girls are greater achievers than boys in modern education [Engineer, 2006: 15-
16] which could be attributed to the changing perception of women about
themselves. The rate of literacy among Muslim women in Kerala is far higher than
their counterparts elsewhere in India [Ibid, 101]. As Wajeeha, a student of BDS in
Malappuram district, says: ‘Unlike the earlier times, now girls take education
seriously. They are also in the run to make a well planned and well settled life like
that of the men folk’ [Rushdi, 2010]. Jose Kurian writes, “It is something that
would have been unthinkable only a decade ago. But today young Muslim mothers
of Malabar are walking into colleges carrying babies and leaving them in crèches
on campuses to go to classes. Best of all, they have the backing of their husbands in
setting this new trend in the region” [Kurian, 2013]. Dr.Fazal Gafoor remarks,
“When it comes to marriage, established families prefer educated girls. Uneducated
families with business background also prefer educated girls as they consider it a
matter of pride” [Ibid.]. Various factors have contributed to this, including the
efforts of reformists among the Muslim community, initiatives carried out by
Government and the general trend in Kerala which supported (still supports)
modern education [Azeez, 1992: 21]. As a result, numerous institutions were
established mostly in Malabar [Kunju, 1989: 261-62]. In modern times, the rapid
expansion of educational facilities in both private and public sectors provided
opportunities for all sections of the society to move up on the educational ladder
[Nair and Menon, 2007: 11]. There are nearly 100 Muslim owned colleges in the
153
country mostly in southern India [Khalidi, 1996: 117]. Several modern educational
institutions, including Engineering, Medical and other professional institutions,
have been set up by Muslims in recent years. Besides, today, even those who are
there under Madrassa instruction undergo modern education at least up to
secondary level. To a great extent, these steps found success and the urge for
education has caught up in Kerala, including the Malabar region.
1.2. Educational Institutions and Level of Literacy
In every society density and availability of educational institutions are
important indicators regarding its attitude towards education. If one is to use the
terminology of the market, there has to be a positive correlation between demand
(for education) and supply (of educational institutions). Therefore an increase in
‘supply’ of educational institutions invariably points towards an increase in
‘demand’ for education on the part of the stake holders. Such a correlation between
educational institutions and education, needless to say, has a positive connotation
for the rate of literacy. A society which has an abundant ‘supply’ of educational
institutions cannot but have a greater percentage of people who are
literate/educated. Field data as well as secondary data from Malappuram district
amply prove this.
A look at the number of educational institutions in the district brings out
certain interesting conclusions (Table 5.1). While the district has fairly good
number of schools where state syllabus is followed, its share in the matter of non-
state syllabus schools (for instance, CBSE, ICSC, etc.) shows a certain gap. In the
matter of Lower Primary, Upper Primary and Higher Secondary Schools the
number of institutions in the district stands at 12.55, 12.03 and 11.57 per cent,
respectively, to that of the state. However in the case of schools run in other
streams this is only 7.23 per cent to that of the state. This brings to fore one
important factor: the demand for education in the state syllabus is more than the
demand for education in other streams. A question one has to confront here is,
whether this short supply of non-state syllabus schools is due to a lack of demand
on the part of the stake holders or whether it points towards the opposite direction,
ie., lack of demand for such streams due to a lack of supply such schools. This is an
154
important issue for discerning students of Education and Social Sciences to
address.
Table 5.1
Educational Institutions in Kerala and Malappuram District (2009-’10)
Category Kerala Malappuram
Total Number Percent to State
Lower Primary School 6788 852 12.55
Upper Primary School 3040 366 12.03
High Schools 2814 254 9.02
Schools other than State Syllabus 912 66 7.23
Higher Secondary Schools 1703 197 11.57
Polytechnics 52 3 5.76
Arts and Science Colleges 190 11 5.78
B.Ed. Colleges 10 1 10
Engineering Colleges 120 04 3.33
Medical, Ayurvedic, Homoeo and
Dental Colleges (including Self-financing)
57 03 5.26
Sources : 1. Government of Kerala, (2011), Economic Review 2010, List of Appenix Tables 11.1 – 11.45,
Economic and Statistics Department, Thiruvananthapuram.
2. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_institutions_of_higher_education_in_Kerala
3. wiki/List_of_Polytechnic_Colleges_in_Kerala
4. wiki/List_of_Engineering_Colleges_in_Kerala#Central_Government_ Engineering _Colleges
A similar trend is also visible in the matter of College and professional
educational institutions. The number of Arts and Science Colleges in the district is
only 5.78 per cent to that of the State, and Polytechnics 5.76 per cent. In the case of
Engineering and Medical educational institutions this shortfall in supply is much
more manifest. While all types of Medical Colleges (Allopathic, Homeopathic,
Dental and Ayurvedic systems of medicine) constitute just 5.26 per cent to that of
the State, the case of Engineering Colleges is still more pathetic – 3.33 per cent to
the State total. Whatever may be the reason for this, fact remains that there is scope
for establishing more institutions in the field of professional and college education
155
in the district, and this would be more so if one takes into account the general
backwardness and the minority character of the area. This however does not mean
that the district is far behind other districts in terms of literacy or even in education.
This would be clear if one looks at the level of literacy available from the census
data and also from the primary data form the respondents.
Table 5.2
Percentage of Population and Literacy in Malappuram District 1971 – 2001
Year
Population (in percentage) Percentage of Literacy
Total Male Female Total Male Female
1971 1856362 48.99 51.00 49.90 55.32 49.00
1981 2402701 48.72 51.27 60.50 65.93 55.34
1991 3096330 48.71 51.28 87.9 92.1 84.1
2001 3625471 48.40 51.60 89.61 93.25 86.26
Sources : 1. Census Commissioner of India (1971), Census 1971, Kerala Series 9, p. 8 & 2001, p. xix
2. Census Commissioner of India (1981), District Census Hand Book, Malappuram, 1981, pp.
45 & 49.
3. Census Commissioner of India (2001), Final Population Totals, Kerala, 2001 (Supplement),
p. 23.
Table 5.2 gives a clear picture about the level of literacy - gender-wise - of
Malappuram district over a time span of three decades (between 1971-2001).
Overall literacy in the district moved from 49.90 per cent in 1971 to a spectacular
89.61 per cent in 2001. The achievement in this regard is almost double. Since the
first census after the formation of Malappuram District to 2001, literacy of Kerala
has almost increased from 60.40 percent in 1971 to 90.92 percent with a difference
of 30.52 percent. During the same period the difference noticed in Malappuram
district is 39.71 per cent which shows an increase of 9.19 per cent than the average
increase in the State as a whole [Saithalavi, 2010]. Interestingly it was during the
period between 1981 and 1991 that great strides were made in the matter of
literacy. From 60.50 per cent in 1981, it jumped to 87.90 per cent in 1991, an
increase of more than 17 percentage points.1 This trend is visible in the case of
female literacy as well. In 1971 it was merely 49 per cent, but in 2001 it moved on
to 86.26 per cent. Here again the crucial decade was 1981-1991 when female
156
literacy made a quantum jump from 51.27 to 84.1 per cent, an increase of about 33
per cent. The table also shows that the gap between male and female literacy has
been progressively coming down over the years.
Table 5.3
District-wise Muslim Literacy in 1961 and 2001
State and Districts 1961 2001
Total Muslims Total Muslims
Kerala 46.22 19.18 90.86 89.37
Thiruvanathapuram 45 29.80 89.28 87.47
Kollam 50 29.60 91.18 88.13
Pathanamthitta N.A N.A 94.84 81.35
Alappuzha 56 25.10 93.43 89.40
Kottayam 56 27.80 95.82 93.83
Idukki N.A N.A 88.69 88.92
Ernakulam 50 28.30 93.20 89.92
Thrissur 48 23.40 92.27 90.09
Palakkad 34 14.00 84.35 87.87
Malappuram N.A N.A 89.61 89.63
Kozhikode 40 15.10 92.24 91.27
Wayanad N.A N.A 85.25 87.58
Kannur 41 16.20 92.59 90.79
Kasargod N.A N.A 84.57 84.17
Note : N.A – Not Applicable.
Sources : 1. Kerala Muslim Jama’ate Federation, Kerala Muslim Sthidhivivaram, Kerala Muslim
Jama’ate Federation, 1962, p.71.
2. Census Commissioner of India (2001), Total Population, Literates by category of Religious
Communities, www.vaikhari.org/demography.html
If Table 5.2 is the record of the literacy rate of the entire population of
Malappuram, one is intrigued to find out the same for the Muslim population of
the district. A district-wise analysis of this is available in Table 5.3 which also gives
a comparative account for 1961 and 2001. In the first instance, the most significant
development is the quantum jump made by the Muslim population in literacy
157
during the period. In 1961 while the total literacy rate for Kerala stood at 46.22 per
cent, it was a mere 19.18 for the Muslim community and this moved on to 89.37
per cent in 2001 – an increase of more than 70 percentage points. This means that
the difference between the two has been considerably reduced, to a mere one per
cent in 2001.
