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My Career in Rock Mechanics Charles Fairhurst. Professor Emeritus – University of Minnesota, Senior Consultant, Itasca Consulting Group. Part 3: How I Came Into Rock Mechanics (Abridged version published in ARMA e-Newsletter Issue 11, Winter 2014) Part 2 of this story ended in 1970, with the decision by the Institute of Technology of the University of Minnesota to abolish the School of Mineral and Metallurgical Engineering, of which I was then Head. The Physical Metallurgy component of the School was to be joined with Chemical Engineering, to be renamed the Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science. Mineral Engineering and Process Metallurgy were to be joined with the Department of Civil Engineering and Applied Hydraulics1 (CEAH) to become the Department of Civil and Mineral Engineering2

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Professor L.E. Goodman, formerly with the Department of Mechanics and Materials, had helped me considerably to establish rock mechanics at Minnesota (see part 1) was now Head of CEAH, and saw potential in linking rock mechanics and soil mechanics as ‘geomechanics.’ I was allowed to add another faculty member, and was pleased when Dr. Steve Crouch, one of the initial group of graduate students, accepted the position. Together with Tony Starfield, we now had the nucleus of a group to develop a rock mechanics program. Aware of the coming change, I had arranged to take a sabbatical leave for the 1970-71 AcademicYear, based again in England- partly at the Royal School of Mines, Imperial College, London, where Evert Hoek had established the Postgraduate School of Rock Mechanics, and partly visiting colleagues and laboratories in France and West Germany. My family and I lived for the year in Cheltenham3

, in the heart of the Cotswolds, designated an ‘Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty’. Not infrequently, my explanation to ‘locals’ that I was a Professor on leave from an American university would be met by a quizzical look that then changed to a knowing smile, accompanied by “Aha”- and on to other topics.

There is no university in Cheltenham, but it is the home of the GCHQ, the British counterpart to the US National Security Agency, and the two agencies cooperate. Professor Hoek’s research placed emphasis on the role of discontinuities such as joints and faults on the overall strength and stability of rock slopes, and development of sound rock engineering

1 The renowned St. Anthony Falls Hydraulic Laboratory, located on the Mississippi River, was part of the this department. See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Anthony_Falls_Laboratory 2 See http://special.lib.umn.edu/findaid/xml/uarc00912.xml and .http://special.lib.umn.edu/findaid/xml/uarc00010.xml 3 Dr John Watkinson, a Metallurgist and close friend from our days at Sheffield University, was now a Director of Foseco Ltd3, based in London. He commuted daily from his home in Cheltenham, and kindly offered to take me with him, as needed..

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design rules (Hoek and Bray, 1974).4 It was here that I first met Peter Cundall, then a graduate student with Professor Hoek. Peter was developing a discrete element model (DEM) to simulate the progressive deformation and failure of an assembly of blocks5

. Although limited by computer power, the method clearly had major potential in rock mechanics. I resolved to stay in contact with Peter.

Returning to Minnesota in 1971, I was looking forward to focus on teaching and research, free of academic administration, but this change was to be short-lived! In 1972, Dr. Goodman resigned as Department Head in order to return to teaching and research. I was stunned when the Search Committee, composed largely of Civil Engineering faculty, invited me to be Head of the combined department. I had not applied for the position! Eventually, I accepted the challenge. Although not formally educated as a Civil Engineer, I was fortunate to have been befriended, soon after my arrival at Minnesota, by Ken Lane, Lloyd Underwood and colleagues at the US Army Corps of Engineers. They were keen to extend developments in rock mechanics to applications in Corps projects. This included funding of the project on Rational Design of Tunnel Supports (see Ph.D. thesis by Daemen (1975),6 a number of stimulating consulting activities, such as the Niagara Falls Preservation Project (1968-74),7

and two intensive 6 months courses in GeoEngineering for groups of Corps engineers and geologists. This was a stimulating and valuable experience in which I and other faculty learned a great deal from the ‘students’ both during the courses and later, when faculty were asked to participate as consultants on Corps projects.