A district-wise analysis shows that in none of the districts the literacy
percentage of the community reached even 30 per cent in 1961. The highest
percentage in this regard was 29.80 in Thiruvanthapuram followed by Kollam
(29.60), Ernakulam (28.30) and Kottayam (27.80). On the obverse side, the lowest
rate was recorded in Palakkad (14.00) and Kozhikode (15.10) districts, both of
which, then, formed part of the Malabar region. This scenario had been basically
altered in 2001. In none of the districts the rate was less than 80 per cent and
in three districts – Kottayam (93.83), Kozhikode (91.27) and Kannur (90.79) - it
Figure 4.
Rates of Literacy Among the Major Religious Groups in Kerala : Census 2001
Source: Census Commissioner of India, (2001), Kerala Census Report - 2001 and First Report on
Religion, www.vaikhari.org/demography.html
89.37%
90.42%
94.15%
Muslims
Hindus
Christians
158
reached more than 90 per cent. A noteworthy development in this regard was the
loss of face suffered by the Thiruvanathapuram and Kollam districts which stood in
the first and second positions, respectively during 1961 and ended up in the twelfth
and ninth positions in 2001. In the case of Malappuram, though a comparison
between 1961 and 2001 is not possible as the district was established only in 1969
its record in literacy is not bad, as it stands seventh in comparison.
In order to get a complete picture of Muslims’ advance in education, a
comparative analysis of literacy level among various religious groups is imperative.
As per the 2001 census figures, Christian community emerged first with 94.15 per
cent followed by the Hindus with 90.42 per cent and Muslims with 89.37 per cent
(Figure 4). However, in Malappuram district, among these religious groups the
Muslims’ advance was a little better than the State average. The position of the
Muslims in this regard was second to the
Table 5.4
Gender-wise Literacy of Religious Groups Malappuram District as per
2001 Census
Religion Kerala Gender-wise distribution
Male Female Total
Muslims 89.37 919128
(93.35)
943079
(86.28)
1862207
(89.63)
Hindus 90.2 418888
(92.69)
403307
(85.48)
822195
(89.00)
Christians 94.15 34659
(97.80)
33508
(96.19)
68167
(97.00)
Total 90.86 1373688
(93.25)
1380821
(86.26)
2754509
(89.61)
Gender-wise Total in State (in per cent)
94.24 87.72 90.86
Notes : 1. Figures contain persons above 6 years.
2. Figures given in brackets indicate percentage distribution.
Source : Census Commissioner of India, (2001), Kerala Census Report - 2001 and First
Report on Religion, www.vaikhari.org/demography.html
159
Christians (Table 5.4). Their rate of literacy was 89.63 per cent compared to 97. 00
per cent of the Christians. This is slightly above the Hindus whose literacy rate was
89 per cent. For a backward community belonging to a backward district, attaining
second place in the matter of literacy is definitely an important feat. This
improvement in literacy is reflected in education as well, and clear evidence in this
regard comes from the field data collected by the researcher.
Figure 5
Educational Profile of the Respondents
Source : The Figure is prepared on the basis of field survey conducted by the researcher in the
Malappuram District. Hereinafter, ‘The Survey’.
Of the 310 respondents, only 31 are found to be illiterate, which is 10 per
cent of the total. Of the rest, largest chunk (40.97 per cent) has completed High
School education followed by Primary (33.23.per cent) and Pre Degree/Plus Two
education (7.10 per cent). As the education level goes higher, however, the number
of the respondents gets diminished. For example, in the case of Degree holders this
is 4.50 per cent, still less for Post Graduates (2.58 per cent) and Professional
Degree holders (1.61 per cent). There is nothing surprising in this as this is true of
all religious groups. However, the point to be taken note of in the instant case is the
10%
33.23%
40.97%
7.1%
4.52%
2.58%1.61%
Illiterate
Primary
High School
PDC/HSC
Degree
P.G
Others
160
changing trend in this regard among the younger generation which is clear from the
Table 5.5. If one look at the 19-35 age group, one could discern that the percentage
Table 5. 5
Educational Profile of the Respondents: Age-wise Distribution
Age Group 19-35 36-50 51-65 Above 65 Total
Illiterate
03
(9.67)
[2.48]
11
(35.48)
[9.17]
08
(25.81)
[16.32]
09
(29.03)
[45.00]
31
[10.00]
Primary
22
(21.36)
[18.18]
48
(46.60)
[40.00]
24
(23.30)
[48.98]
09
(8.74)
[45.00]
103
[33.23]
High School
68
(53.54)
[56.20]
49
(38.58)
[40.83]
09
(7.09)
[18.37]
01
(0.79)
[5.00]
127
[40.97]
PDC/HSC
14
(63.63)
[11.57]
06
(27.27)
[5.00]
01
(3.70)
[2.04]
01
(3.70)
22
[7.10]
Degree
09
(64.28)
[7.43]
02
(14.28)
[1.67]
03
(21.42)
[6.12]
Nil 14
[4.50]
P. G
02
(25.00)
[1.65]
02
(25.00)
[1.67]
04
(50.00)
[8.16]
Nil 08
[2.58]
Others
03
(60.00)
[2.48]
02
(40.00)
[1.67]
Nil Nil 05
[1.61]
Total 121
(39.00)
120
(38.70)
49
(15.80)
20
(6.45)
310
[100]
Literacy in per cent 97.52 90.83 83.67 55.00 90.00
Notes : 1. Figures given in the parentheses indicate percentage distribution for the row and
those in square brackets for the column.
2. Others include Engineering, MBA and M.Phil degree holders.
Source : The Table is prepared on the basis of field survey conducted by the researcher in the
Malappuram District. Hereinafter, ‘The Survey’.
of High School/HSC educated, Degree holders and professionals is on the higher
side compared to the other groups. When professionals are conspicuous by their
161
absence in the above 50 age bracket, their percentage is 1.67 for 36-50 category and
still higher, 2.48 per cent for the 19-35 category. In the case of the Graduates also
the latter two age categories taken together has a percentage of 9.10 as against 6.12
for the former group (ie., above 50 age group). This difference is much more
glaring in the case of High School and Higher Secondary School education. While
67.77 per cent of the 19-35 age bracket has a background of either High School or
HSC education, for the older generation (above 50 years of age) this is a mere
29.11 per cent. If the number of those who belonged to the second age bracket (35-
50) is also added along with the first age bracket the number will be overwhelming.
The only level in which the older generation has an advantage is with
regard to the Post Graduate education where they (above 50 years) constitute 8.16
per cent as compared to 3.32 per cent of the younger generation. On the other side,
reverse is the order in regard to the number of illiterates. This is only 2.48 in the
first age bracket followed by 9.17 per cent in the second bracket, 16.32 and 45 per
cent, respectively, in the last two age brackets. This means younger the respondents
lesser is the chance for them to be illiterates. All these take one to the pressing
conclusion that today there is grater educational mobility for the Muslims
compared to the past. An analysis of intergenerational mobility further establishes
this fact.
One of the important methods sociologists follow in assessing the
educational mobility of a social group is to compare the educational attainment of
the children with that of their parent [Thornton and Freedman, 1998; Scott and
Marshall, 2009]. While this be the general rule, in the case of educationally
backward communities, for the purpose of comparison, education of the father,
instead of both parents, is depended upon. The underlying assumption here is that,
since the community is generally backward, education of women leaves much to be
desired and hence taking into account the educational achievements of the mothers
do not serve the purpose. In the instant case, therefore, since the Muslim
community is historically backward in education, attempt is made to compare the
educational level of the father with that of the children. Table 5.6 is devoted for this
purpose.
162
Table 5.6
Inter-Generational Educational Mobility
Educational Level
No. of Fathers
Distribution of Respondents
Illiterate Primary H.S PDC/+2 Degree P.G Other Total
Illiterate 108
[34.84]
22
(20.37)
[70.97]
53
(49.07)
[50.96]
27
(25.00)
[21.26]
3
(2.78)
[13.64]
1
(0.92)
[7.14]
2
(1.85)
[25.00]
N.A 108
(34.83)
Primary 171
[55.16]
8
(4.68)
[25.81]
48
(28.07)
[47.57]
83
(48.54)
[65.35]
14
(8.19)
[63.64]
11
(6.43)
[78.57]
4
(2.34)
[50.00]
3
(1.75)
[60.00]
171
(55.16)
H.S 22
[7.10] N.A
2
(9.09)
[1.92]
15
(68.18)
[11.81]
2
(9.09)
[9.09]
2
(9.09)
[14.29]
N.A
1
(4.55)
[20.00]
22
(7.10)
PDC/+2 4
[1.29]
1
(25.00)
[3.23]
N.A
1
(25.00)
[0.79]
2
(50.00)
[9.09]
N.A N.A N.A 4
(1.29)
Degree 5
[1.61] N.A N.A
1
(20.00)
[0.79]
1
(20.00)
[4.55]
N.A
2
(40.00)
[25.00]
1
(20.00)
[20.00]
5
(1.61)
Total 310 31
(10.00)
103
(33.23)
127
(40.97)
22
(7.10)
14
(4.52)
8
(2.58)
5
(1.61) 100
Note : 1. Figures given in the parentheses indicate percentage distribution for the row and those in square brackets for the column.