The Corps also stepped up to keep our research moving ahead in other important ways. One of my first moves as CME Head was to persuade Peter Cundall to accept appointment as Assistant Professor in 1972. When he arrived, I asked Peter to prepare a research proposal for funding to a national agency to pursue his research on DEM numerical modeling. The proposal, for one year of research, at a cost of $75,000, was denied. Although not unusual for a first proposal, both Peter and I were upset at the basis for the rejection. In effect, it was indicated that reviewers considered the proposal to be too ambitious; the applicant did not realize the difficulties involved. I asked Peter “what is the minimum amount you need to demonstrate that you could 4Prof Müller had emphasized, in 1966, the dominant role of such discontinuities as the major distinction between rock and soil mechanics, and why ISRM was needed in addition to ISSMFE (International Society for Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering) “….discontinuities and anisotropy are the most characteristic properties of rock in situ …the properties of jointed media depend much more upon the bond between the rock block units in the system than upon the rock material itself” L. Müller, ISRM Congress, Lisbon, 1966. [Extract from Opening Address -Translation from German.) ISSMFE is now ISSMGE (international Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering http://www.issmge.org/en/ 5 A similar procedure was being developed by J.T Cherry and colleagues at Los Alamos National Laboratory, taking advantage of the more powerful computational facilities of the US National Laboratories. See Cherry (1967). 6 This included work to help stimulate the use of resin-grouted bolts –as developed and marketed by Fosroc,Inc 7 Concern had been expressed by some citizens of Buffalo, New York that the Falls was degenerating into a rapids, and Governor Rockefeller requested the Corps to assess what could/should be done to prevent this. Flow over the American Falls was stopped from June -November 1969 and diverted over the Horseshoe (Canadian) Falls. Eventually it was decided to allow ‘nature to take its course.’

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achieve what you had proposed?” After some thought, he answered “$25,000 will allow me to demonstrate the procedure using interactive graphics –but I may need to modify the computer , and I would not be able to provide adequate documentation to allow others to replicate my work readily.” I submitted this lower proposal to the Corps of Engineers which, recognizing the potential, provided the support. Peter completed the project, and submitted the report (Cundall 1974) in less than five months. This allowed the Corps to begin studies to further develop the DEM procedure. To my chagrin, Peter then decided to return to England to accept appointment with a consulting company. Only eight years later, was I able to persuade him to rejoin the CME department, this time as an Associate Professor. He has remained in Minnesota, and his legendary contributions are known to all.

(1) C.Fairhurst; (2) V. Greenwood; (3) R.Anderson; (4) H.E. Thomas; (5) L.Gustafson; (6) M.Klosterman;(7) N.Green; (8) R. Whartman; (9) E.Bailey; (10) C.Dodson; (11) J.McFadden; (12) E. Titicomb;

(13) S. Long; (14) R.Davis; (15) C.McAneny; (16) J.Moylan; (17) Prof. D. Yardley; (18) R.Siesen; (19) M.Simmons; (20) R.Yost; (21) J.Doty

US Army Corps of Engineers Geophysics Field Camp, Hinckley, Minn, 1974

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Although the undergraduate degree programs in Mineral Engineering were continued after the merger with Civil Engineering, the problem of low enrollment, relative to other engineering programs on the Twin Cities campus was a constant concern.8 Professor Pfleider led a successful effort to establish the Mineral Industry Education Fund, providing scholarships to encourage students to enroll in Mineral Engineering. This was supplemented by brochures and faculty visits to high schools, and occasional participation in television programs promoting mining9