2. Others include Engineering, MBA and M.Phil Degree holders.
Source : The Survey
Of the 310 fathers, 108 (34.38 per cent) are illiterate, 171 are (55.16 per cent)
primary educated and of the rest 26 (8.39 percent) have High School and five (1.61
per cent) have Degree qualification. The analysis shows that of the 108 illiterate
parents only 22 children are illiterate. In percentage terms this comes to a mere 20
whereas a sizable chunk (25 per cent) went up to High School level with 1.85 per
cent having Post Graduate Degrees. Similar is the case, more or less, with regard to
the children of the primary educated parents. A good number of such children are
seen in the High School/HSC and Degree qualified categories. Interestingly, no
illiterate parent has his children among professional degree holders. On the other
side, no graduate parent has his children either in the illiterate’s category or
primary educated group. The analysis, therefore, shows that, compared to their
163
fathers, respondents are better educated in brute majority of the cases. This clearly
indicates that there is educational mobility among the Muslims of Malappuram
district. In a sense this is applicable to the Muslims of other districts of the state as
well. It is another thing that this is less when compared to other religious groups
like Hindus and Christians who took to English education early on and among
whom social reform movements also started much earlier.
1.3. Women Education
Muslims attitude towards female education has been a topic of great debate.
It has been argued that the position of women in Islam leaves much to be desired.
Those who argue in this vein often point out the system of marriage, inheritance
and personal law issues besides women education in Islamic societies to justify
their argument. Therefore, it is only in the fitness of things that such issues are
discussed here. Of these, presently this analysis focuses on women education alone
as other issues form part of the next Chapter.
It may be noted that female literacy in the State, as a whole, comes to 87.72
per cent (Table 5.4) and the same is 86.28 per cent for the Muslims of the
Malappuram district which shows only a minor difference of 1.44 per cent. As in
the case of men, here also the Table shows that Muslims of the district have a
better record compared to the Hindu population there, as female literacy among
the latter is only 85.48 per cent. Here, again the Christian population stands first
among the three religious groups with a tally of 96.19 per cent. All theses show that
Muslims of Malappurram have a fair record in women education. Primary data
also support this finding (Table 5.7 and Figure 6).
Among the total respondents, 10.76 per cent of women and 9.21 per cent
of men are seen to be illiterate. Looked at from another angle, of the total
illiterates, women constitute 54.84 per cent and men 45.16 per cent with a
differential of about 10 percentage point. As one moves from illiteracy to
literacy and other levels of education, another trend becomes discernible – women
constitute a significant portion of the Primary and High School educated and their
164
number tappers off at other levels of education. In the two categories of Primary
and High
Table 5.7
Gender-wise Educational Status of Respondents
Level Male Female Total
Illiterate
14
(4.51) [9.21]
17
(5.48) [10.76]
31
(10.00)
Primary
48
(15.48)
[31.58]
55
(17.74)
[34.81]
103
(33.23)
High School
57
(18.39)
[37.50]
70
(22.58)
[44.30]
127
(40.97)
PDC/HSC 12
(3.87)
[7.89]
10 (3.23)
[6.33]
22 (7.10)
Degree 09
(2.90)
[5.92]
05 (1.61)
[3.16]
14 (4.52)
P. G
07
(2.26) [4.61]
01
(0.32) [0.63]
08
(2.58)
Med/Eng.
/Others
05
(1.61)
[3.29]
N.A 05
(1.61)
Total 152 158 310
Note : Figures given in the parentheses indicate percentage distribution for the row and
those in square brackets for the column.
Source : The Survey
School educated, women constitute 54.35 per cent as against 45.65 per cent for
men. Incidentally, out of the total female respondents 79.11 per cent belonged to
these two categories. However, as already stated, women population in other
categories show a diminishing trend. For instance, their share in PDC/HSC
bracket is only 6.33 per cent, Degree holders among them is still less, 3.16 and Post
Graduates just 0.63 per cent. They are also conspicuous by their absence among
professional degree holders. As stated elsewhere, the position of men respondents
in all these categories is also not significantly different. This shows that it is not a
165
question of women being thoroughly discouraged from going to higher education,
but it forms part of a general trend in the community. This would be clear from a
combined reading of Tables 5.8 and 5.9.
Figure 6
Diagrammatic Representation of Gender-wise Educational Status of
Respondents
Note : Others include Engineering, MBA and M.Phil Degree holders.
Source : The Survey
In the questionnaire, two important questions were included with a view to
found out the perception of the community towards women education. As the
opposition towards women education comes mainly from the religious leadership
and conservative sections within the community, the respondents were asked as to
whether they find any attitudinal change in this matter on the part of these two
sections (religious leadership and conservative elements). A significant portion of
the respondents – 60.65 per cent – believe that the current religious leadership is in
favour of women education (Table 5.8). Gender-wise, 61.84 per cent of male
respondents and 59.49 per cent of female respondents share this view. Education-
wise also an overwhelming number of highly educated respondents pointed
towards the same. While among the graduates this is 71.43 per cent, among the
Post Graduates and professional degree holders the same comes to 61.54 per cent.
9.21
31.58
37.5
7.895.92
4.613.29
10.76
34.81
44.3
6.33
3.16
0 0
10
33.23
40.97
7.14.52
2.58 1.61
Illiterate Primary High School PDC/HSC Degree P.G Others
Male
Female
Total
166
In regard to the question as to whether the respondents perceive any major
change in the attitude of the conservative sections in the community towards
Table 5.8
Response on Religious attitude towards Social and Educational uplift of
Women
Responses
Gender Educational Groups
Male
Fem
ale
Illite
rate
Pri
mary
Sch
ool le
vel
PD
C/+
2
Deg
ree
P.G
/M
ed/E
ng
/ O
ther
Tota
l
Favourable
94 (50.00)
[61.84]
94
(50.00)
[59.49]
12
(6.38)
[38.71]
61
(32.45)
[59.22]
81
(43.09)
[73.78]
16
(8.51)
[72.73]
10
(5.32)
[71.43]
8
(4.26)
[61.54]
188 [60.65]
Against
11
(47.83)
[7.24]
12
(52.17)
[7.59]
Nil
09
(39.13)
[8.74]
12
(52.17)
[9.45]
01
(4.35)
[4.55]
Nil
01
(4.35)
[7.69]
23 [7.42]
Restricted
39
(49.37)
[26.67]
40
(50.63)
[25.32]
13
(16.46)
[41.94]
26
(32.91)
[25.24]
28
(35.44)
[22.04]
04
(5.06)
[18.18]
04
(5.06)
[28.57]
04
(5.06)
[30.77]
79 [25.48]
Don’t know
8
(40.00)
[5.26]
12
(60.00)
[7.59]
06
(30.00)
[19.35]
07
(35.00)
[7.80]
06
(30.00)
[4.72]
01
(5.00)
[4.55]
Nil Nil 20
[6.45]
Total
152
(49.03)
[100.00]
158
(50.97)
[100.00]
31
(10.00)
[100.00]
103
(33.23)
[100.00]
127
(40.97)
[100.00]
22
(7.10)
[100.00]
14
(4.52)
[100.00]
13
(4.19)
[100.00]
310
Note : Figures given in the parentheses indicate percentage distribution for the row and those in
square brackets for the column.
Source : The Survey
women’s social and educational upliftment, the response is much more
overwhelming with 71.16 per cent noticing favourable change in this regard. While
19.03 per cent doubts such an attitudinal change, 7.74 per cent is ignorant about
this (Table 5.9). Education-wise, 76.37 per cent of the High School passed, 72.72
per cent of those who have qualified the Higher Secondary course, 42.86 per cent
of the Graduates and 53.86 per cent of Post Graduates and professional degree
holders share such a perception.
167
Table 5.9
Attitude of Conservative sections towards ‘Women Education
Answers
Educational Level
Illite
rate
Pri
mary
H.S
PD
C/+
2
Deg
ree
P.G
&
Oth
er
Tota
l
Changed
17
(7.65)
[54.83]
79
(35.59)
[76.70]
97
(43.69)
[76.37]
16
(7.21)
[72.72]
6
(2.70)
[42.86]
7
(3.15)
[53.85]
222
[71.61]
Yet to change
6
(10.17)
[19.35]
10
(16.95)
[9.70]
24
(40.68)
[18.90]
6
(10.17)
[27.27
7
(11.86)
[50.00]
6
(10.17)
[46.15]
59
[19.03]
Nobody held such attitude
Nil
3
(60.00)
[2.91]
1
(20.00)
[0.79]
Nil
1
(20.00)
7.14]
Nil 5
[1.61]
Don’t Know
8
(33.33)
[25.80]
11
(45.83)
[10.68]
5
(20.83)
[3.94]
Nil Nil Nil 24
[7.74]
Total 31
(10.00)
103
(33.22)
127
(40.97)
22
(7.10)
14
(4.52)
13
(4.19) 310
Note : Figures given in the parentheses indicate percentage distribution for the row and those
in square brackets for the column.