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The University of Minnesota had several coordinate campuses around the state, including Duluth (UMD), but the Twin Cities campus was, at the time, the only one where professional degree programs were awarded. Towards the end of the 1970’s, several colleagues from the Duluth campus, led by Dr. George Rapp, then Dean of the College of Arts and Science, and Professor Ralph Marsden, Head of the Geology Department (and formerly Chief Geologist at US Steel Corporation), approached the CME Department with the proposal to transfer the undergraduate program in Mineral Engineering to Duluth. They were enthusiastic, arguing that, in contrast to the Twin Cities campus, their primary focus was on undergraduates and undergraduate programs; the mining activities of the state and most of the mining alumni were located in Northern Minnesota. This would stimulate support for the degree program, etc. After considerable discussion, the mineral engineering faculty concurred. A transition plan was developed, whereby faculty from the main campus would travel to Duluth to lecture until Duluth could recruit full–time faculty. First, however, the University of Minnesota–Duluth needed to request approval from the University Board of Regents to grant undergraduate degrees in Engineering. This was done and, in 1983, permission was granted. The UM-Duluth administration, apparently in discussion with local business groups, decided that the economy of Duluth would be stimulated more by the establishment of engineering degree programs in Electrical, Computer, and Mechanical rather than Mineral Engineering. A Civil Engineering program was added in 2008 but, to date, there has been no indication of an intention to add a degree program in Mineral Engineering, although mining activities remain strong, with indications of the possibility of significant expansion to include underground mining in the foreseeable future.

8 The Environmental Protection Agency was established in 1970 9 .The Iron Mining Industry of Minnesota sponsored a popular Saturday night TV series ‘Producers Playhouse, which opened with a 15-20 minute informational piece on some aspect of mining, followed by a ‘first-run’ movie that was shown “for your viewing pleasure, without commercial interruption” .’Some of the industry segments included discussion of mining engineering as a career. http://www.pavekmuseum.org/Henton.htm .

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B.S Degrees in Mining Engineering Awarded in the US, 1974 -2010.

Low interest in mining engineering has continued now for over three decades and poses a serious problem for the mining industry. SME estimates that the industry requires approximately 300+ graduates per year as a minimum to operate and manage mines in the US. Also, as the graph indicates, there are too few engineers ready to assume the leadership responsibilities of engineers now starting to retire. The situation is exacerbated by the fact that other countries (Australia, Canada, and Western Europe) face similar shortages. Competition for the few graduates is becoming global. University mining faculty are also aging in a similar fashion. Research in geoengineering, covering both rock mechanics and mineral resource topics, via the Mineral Resources Research Center (MRRC),10

continued vigorously on the Twin Cities campus, although the invaluable support of the US Bureau of Mines, both nationally and via the local Twin Cities USBM Research Center, declined progressively, as the Bureau’s research budget was reduced by Congress, culminating in the closure of the Bureau in 1995.

Underground Space Awareness of the potential for subsurface development presented by the near–surface geology of the Twin Cities of Minneapolis and St Paul pre-dates my arrival at the University. Storm water run–off and sanitary systems have been constructed since the mid-19th century in the friable St. Peter Sandstone, which can be excavated by water jet. Native Americans used caves well before European settlers arrived.11

Professor Don Yardley, geological engineer and faculty colleague in the School of Mines and Metallurgy was a keen advocate of developing an underground mass transit system for the Twin Cities from the early 1950’s.

The studies on rock drilling and blasting, and tunnel support design at the University of Minnesota led, in 1968, to an invitation to me to join the ASCE/AIME Underground Construction Research Council (UCRC). The subsequent UCRC report (Baker et al; (1972),

10The name MRRC was introduced in1970, but its research continued in the facilities of the Mines Experiment Station, built in 1922, where Dr E.W, Davis had developed the taconite process. http://special.lib.umn.edu/findaid/xml/uarc00005.xml 11 The book Subterranean Twin Cities http://gregbrick.org/ provides a comprehensive account.

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indicated major potential benefits, both economic and environmental, from greater use of the subsurface. Geological isolation of high–level radioactive waste was also under active investigation, initially in salt, as Project Salt Vault at Lyons, Kansas, (1971 on) and also in Triassic sediments beneath the Oak Ridge plant at Savannah River, Georgia, both in the early 1970’s. (My association with these and subsequent nuclear waste isolation projects in the US and other countries has continued to the present.) Several other major international developments added to the interest in underground development. The Channel Tunnel, intended to connect France and the United Kingdom, was being discussed actively12

The Third Congress of the International Society for Rock Mechanics (ISRM) was held in Denver, Sept 1-7, 1974. Dr. Leonard Obert

. The International Tunnelling Association (ITA) was founded in 1974.