Source : The Survey
At this juncture it is crucial to look at how women and youth perceive this
attitudinal change, and to understand the same a gender-wise and age-wise analysis
was undertaken by the researcher (Table 5.10). Interestingly more than men, it is
the fair gender who sees such a change in the outlook of the conservative elements
towards women education. When only 70 per cent of men share this opinion,
women here account for 73 per cent. Constructed reversely, when one in every four
male (in percentage terms 26 per cent) respondents sees no such change, the same
is one in every eight for female respondents (13 in percentage terms). A similar
trend is visible between generations as well. While 73.03 per cent of the
respondents in the 19-50 age group believe that conservative attitude in this regard
has changed a lot, this is only 66.67 for the above 50 age group. Stated differently,
of the 222 respondents who have answered in the affirmative for the question, 176
168
Table 5.10
Perceptions on Women Questions
Have the conservatives’ attitude on women education changed?
Answers
Gender Age Total
Male Female 19-35 36-50 51-65 Above
65 Total
Changed
107
(48.20) [70.39]
115
(51.80) [72.78]
88
(39.64) [72.72]
88
(39.64) [73.33]
32
(14.41) [65.31]
14
(6.31) [70.00]
222
[71.61]
Yet to change
39
(66.10)
[25.66]
20
(33.90)
[12.66]
24
(40.68)
[19.83]
21
(35.59)
[17.50]
10
(16.95)
[20.41]
4
(6.78)
[20.00]
59
[19.03]
Nobody held such attitude
2
(50.00)
[1.32]
2
(50.00)
[1.27]
2
(50.00)
[1.65]
2
(50.00)
[1.67]
Nil Nil 4
[1.29]
Don’t Know 4
(16.00) [2.63]
21
(84.00) [13.29]
7
(28.00) [5.79]
9
(36.00) [7.50]
7
(28.00) [14.29]
2
(8.00) [10.00]
25
[8.06]
Total 152
(49.03)
158
(50.97)
121
(39.03)
120
(38.71)
49
(15.81)
20
(6.45) 310
Note : Figures given in the parentheses indicate percentage distribution for the row and those
in square brackets for the column.
Source : The Survey
(79.28 per cent) belong to the younger generation. The opinion expressed by both
women and the youth has to be taken seriously, as in the case of women they are
the sole beneficiaries of this change, and in the case of youth they are the torch-
bearers of modernity as a result of which their perception often come into conflict
with the religious leadership and conservative elements.
2. Outlook Towards Media
Allied to education is the habit of reading newspapers. Hence the researcher
included two important questions in this respect. While the first question tried to
bring out the details of the respondents’ newspaper subscription habit, the second
question aimed at unearthing the importance they attach to various news items.
There is a general perception that the Muslim community is very much attached
169
towards newspapers run by Muslim outfits. According to this view point,
preference is for newspapers like Madhyamam, Chandrika, Tejus and Siraj.
Table 5.11
News Papers Subscribed by Respondents
News Paper Distribution of Respondents
Number Percentage
Malayala Manorama 86 57.72
Mathrubhumi 10 6.71
Madhyamam 25 16.76
Desabhimani 07 4.70
Chandrika 10 6.71
Tejus 2 1.34
Siraj 8 5.37
Others 1 0.67
Total 149 100.00
Notes : 1. Figures given in the parentheses indicate percentage
distribution for the row and those in square brackets for the column.
2. There are only four respondents (2.68 per cent) who subscribe English Newspaper.
Source : The Survey
However this study exposes the fallacy of such claims. Of the 310 respondents, 153
said that they subscribed Newspapers and of these only 45 subscribed those run by
Muslim outfits (Table 5.11 and Figure 7). In percentage terms, this comes to 29.41
only which means more than 70 per cent of the respondents subscribe other
Newspapers. Among the Newspapers run by Muslim outfits, Madhyamam, owned
by Jamat- e- Islami, has more circulation among the respondents. It is subscribed by
25 respondents – ie., 16.76 per cent. Chandrika, owned by the Muslim League,
came second with 10 respondents (6.71 per cent) subscribing it. The Newspaper
having the largest circulation among the Muslim population of Malappuram
district is Malayala Manorama. Eighty six respondents (57.72 per cent) subscribe it
whereas Mathrubhumi is subscribed by 6.71 per cent.
170
Figure 7
News Papers Subscribed by Respondents
Source : The Survey
Newspaper reading/Television watching habit of the respondents also is
taken up for analysis here (Table 5.12). Surprise is in store here as the number of
Television viewers is much less than those who regularly read Newspapers. This,
therefore, runs against the existing ‘wisdom’ that more people in Kerala are
Television addicts. According to the survey 43.23 per cent of the respondents are in
the habit of reading Newspapers regularly as against only 17.74 per cent for
Television. Majority of the respondents – 52.26 per cent – said that they viewed
Television only occasionally and this constitutes 3.61 per cent for Newspapers. To
understand who reads/views Newspapers/Television and who does not indulge in
such things, an age-wise distribution of respondents is taken up for analysis.
Interestingly, it is the younger generation who is seen predominantly in the first
category (readers / viewers). Of the newspaper readers, 44.03 per cent and of the
57.72
6.71
16.76
4.7
6.71
1.34
5.370.67
2.68
Malayala Manorama
Mathrubhumi
Madhyamam
Deshabhimani
Chandrika
Tejus
Siraj
Others
English
171
Table 5.12
Newspaper Reading / TV watching Habit
Age-wise Distribution of Respondents
Reading/ Watching
News Paper Television
19-35 36-50 51-65 Above 65
Total 19-35 36-50 51-65 Above 65
Never
19
(24.36)
[15.70]
33
(42.31)
[27.50]
16
(20.51)
[32.65]
10
(12.82)
[50.00]
78
[25.16]
27
(31.76)
[22.31]
39
(45.88)
[32.50]
10
(11.76)
[20.41]
9
(10.59)
[45.00]
85
[27.42]
Regular
59
(44.03)
[48.76]
47
(35.07)
[39.17]
24
(17.91)
[48.98]
4
(2.99)
[20.00]
134
[43.23]
30
(54.55)
[25.00]
14
(25.45)
[11.67]
7
(12.73)
[14.29]
4
(7.27)
[20.00]
55
[17.74]
Occasionally
43
(43.88)
[35.54]
40
(40.82)
[33.33]
9
(9.18)
[18.37]
6
(6.12)
[30.00]
98
[31.61]
64
(39.51)
[52.89]
67
(41.36)
[55.83]
24
(14.81)
[48.98]
7
(4.32)
[35.00]
162
[52.26]
Total 121 120 49 20 310 121 120 49 20 310
Note : Figures given in the parentheses indicate percentage distribution for the row and those in
square brackets for the column.
Source : The Survey
television viewers 54.55 per cent belong to the 19-35 age group. As age advances
this habit gets eroded progressively. The number of occasional newspaper readers
is also highest among this age group - 43.88 per cent.
3. Mobility along the Axis of Occupation and Income
Scholarly literature on the subject has shown that educational mobility leads
to mobility in terms of both occupation and income [Khalidi, 1996; Sabira, 2006;
Nobbs, et.al., 1975]. This section of the study therefore focuses on this aspect.
With the help of secondary data it discusses the occupational profile of the
Muslims at the state level, examines the employment situation in Malappuram
district for the six year period from 2003 to 2008 and then goes on to discuss the
employment status and income level of the respondents with the help of primary
data.
A major source regarding the employment profile of the Muslim
community of Kerala is the Narendran Commission Report2 [Narendran, 2002 :
172
93-108]. According to it, out of 4,70,275 position in various Government
Departments, Public Undertakings, Universities and Autonomous institutions,
Muslims’ share is only 46,500 (Table 5.13). When converted it into percentage this
amounts to 9.89 which is grossly disproportionate to their population which is
estimated to be 24.69 per cent as per the 2001 Census. Under representation of the
community is acute in the case of autonomous institutions in which only 7.17 per
cent of jobs are manned by Muslims. This is 11.14 per cent in the case of
Universities, 8.66 in the case of Public Undertakings and 10.45 per cent in the
Government Service (Fig. 8). All these indicate that the representation of the
community is not proportionate to its population strength though when compared
to other Indian states its position in this regard in Kerala is much better [Ibid]. The
following chart diagrammatically represents the share of Muslims in Government
service and public undertakings.
Figure 8
Muslim Representation in Employment
Source : Government of India, Narendran Commission Report, Part I, (2002), Thiruvananthapuram,
Government Central Press, pp. 93-108.
10.45
8.66
11.14
7.17
Govt.Service Public Undertakings University Autonomous Institutions
173
Table 5.13
Employment of Muslims in Kerala: Narendran Commission Report
Establishments State Total Muslims
Number Percentage
Government Service 325554 34024 10.45
Public Undertakings 113640 9857 8.66
University 9747 1087 11.14
Autonomous Institutions 21334 1532 7.17
Total 470275 46500 9.89
Notes : 1. The Report is prepared on the basis of Data as on 01.08.2000.
2. The Commission has taken community-wise data and depicted the figures of Muslims (8.05 per cent) and Mapilas (1.84 per cent) separately.
Source : Government of Kerala, Narendran Commission Report, Part I, (2002),
Thiruvananthapuram, Government Central Press, pp. 93-108.
An attempt has also been made by the researcher to assess the employment
situation in the Malappuram district. This is mainly to get a feel of the ground
reality in the universe of the study. The average rate of employment for the six year
period (2003 - 2008) was 5.7 per cent (Table 5.14). The highest rate of employment
Table 5.14
Employed Persons in Malappuram District during 2003 to 2008
(Both in public and private sectors)
Year State Malappuram Percent to State
2003 1211399 63399 5.23
2004 1204423 76315 6.33
2005 1139773 62553 5.49
2006 1101530 62493 5.67
2007 1110980 64687 5.82
2008 1117417 63253 5.66
Source : Government of Kerala, Economic Review 2008, Economic and
Statistics Department, Thiruvananthapuram, 2009, p. S 278.
174
was in 2004 when 76,315 got employment. In percentage terms, this came to 6.33.
On the other hand, the lowest rate was in 2003 with 63,399 employment
opportunities with a percentage tally of 5.23. The statistics, thus, shows a high
incident of unemployment in the district as the employment rate is less than that of
the State average.
Table 5.15
Age-wise Break-up of Employment Status of Respondents
Levels of Employment 19-35 36-50 51-65 Above 65 Total
Unemployed 69
(43.95) [57.02]
66 (42.03) [55.00]
18 (11.46) [36.73]
4 (2.55) [20.00]
157 [50.64]
Manual Labourer 19
(42.22) [15.70]
14 (31.11) [11.60]
6 (13.33) [12.24]
6 (13.33) [30.00]
45 [14.52]
Technical Labourer 15
(44.12) [12.39]
10 (29.41) [8.33]
6 (17.65) [12.24]
3 (8.82) [15.00]
34 [10.97]
Farmer 1
(6.25) [0.82]
7 (43.75) [5.83]
5 (31.25) [10.20]
3 (18.75) [15.00]
16 [5.16]
Private sector 4
(50.00) [3.30]
3 (37.50) [2.50]
1 (12.50) [2.04]
Nil 8
[2.58]
Business 6
(27.27) [4.95]
7 (31.81) [5.83]
6 (27.27) [12.24]
3 (13.64) [15.0]
22 [7.10]
NRI 5
(41.67) [4.13]
7 (58.33) [5.83]
Nil Nil 12
[3.87]
Gazetted Rank 1
(25.00) [0.82]
1 (25.00) [0.83]
2 (50.00) [4.08]
Nil 4
[1.29]
Non-Gazetted 1
(8.33) [0.82]
5 (41.62) [4.16]
5 (41.67) [10.20]
1 (8.33) [5.00]
12 [3.87]
Total Employed 52
(33.98) [42.97]
54 (35.29) [45.00]
31 (20.26) [63.26]
16 (10.45) [80.00]
153 [49.35]
Total 121 (39.03)
120 (38.71)
49 (15.81)
20 (6.45)
310
Notes : 1. Figures given in the parentheses indicate percentage distribution for the row and
those in square brackets for the column.
2. Among the Unemployed in 19-35 age bracket, two students - each from both genders
- included. Source : The Survey
175
Field data also, more or less, corroborates this trend. It has been found out
that 157 respondents - 50.65 per cent - remain unemployed (Table 5.15). But, there
is nothing surprising in this since more than half of the respondents are women.
Out of them, only eight women are employed which includes two in Non-Gazetted
category. This is estimated to be 5.26 per cent of the total employed respondents
and 5.06 per cent of the total women respondents. However, lower rate of
employment among women is not a peculiar feature of the Muslims of
Malappuram district alone. This is found more or less in equal measures among
other religious groups as well.
Among the male respondents, only 4.61 per cent remains unemployed.
Looking at the level of employment (Table 5.15), it is seen that 45 manual
labourers (14.52 per cent) constitute the largest occupational group. Next to this
comes the technical labourers - 34 (10.97 per cent). These two occupational groups
together formed 51.63 per cent of the employed. Out of 79 labourers belonging to
both categories, 58 (73.42 per cent) are from the age brackets of 19-50 years. It
means that nearly one-fourths (24.06 per cent) of the respondents belonging to this
age group are engaged as wage labourers – either on daily or on piece rate system.
As for as the above 50 years age bracket is concerned, manual and technical
labourers number 21 with 30.43 per cent. It shows that younger generations are
comparatively less than the older ones in such employment.
Among the respondents there are only 16 (5.16 percent), including four
(1.29 per cent) in gazetted rank, who are employed in Government/public sector.
Out of them, eight (50 per cent) each are found in the age brackets upto 50 years
and above 50 years. It is further noted that the age bracket 51-65 itself enjoys the
largest representation on this regard with seven respondents, including two in
gazette posts. And, notably all of them were male respondents.
A discussion on inter-generational occupational mobility of the respondents
is also in order here. As in the case of education, here also occupational profile of
the father is taken up for measuring the nature of mobility of the respondents
(Table 5.16). Of the 310 fathers, a major chunk is found to be manual labourers for
reasons which are obvious. This constitutes 41.94 per cent. A sizable section of
176
them is found in the farmers’ category as well. This is 64 in absolute terms and
20.65 in percentage terms. Put together, these two categories form about 62 per
cent. This, in fact, shows the basic nature of the Muslim community in
Malappuram in particular and Kerala in general during previous epochs. The
picture becomes still clearer if one adds those who are listed in the businessmen
category to the above two. The third largest presence of the respondents is to found
here – 49 parents with a percentage distribution of 15.81. This shows that during
earlier period Muslims were either manual labourers or peasants or businessmen.
This was (and is) both their strength and weakness – strength in the sense that a
small economically well advanced elite group emerged out of the business
community, and weakness since brute majority found (finds) it difficult to make
their both ends meet. The presence of the respondents’ fathers in the service and
allied sectors was sparse. For instance, in the two gazetted and non-gazetted
categories there are only 16 people, ie., 5.48 per cent. There are another set of eight
fathers (2.58 per cent) working in the private sector, besides 10 (3.23 per cent) NRIs
and 32 technical labourers (10.32 per cent).
The table could be approached from another ankle as well – unemployment
rate of the respondents and correlating the same with their fathers’ occupation.
Here children of three categories of parents are found to be the employed mostly –
NRIs, businessmen and manual labourers, in that order. The rate of
unemployment is the highest for the children of NRI fathers - 70 per cent – with
second position shared by the children of the businessmen parents – 55.10 per cent.
At the other end, manual labourer fathers have 52.31 per cent of their children in
this position. Interestingly no child belonging to gazette officer parents is found to
be unemployed. The lone respondent belonging to this category is seen doing
business. The table also shows the propensity of the children of farmers to follow
the occupation of their parents. In the instant case, the largest chunk of them -
18.75 per cent – is found in that occupation. The discussion made so far makes it
clear that there is greater mobility for the Muslim youth today compared to their
parents and also there is a wide shift in the nature of occupation between
generations. There is a clear tendency on the part of the youth to move away from
the traditional occupation to the modern ones and from the primary sector to the
177
Table 5.16
Intergenerational Occupational Mobility
Fathers’ Employment
Respondents
Un-
emplo
yed
Manual
Laboure
rs
Tec
h-n
ical
Laboure
r
Farm
ers
Pvt.
Sec
tor
Busi
nes
s
NR
I
Gazet
ted
Non-
Gazet
ted.