13 of the US Bureau of Mines (and a native of Minneapolis) was ISRM President.14

In 1976, agreement was reached with Pergamon Press (Oxford) to introduce the journal “Underground Space.”15

I contributed a general article (Fairhurst 1976) that attempted to survey the general economic and environmental potential of the shallow subsurface.

In 1977, Swedish colleagues, led by Magnus Bergman, organized “Rockstore 77 - Storage in Excavated Rock Caverns” (Bergman 1977). This was a major international event, with some emphasis on the extensive Scandinavian experience of using underground excavations in hard rock for a wide variety of applications. Part of the emphasis in Scandinavia was on incorporating routine use of the subsurface by the general population, in order to prepare them to take shelter in the event that nuclear hostilities developed between the US and the then USSR. Winquist and Mellgren (1988) provide examples of the varied uses.16

Underground Space in Minnesota In general, development of underground rapid transit systems must contend with either hard rock, which is costly to excavate but tends to be self-supporting (as in Stockholm) or with soft rock, which is easy to excavate, but requires expensive support (as in much of the London metro).17

As seen in the sketch of the Twin Cities below, the region is covered by a superficial layer of glacial drift, usually to a depth of several tens of feet, followed by a 20ft or so layer of competent Platteville Limestone, which overlies the St. Peter Sandston, usually 30 ft or more thick. The sandstone can be excavated with ease, leaving the limestone as a competent roof. .

12 http://www.thebhc.org/publications/BEHonline/2006/gourvish.pdf 13 http://www.isrm.net/gca/index.php?id=583 14 I was Chair of the Technical Program and colleague Prof. Richard.(Dick) Goodman organized the Field Tours.. 15 My colleague Dr Tom Atchison, recently retired Director of the US, Bureau of Mines Twin Cities Research Center, agreed to serve as Editor . 16 The 1994 Olympic Hockey games were played in an underground skating rink in Norway See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gj%C3%B8vik_Olympic_Cavern_Hall 17 There are. of course, situations where the geology is very variable and pose a corresponding variety of construction challenges.

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The Mississippi River flows at the base of the sandstone with steep-sided flanks of limestone. Rail and barge and road transportation is at the river level, with commercial buildings and further road transportation located on top of the till. The illustration is intended to suggest that this geology is well suited for three-dimensional development of the Twin Cities. The period 1973-79 was marked by national concern over the possibility of interruption of essential supplies of petroleum to the US, the announced intention by OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries), in October 1973 and again in 1979, of an embargo against oil exports to the US.18

President Carter (1979-81) created the US Department of Energy and urged a national effort to conserve energy.

The OPEC developments alarmed the Minnesota State Legislature. Minnesota was, and is, heavily dependent on reliable sources of energy, especially in the harsh winters. The usual sources of oil from Canada and the Gulf Coast region would not be assured in the event of an embargo; supplies from a third source, Alaska, via a proposed Northern Tier pipeline,19

were also in jeopardy.

Minnesota surface temperatures range from a high of around 95°F (35°C) in summer to -30°F (-34° C) in winter. At a depth of 10ft (3m) below the surface, these extremes are reduced to 60°F (15°C) and 41°F (5°C). At a depth of 10m, the temperature is constant at 54°F (12°C) year round. This suggested that earth-sheltered buildings could help reduce the consequences of such fuel interruptions.

Near - Surface Geology of Minneapolis–St. Paul (Courtesy John Carmody.)