Manual Labourers 130
(41.94)
68 (52.31) [42.50]
32 (24.62) [71.11]
14 (10.77) [41.18]
2 (1.54) [12.50]
2 (1.54) [25.00]
4 (3.08) [19.05]
4 (3.08) [36.36]
Nil 4
(3.08) [33.33]
Technical Labourer 32
(10.32)
16 (50.00) [9.94]
5 (15.62) [11.11]
6 (18.75) [17.65]
Nil Nil 2
(6.25) [9.52]
1 (3.13) [9.09]
1 (3.13) [25.00]
1 (3.13) [8.33]
Farmers 64
(20.65)
30 (46.88) [18.63]
3 (4.68) [7.50]
7 (10.94) [18.92]
12 (18.75) [75.00]
3 (4.68) [37.5]
4 (6.25) [19.05]
2 (3.13) [18.18]
1 (1.56) [25.00]
2 (3.13) [16.67]
Private Sector 08
(2.58)
3 (37.50) [1.86]
Nil 1
(12.50) [2.70]
Nil 1
(12.50) [12.50]
1 (12.50) [4.76]
1 (12.50) [9.09]
1 (12.50) [25.00]
Nil
Business 49
(15.81)
27 (55.10) [17.20]
5 (10.20) [11.11]
4 (8.16) [11.76]
2 (4.08) [12.50]
Nil 7
(14.29) [31.81]
3 (6.12) [25.00]
Nil 1
(2.04) [8.33]
NRI 10
(3.23)
7 (70.00) [4.35]
Nil 1
(10.00) [2.70]
Nil 1
(10.00) [12.50]
Nil 1
(10.00) [9.09]
Nil Nil
Gazetted 01
(0.32) Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil
1 (100) [4.76]
Nil Nil Nil
Non-Gazetted 16
(5.16)
6 (37.50) [3.73]
Nil 1
(6.25) [2.70]
Nil 1
(6.25) [12.50]
3 (18.75) [14.29]
Nil 1
(6.25) [25.00]
4 (25.00) [33.33]
Total 310 157
(50.64) 45
(14.52) 34
(10.97) 16
(5.16) 08
(2.58) 22
(7.10) 12
(3.87) 04
(1.29) 12
(3.87)
Note : 1. Figures given in the parentheses indicate percentage distribution for the row and those in square brackets for the column.
2. Tecnical labourers include mechanics, electricians and plumbers. Source : The Survey
178
secondary and tertiary sectors including service sector, though the extend and
degree of such shift in the instant case may be little less compared to other caste
and religious groups. This, however, does not dampen the achievement attained by
the community in this regard. This has also been translated in terms of enhanced
income levels. Table 5.17 given below elucidates this clearly.
Table 5.17
Intergenerational Income Mobility
Monthly Income
(Rs)
Respondents’
Father
Respondents
Male Female Total
Nil Nil
7
(4.46)
[4.66]
150
(95.54)
[94.94]
157
[50.65]
Upto 5000 288
[92.90]
42
(89.36)
[27.63]
5
(10.64)
[3.16]
47
[15.16]
5001-10000 10
[3.22]
31
(93.94)
[20.39]
2
(6.06)
[1.26]
33
[10.65]
10001-15000 4
[1.29]
27
(96.43)
[17.76]
1
(3.57)
[0.63]
28
[9.03]
15001-20000 4
[1.29]
19
(100.00)
[12.50]
Nil 19
[6.13]
20001-25000 2
[0.65]
12
(100.00)
[7.89]
Nil 12
[3.87]
25001-30000 Nil
9
(100.00)
[5.92]
Nil 9
[2.90]
Above 30000 2
[0.65]
5
(100.00)
[3.29]
Nil 5
[1.61]
Total 310 152
(49.03)
158
(50.97) 310
Note : 1. Figures given in parentheses indicate percentage distribution for the row and those
in square brackets for the column.
2. Among the unemployed in 19-35 age bracket, two students – one each from both genders – are included.
Source : The Survey
179
From the Table, it could be seen that 157 respondents – 50.65 in percentage
terms – have declared that they have no income. They are those who are
unemployed. Interestingly, of these, brute majority are women which factor points
towards the fact that female unemployment is acute in the community. They
constitute 150 with a percentage distribution of 95.54. Stated differently, of a total
of 158 women respondents, only eight are employed meaningfully. This shows
that even though women within the Muslim community are better educated and
have a better position in the society in contemporary times, still their condition
continues to be unenviable. It is another thing that women in every social group
face the same fate. Yet, it is an undisputed fact that their position even in the
matter of employment opportunities and financial status are better than their
predecessors.
Coming to the case of the parental income, the Table shows that most of
them belong to the lower income bracket. The lowest income here is Rs. 5,000 per
month, ie., 60,000 annually. Number of fathers who belong to this particular
income bracket is 288 or 92.90 per cent. On the other hand, two (0.65 per cent)
belong to the highest income group – above Rs. 30,000. Rest of them (22) are
distributed in the following manner: 3.22 per cent have income between Rs. 5,001
– 10,000; 1.29 per cent have an income between 10,001 – 15,000; 1.29 per cent
between Rs 15,001 – 20,000, and the rest (0.65 percent) belong to the income
bracket of Rs. 20,001 – 25,000.
If one divides the respondents gender-wise, one could see the glaring
difference in income between males and females. While male respondents are
distributed among all income brackets, female respondents are found only among
the lower income brackets. The maximum monthly income they have reported is
Rs. 10,001 -15,000. Only one of them (0.63 per cent) belongs to this group and the
rest of them have an income between Rs. 5,000 to 10,000. On the other end, a
considerable number of male respondents – 35 , ie., 23.03 per cent – draw an
income between Rs. 15,001 to above 30,000. Of these 3.29 per cent belong to the
highest income bracket, above Rs. 30,000; 5.29 per cent belongs to Rs. 25,001
30,000 group; 7.89 per cent to the Rs. 20,001 – 25,000 bracket and the rest have an
180
income that ranges between 15,001 to 20,000. If one calculates the combined
income of all the 310 fathers it only comes to, roughly, Rs. 17,35,000 whereas the
153 employed respondents income is, roughly, Rs. 18,57,500. To get a clear
picture, one has to calculate the average income and this comes to Rs. 5,597 for the
fathers and 11,875 for the 153 employed respondents. Again, if the income of the
employed male respondents alone is taken separately for assessing the
intergenerational income mobility, it stands at the rate of Rs. 12,448 per
respondent. This brings to the fore the intergenerational income differential
between the two. Thus in all the three axis of mobility – education, occupation and
income – the new generation of Muslims have advanced compared to the older
generation. Migration of Muslim youth to Gulf countries has definitely helped this
process.
4. Migration to Gulf Countries
Sociologically speaking migration of a community from one geographical
location to another takes place due to different reasons such as : displacement due
to war, caste/racial/communal/religious riots, terrorism or construction of
infrastructural facilities as part of development projects. In certain other cases
migration also take place due to poverty and other economic compulsions, for
instance in search for better job prospects. In Kerala, migration was mainly and
originally from the backward districts of Malabar, Malappuram in particular,
because of poverty [Bahauddin, 2010]. Such migrations may not only improve the
economic status of people but also change their world view as a result of cultural
contacts. And this improvement in the life and outlook of the migrant population,
in its turn, can bring about a cascading influence on their brethren, back home. A
clear case in point is the standard of life of the migrants’ families. For instance, it
has been reported that such families are three times more likely than those of non-
migrants to live in superior housing, and about twice as likely to have telephone,
refrigerators and cars [Rao, 2009: 382]. An observer of the Kerala scene could see
such a development in the case of the State.
The largest contingent of migration in Kerala is to the Gulf countries like
Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates (U.A.E), Oman and Bahrain [Zachariah,
181
Table 5.18
Estimated Stock of Kerala Emigrants
in the Gulf Countries, 1973-2000
Year
Kerala ( figures in
Lakhs) Kerala as % of India in
Gulf Countries In Gulf Countries
1973 0.34 17.26
1974 0.39 16.93
1975 0.44 14.50
1976 0.51 14.52
1977 0.58 14.55
1978 0.67 14.57
1979 0.76 14.59
1980 0.79 13.22
1981 0.98 16.31
1982 1.52 20.50
1983 1.83 19.96
1984 2.01 21.57
1985 2.42 26.02
1986 2.76 29.25
1987 3.05 31.85
1988 3.82 34.82
1989 4.02 31.88
1990 5.09 35.23
1991 5.40 32.58
1992 6.45 34.74
1993 7.44 35.72
1994 8.60 36.83
1995 9.63 36.78
1996 10.97 37.38
1997 12.36 37.58
1998 13.18 35.75
1999 12.11 35.89
2000 11.04 35.75
Source: K. P. Kannan & K. S. Hari., (2002), Kerala's Gulf Connection
Emigration, Remittances and their Macroeconomic Impact 1972-2000, Working Paper 328, Thiruvanathapuram: Centre for Development
Studies, p.31.