18 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1973_oil_crisis and http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1979_energy_crisis 19 http://www.nytimes.com/1983/04/21/business/northern-tier-kills-plan-for-1500-mile-pipeline.html

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The Legislative Commission on Minnesota Resources (LCMR) and its Executive Director Robert E. Hansen, developed an interest in the potential of subsurface development in Minnesota and agreed to provide research support. St Paul Mayor George Latimer recognized the potential and was a strong supporter of ‘the underground movement.’ The Underground Space Center (USC) was founded as part of CME in 1977. Dr. Ray Sterling, who had just completed his Ph.D. thesis on a study of the structural characteristics of the Platteville Limestone, was named Director of the Center. Faculty colleagues John Carmody, Thomas Bligh, Charles Nelson and Don Yardley provided valuable assistance. LCMR maintained an active interest in the studies of Underground Space and Earth Sheltered Design, and in 1980, a group of LCMR members took advantage of the Symposium, “Rockstore 80” (Bergman 1980) to arrange a meeting with Swedish legislators in Stockholm to discuss their experience in gaining public acceptance of underground space development. This encouraged the LCMR to continue funding the USC, which went on under Dr. Sterling’s leadership, until 199520

One of the challenges facing me as Department Head was the poor quality of classroom and laboratory facilities, especially in Civil Engineering. Faculty were also dispersed in several locations on campus. In this respect, the merger with Mineral Engineering compounded the problem. The CME Advisory Committee, composed of leaders in Minnesota civil engineering practice and business, chaired by Richard (Dick) Vasatka, was formed to provide advice to me and to help guide efforts to obtain new facilities for the Department. UMN administration allowed us to develop a request for a new Civil and Mineral Engineering building to be submitted as part of the university’s request to the 1980 Legislature. To our surprise, the request was approved by the Legislature with the proviso that the building be constructed underground! The building was completed in late 1982 and, in 1983, received the Outstanding Civil Engineering Award of the American Society of Civil Engineers. Features of the building are described in the June 1983 issue of Civil Engineering (Anon.1983).

20 …the research organization with perhaps the broadest mission related to underground construction was the state-funded Underground Space Center at the University of Minnesota. The center assembled a multi-disciplinary team to look broadly at issues affecting underground space use, including public policy, planning, architectural design, geotechnical engineering,and underground heat transfer, and became a model for several other centers around the world that guide underground space use in their respective countries. These include centers at the University of Delft in the Netherlands, Tongji University, Chongqing University and Nanjing Engineering Institute and other universities in China, and the Urban Underground Space Center of Japan. While the Underground Space Center at the University of Minnesota was successful in terms of research activity and maintaining its broad mandate, the lack of a stable base funding for its mission left it vulnerable to a university and state funding recession that resulted in its closure in 199520.

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Civil and Mineral Engineering, University of Minnesota.

Itasca Consulting Group In the late 1970’s, I was part of a team assembled by Dames and Moore, geotechnical consultants to Niagara Mohawk, to assess the suitability of the rock foundation proposed for Unit 2 of the Nine Mile Point Nuclear Power Plant in Scriba, New York, on the shore of Lake Ontario. The Dames and Moore group was led by John Markham. Impressed by John’s effectiveness managing what was, at times, a very contentious group, and by his sense of humor, I decided to approach him with an idea that I had been considering for some time. Although first stated in a quite different context21

Theory without practice is sterile;

, the following quotation applies well to engineering research in rock mechanics.

Practice without theory is blind. The rock mechanics research program was progressing well with respect to faculty and students but, as an engineering group, our efforts needed to be tested by practical application. Studies at the USC were also going well. Rockstore 80, in Stockholm had generated considerable international interest. Perhaps we could form a company in Minneapolis to carry these two fields into practice. I had ‘broached’ the idea to Magnus Bergman during the conference in Stockholm, and he had indicated some interest. I presented the same idea to John. He promised to think about it. Early in 1981, John and Magnus came to the Twin Cities to discuss the idea further. Several days later, we agreed to form a company. We also agreed that we wanted a distinctive name. I recalled how the ‘true source’ of the Mississippi, Lake Itasca, had been named22

21 Friedrich Engels, Letter to F.A. Sorge, London, Nov.29, 1886, MESC (Marx- Engels Selected Correspondence), pp.449-50

and suggested ‘Itasca’ as

22 Henry Schoolcraft, the American explorer who, discovered the ‘true source’ of the Mississippi River, in 1851, after several earlier explorers had mistakenly named other locations.. As he set out, Schoolcraft, asked a clergyman friend, William Boutwell, to suggest a ‘splendid’ name, one befitting the source of the great river, if his search was