182
et.al, 2002: 19]. It has reached more than one million in 2000. There were migrants
from Kerala in the regions as early as 1930s when the oil industry began to
develop. But large scale migration began only in early 1970s, during the oil boom
[Bahauddin, op.cit.]. It picked up in a big way since the 1990s. In 1973, for
instance, the number of malayalee migrants to this region was a mere 0.34 lakh
which constitutes only 17 per cent of the total Indian emigrants (Table 5.18). In the
early eighties the emigrant population, for the first time, crossed one lakh. To be
more precise, this reached 1.52 lakh in the year 1982, constituting 20.50 per cent of
Table 5.19
Percentage Distribution of External Migrants by District of Kerala, 1998-2008
Sl.No Districts Percentage
1998 2003 2007 2008
1. Thiruvananthapuram 19.9 9.1 10.2 14.1
2. Kollam 7.6 8.1 7.9 9.5
3. Pathanamthitta 7.2 7.3 2.9 5.5
4. Alappuzha 4.6 4.1 6.2 6.0
5. Kottayam 2.6 5.8 4.1 4.1
6. Idukki 0.5 0.4 0.1 0.3
7. Ernakulam 7.6 6.6 7.7 5.5
8. Thrissur 11.8 9.7 9.2 13.0
9. Palakkad 8.5 9.7 4.9 8.5
10. Malappuram 21.8 14.8 18.2 15.3
11. Kozhikode 8.5 9.1 8.6 9.1
12. Wayanad 0.3 0.4 0.8 0.6
13. Kannur 6.5 11.0 13.8 5.4
14. Kasaragod 2.8 3.9 5.3 3.1
Total (in Lakhs) 13.62 18.38 18.48 21.90
Sources : 1. K.C. Zachariah , S.Irudaya Rajan (2007), Migration, Remittances and Employment
Short-term Trends and Long-term Implications, Working Paper (395), Thiruvanathapuram:
Centre for Development Studies, p.58.
2. K.C. Zachariah , S.Irudaya Rajan (2012), Kerala’s Gulf Connection, 1998-2011,
Economic and Social Impact of Migration, Orient Blackswan, Hyderabad, p.38.
183
India’s Gulf emigrants. Since then their number increased constantly and
consistently. For example, in the year 1990 the number crossed five lakh and in
1996 the same exceeded 10 lakh. However, the largest stock of Keralites in Gulf
was in 1998 when 13.18 lakh people reached this region in search of employment.
Though a decline in the extend of migration took place later (1999 and 2000)
studies conducted subsequently point towards the opposite direction. As stated in
Table 5.19 the total number of emigrants increased to 18.38 lakh in 2003; 18.48
lakh in 2007 and 21.90 lakh in 2008.
District-wise emigration also makes interesting reading (Table 5.19). In this
case statistics is available upto 2008. Looking at the Table it becomes clear that
during the period from 1998 - 2008, the largest number of emigrants were from the
Malappuram district which was 21.8 per cent in 1998; 14.8 per cent in 2003; 18.20
per cent in 2007 and 15.30 per cent in 2008. On the other side, during 1998-2003,
among the six districts – Thiruvanathapuram, Alappuzha, Idukki, Ernakulam,
Thrissur and Malappuram - which experienced decrease in the number of migrants
Malppuram was the first with a decline of about seven per cent. However,
surprisingly, the district experienced a moderate 3.40 per cent increase in 2007. It
was a fact that during the period from1998-2007, at the state level, different districts
have experienced widely different rates of return migration. On the whole
Malappuram, Thiruvananthapuram, Alappuzha, Thrissur, Kollam and Kasaragod
Table 5.20
Percentage Distribution of Migration by Religion, 2007
Religious Groups
Emigrants Per Households
Hindus 33.3 14.2
Christians 18.5 22.9
Muslims 48.2 52.2
Total 100 24.5
Source : K.C. Zachariah , S.Irudaya Rajan, (2007), Migration,
Remittances and Employment Short-term Trends and
Long-term Implications, Working Paper (395), p. 21.
184
districts had relatively high levels of return emigrants [Zackaria and Rajan,
2007:22]. However, looking at the figures of 2008, one could see that percentages
of migrants to the State total have declined in five districts - Ernakulam,
Malappuram, Wayanad, Kannur and Kasaragod.
Religion-wise, Muslim Community has the largest number of emigrants -
more than 40 per cent of the total [Ibid, 2011: 368]. It was 48.2 per cent during
2008 which means that roughly one out of every two emigrants belonged to this
community. If one looks at the household data for this, it could be seen that three
out of every four Muslim households (74 per cent) have Non-Resident Keralites
[Ibid, 2007: 8]. As could be inferred these people mainly work in the West Asian
countries. Among the three religious groups, Hindu community shared the second
position with 33.30 per cent followed by the Christians with 18.5 per cent.
However, it is worth mentioning that when the Muslims migrate mainly to the
West Asian region, Christian emigrants have a substantial presence in countries
like United States of America and Canada. In fact this has a class connotation as
well in the sense that when the emigrants belonging to the former group are mainly
poor, those belonging to the Christian religion are comparatively well off. It is also
significant that Gulf migration is much larger among the Muslims of north Kerala
as compared to other parts, and constitute as much as 78 per cent of the migrants.
On the other hand, Hindus and Christians account for only about 12 and 10 per
cent respectively [Banu, 2006: 320].
It has already been noted with the help of secondary data that among the
districts Malappuram has a substantial number of people in the Persian Gulf. This
has also been corroborated by the field study carried out by the Kerala Statistical
Institute (KSI) in 2004 [Zacharia, et.al, op.cit, 2004 : 52]. Naturally, therefore, the
question as to what extend this is reflected in the case of the respondent arises here.
Among the 310 respondents only 12 – 3.87 in percentage terms – are Gulf-
emigrants (Table 5.21). Among the Grama Panchayats/Municipalities,
Aliparamba has three respondents belonging to this category whereas Tanure,
Parappanangadi, Vallikkunnu, Kottackal, Pukkottur, Karuvarakundu and Manjeri
185
(Municipality) have one each. At the other end, Areacode and Pulickal have none
belonging to this category.
Table 5.21
Respondents and Gulf Migration: Area-wise Distribution
Panchayats/
Municipality
Respondents Families Total Total
Respondents Respon-
dents Father
Spouse
(281) Children No. %
Tanure 1 1 1 2 5 15.62 32
Parappanangadi 1 1 3 3 8 22.22 36
Vallikkunnu 1 1 3 4 9 33.33 27
Kottackal 1 1 5 4 11 45.83 24
Areekode 0 1 1 4 6 35.29 17
Pukkottore 1 1 2 4 8 38.09 21
Karuvarakundu 1 1 5 3 10 41.66 24
Aliparamba 3 1 7 4 15 57.69 26
Angadipuram 2 1 5 4 12 34.28 35
Pulickal 0 0 4 3 7 38.88 18
Manjeri 1 0 8 4 13 26.00 50
Total 12
(3.87)
09
(2.90)
44
(15.65) 39 104 33.54 310
Source : The Survey
The researcher, here, tried to look at this issue from another point of view as
well, and for this purpose the respondents were asked whether they had any family
members in the Gulf countries. This revealed that a sizeable number of their kith
and kins have been working in the Gulf region. In this case their number is 92 – 32
children, 44 spouses and nine fathers. This means that apart from the 12
respondents, another 92 families have a strong Gulf connection. Areas-wise
number of Gulf-migrants’ families are shown in Figure 9. Here also Aliparamba
topped the list with 15 family members followed by Manjeri which also has the
same number of relatives in the region. This shows that Gulf connection is an
important source of mobility for the Muslim community in Malappuram district,
in a sense in the state as a whole. One is, therefore, naturally inclined to enquire
186
Figure 9
Area-wise Number of Gulf -Migrant Families among the Respondents
Source : The Survey
about the perception of the respondents on the positive impact of Gulf migration
on the development and progress of the community. With this end in view two
questions were included in the questionnaire: What about the degree of interest
shown by the migrants in educating their children? Has Gulf migration accelerated
the progress of the community?
Brute majority of the respondents find a positive correlation between
migration and education. Of the 310 respondents, 267 (86.13 per cent) belong to
this category (Table 5.22). Interestingly this opinion is almost uniformly held by
the respondents belonging to younger age brackets. For example, if one takes the
opinion of 19-35 and 36-50 age groups, one could see that the number of
respondents who share such a view comes to 206 and in percentage terms 77.15.
This could be taken seriously as youth – being themselves interested in migration –
have a better idea on this count than those who belong to the older generation.
And here this generation numbers only 61 – 22.85 per cent. On the other side,
32
36
2724
17
2124
26
35
18
50
58 9
11
68
10
1512
7
13
Total Respondents Gulf Migrant Families
Study Areas
Res
ponden
tsand F
am
ilie
s
187
13.87 per cent of respondents say that they (migrant population) only show the
same interest as other members of the community. In other words, these people do
not find any positive connection between interest in education and Gulf migration.
It is worthwhile to note that 20 per cent of (figures given in square brackets) the
respondents belonging to the above 65 age group share such a perception.
Table 5.22
Gulf-migration & Development of the Community: NRI Interest in Educating
their Children (Age-wise Distribution)
Level of interest
19-35 36-50 51-65 Above 65
Total
High
100
(37.45)
[82.64]
106
(39.70)
[88.33]
45
(16.85)
[91.83]
16
(5.99)
[80.00]
267
[86.13]
Usual
21
(48.84)
[17.36]
14
(32.56)
[11.67]
4
(9.30)
[8.16]
4
(9.30)
[20.00]
43
[13.87]
Total 121
(39.03)
120
(38.71)
49
(15.81)
20
(6.45) 310
Notes : 1. Figures given in the parentheses indicate percentage distribution for the
row and those in square brackets for the column.
2. Among the Unemployed in 19-35 age bracket, two students - each from both genders - included.
Source : The Survey
As regards the second question also an overwhelming section of the
respondents see a positive correlation between community’s progress and Gulf
migration (Table 5.23). In this case, 289 respondents (93.23 in percentage terms)
answered in the affirmative. Only 6.77 per cent shared a negative view in this
regard. Here, again 90 per cent of the 19 – 35 age group and 96.67 per cent of the
next age bracket (36 – 50) share this affirmative perception. Stated differently, as in
the case of the correlation between education and migration, here also the younger
people are the ones who seek to connect migration and progress of the community.
188
Table 5.23
Has Gulf-migration accelerated the progress of the community?:
Age-wise Distribution
Opinions 19-35 36-50 51-65 Above 65 Total
Yes
109
(37.72)
[90.08]
116
(40.14)
[96.67]
46
(15.92)
[93.88]
18
(6.23)
[90.00]
289
[93.23]
No
12
(57.14)
[9.91]
4
(19.05)
[3.33]
3
(14.29)
[6.12]
2
(9.52)
[10.00]
21
[6.77]
Total 121
(39.03)
120
(38.71)
49
(15.81)
20
(6.45) 310
Note : Figures given in the parentheses indicate percentage distribution for the row and those
in square brackets that of the column.
Source : The Survey
Thus on hindsight, afore made discussion undoubtedly leads to the
conclusion that the Muslim community of Malappuram district has achieved some
strides in education, occupation and income. And Gulf migration is definitely a
significant contributing factor in this respect. It is another thing that even at this
level of mobility they are not at par with the members belonging to other religious
groups. An attempt is made by the researcher to unearth the manner in which the
respondents are disposed towards comparing the standard of life of their
community with those of others belonging to other religions. The result of this
attempt is summarized in the following table (Table 5.24).
The Table shows that only a very small section of the respondents believe
that the Muslims of Kerala have attained a standard of life which is comparable
with any other community. Only nine respondents with a percentage distribution
of 2.90 share this opinion. On the other hand, 298 respondents (96.13 per cent)
have the opposite view. Their belief is that while the life situation of the
community has definitely been improving, it has not reached a comparable level
with others. Attempt is made here to take education-wise and occupation-wise
189
Table 5.24
Perception on the standard of Life of Muslims & Other Communities
(Age and Occupation-wise Distribution)
Opinion
Distribution of Respondents
Education-wise Occupation-wise
Illite
rate
Pri
mary
H.S
PD
C/+
2
Deg
ree
P.G
& O
ther
Unem
plo
yed
Manual
Laboure
rs
Tec
hnic
al
Laboure
rs
Farm
ers
Pvt. S
ecto
r
Busi
nes
s
Gulf e
mplo
yed
Gazet
ted
Non-G
azet
ted.
Tota
l
Comparable
1
(11.11)
[3.23]
2
(22.22)
[1.94]
5
(55.56)
[3.94]
Nil Nil
1
(11.11)
[7.70]
4
(44.44)
[2.54]
Nil
1
(11.11)
[2.70]
1
(11.11)
[6.25]
Nil
1
(11.11)
[4.54]
Nil Nil
2
(22.22)
[16.67]
9
[2.90]
Not comparable,
but Improving
29
(9.73)
[93.55]
99
(33.22)
[96.12]
122
(40.94)
[96.06]
22
(7.38)
[100.00]
14
(4.70)
[100.00]
12
(4.03)
[92.30]
151
(50.67)
[96.17]
41
(13.75)
[97.61]
36
(12.08)
[97.30]
15
(5.03)
[93.75]
8
(2.68)
[100.00]
21
(7.05)
[95.45]
12
(4.03)
[100.00]
4
(1.34)
[100.00]
10
(3.36)
[83.33]
298
[96.13]
Very Poor
1
(33.33)
[3.23]
2
(66.67)
[1.94]
Nil Nil Nil Nil
2
(66.67)
[1.27]
1
(33.33)
[2.38]
Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil 3
[0.97]
Total 31
(10.00)
103
(33.22)
127
(40.97)
22
(7.10)
14
(4.52)
13
(4.19)
157
(50.65)
42
(13.55)
37
(11.94)
16
(5.16)
8
(2.58)
22
(7.10)
12
(3.87)
4
(1.29)
12
(3.87) 310
Note : Figures given in the parentheses indicate percentage distribution for the row and those in square brackets for the column.
Source : The Survey
190
distribution of responses. However this shows that there is no significant relation in
this regard either with education or with occupation, ie., irrespective of education
and occupation differential people commonly share the view that life of the two
sections is not of comparable standards.
Therefore, as matters stand, meaningful changes are taking place in the life
and attitude of the Muslim community of Kerala in general and Malappuram
district in particular. This is quite natural as no community could be kept backward
in perpetually. This is a historical fact. As mobility happens along the axis of
education and occupation, outlook – social, political and cultural – gets
transformed. It is also significant to recall that upward mobility always creates a
new middle class in due course of time, and this class, consisting of petty
producers, merchants, professionals and Government/private sector employees, is
capable enough to challenge the traditional patterns of behaviour, outlook and
attitude as its members are attracted towards modernity. It is true that in certain
cases, this class becomes rootless and find themselves in a ‘neither here nor there’
kind of situation, ie., it has repudiated tradition but its embrace of modernity
remains incomplete. This is a typical dilemma the members of this class face
everywhere contemporaneously as was faced by their predecessors historically.
Whatever may be the extend of this dilemma confronted by the Muslims of
Malappuram district, the fact remains that they are in a flux as they enjoy certain
degree of social mobility consequent on upward mobility in education and
occupation, and also due to Gulf migration. This proves the first part of the third
hypothesis of the study. It may be recalled that the hypothesis states that ‘the
spread of education, gulf migration and consequent social mobility have
meaningfully altered the social outlook of the community’. The part of hypothesis
which stands out from the analysis so far made pertain to the spread of education,
Gulf migration and consequent social mobility’. To what extent this has brought
about changes in their outlook, identity and political behaviour is the million dollar
question.
191
5. Notes
1. In late 1980s, a campaign started in Kerala with a view to eradicate illiteracy. The first
district-wise experiment was started in 1989, in Ernakulam, with the name `Total
Literacy Project' and it was found to be a great success. In, 1990 (February, 4th), the
International Literacy Year, the district was declared as the first Indian district that
became totally literate. The Government then replicated the initiative statewide,
launching the Kerala State Literacy Campaign. The campaign became very effective,
especially by the involvement of state officials, prominent social figures, local -officials
and voluntary organizations and workers. [For details, see: Singh, 2005; Sen, Drèze,
2002; Wikipedia, www.en.wikipedia.org/Total_Literacy; www.old.kerala.gov.in/
education/liter.htm; www.ashanet.org/library/articles/kerala].
2. The Government of Kerala appointed (Notification SRO 136/2000 dated 11th
February 2000) a three member commission under the chairmanship of Justice K.K
Narendran – T.M.Savankutyy and K.V.Rabindran Nair were other members - in 2000,
to study and report on the adequacy or otherwise of representation for Backward
Classes in the State public services and any other matter incidental thereto. It was
suggested to complete the enquiry and submit the report within six months. Later, on
request the term was extended to three months. It held 51 sittings for the completion of
the work and identified that “sixty eight communities are likely to continue with poor
representation while others will have adequate (some of them, more than adequate)
representation" .The Commission collected data related with appointments in four
groups of institutions Viz. Government Departments, Public Sector Undertakings,
Universities and Autonomous Institutions. Staff of each institutions are grouped into
six categories, from the last grade to above, based on Scale of Pay.
It submitted the report in November 2001 which provides statistics of the backlog
in the representation of the major Backward Class communities in the public services.
At its conclusion, it is pointed out that “ Ezhava, a major community among the
Backward Classes have secured better representation in more than one category by
securing posts in the merit quota over and above the reservation quota. At the same
time Muslims another major community among the Backward Classes have not fared
well. The main reason for this is nothing but educational backwardness”. The Report
observes that “If the Muslim community and its leaders take more interest in the
192
matter of education and make a concerted effort, this community can also reach a
similar level of educational advancement in the not distant future”. The Committee
suggested implementing special recruitment campaign to remove the backlog and to
get equal right for all sectors of the society [Narendran, Js.K.K, 2002, Part I & 2].
6. References
Azeez, Dr. M. Abdul (1992), Rise of Muslims in Kerala Politics, CBH Publications,
Thiruvanathapuram.
Bahauddin, K.M (2010), ‘Kerala Muslims: Socio-economic changes and spread of
education’, http://www. Indian Muslims.info/reports_about_socio_ eco_changes_
and_spread_of_ education.html, accessed on 13th August, 2010.
Banu, Shareena.C.P (2006), ‘Influence of Gulf Migration on Identity Assertion Patterns:
Denominational Contestation and the Emerging Public Sphere Among Muslims of
Kerala’ in Hasnain Nadeem (ed.), Islam and Muslim Communities in South Asia, Serial
Publications, New Delhi.
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