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the name. John and Magnus returned to their families to inform them of this quite dramatic decision. John was living in Hawaii “How do I tell Deb (his wife) to leave Hawaii for Minnesota in winter?” he asked me, as he left. John and Magnus formed an excellent team. They endured significant financial hardship, as the company searched for projects. Roger Hart and Mark Christainson, both UMN graduates in rock mechanics, were the first two employees. Faculty, including Barry Brady, Peter Cundall, and Ray Sterling gave part-time help. Soon they were joined by others and eventually the company started to prosper. Unfortunately, as the threat of oil embargoes and shortages subsided, so did interest in energy conservation and ‘earth sheltered structures.’ Itasca carried forward Peter Cundall’s numerical modeling ideas into application in all aspects of subsurface engineering, and has enjoyed considerable success as a result. Today III (Itasca International Inc) has over 160 staff and offices in 12 locations around the world. Over 60 of the staff have Ph.D.’ s and almost all have graduate degrees. The company maintains close relationships with faculty at the UMN and, interacts with many other universities internationally through its educational program.23

President, International Society for Rock Mechanics, 1991-95 As described in earlier parts of this narrative, I was fortunate to become associated with Professor Leopold Müller from the time, in the late 1950’s and early 1960’s, he and his colleagues in Austria, were urging the international Civil Engineering community to recognize that rock in situ behaved very differently than soil, and warranted the formation of a separate international society. I retained an interest in the Society, was in contact with the staff in Lisbon, and attended almost all of the ISRM Congresses. In 1991, colleagues in Europe persuaded me to become a candidate for ISRM President. I took office from the late John Franklin at the end of the 7th Congress held September 1991 in Aachen, Germany. When elected, I found that I really had a lot to learn about the Society. The entire complement of the ISRM Board, Presidents and Regional Vice-Presidents were all elected at the same time. We quickly agreed to change the rules, so that the election of President would take place two years before taking office. This allowed the ‘President-Elect’ to sit with the Board as an observer, before assuming the Office, and provide some level of continuity. The system is still in effect. We learned also that some National Groups questioned the value to them of ISRM. “There is very little communication between Congresses,” they complained. Working with a colleague in Minneapolis, Jenny Bartholomew, we introduced the ISRM News Journal. John Hudson, ISRM President (2007- 2011) worked intensively and effectively to improve communications in several ways. The News Journal continues, and is now distributed electronically.

successful . “Boutwell …wrote down Latin words for truth and head veritas and caput. –and Schoolcraft struck out the first syllable of the one and the last syllable of the other, joined what remained, and announced that the name would be “Itasca” , Theodore C. Blegen. (1963) Minnesota- A History of the State (Univ .of Minnesota Press. 4th printing 1970 p.116 23 For Itasca Educational programs, see http://itascainternational.com/about/education.php

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Underground Nuclear Testing in French Polynesia One morning in mid-1995, the ‘pre-cell phone’ era, I received a telephone call that started what was probably the most stimulating and rewarding geoengineering study in which I have been involved. “Charles, this is Pierre Bérest, I am calling from a telephone box in Ireland, and don’t have many coins, so must be brief. Would you be willing to organize an international study of the effects of French underground nuclear tests on the mechanical stability and hydrology of the atolls of Mururoa and Fangataufa in the South Pacific? This request comes directly from President Chirac.”You will have complete independence in selection of members, and on how your study is conducted.” Fearing that the transatlantic call would soon consume his remaining coins, I could only stammer “Er – Yes! But please send me details.”24

The Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (CTBT)25 was being readied by the United Nations for signature in September 1996 by all nuclear powers. President Chirac’s announcement, in June 1995, that France would conduct a ‘Final Campaign’ of eight underground nuclear tests in the atolls in French Polynesia, provoked a storm of international protest and public demonstrations, targeting France and French products.26

Nuclear tests in the atolls, had been conducted since 1975. Opposition was particularly strong in New Zealand, as seen from the cartoon below.

The IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency) in Vienna had agreed to study the consequences of radionuclides released by the tests into the Pacific Ocean, but a complementary study of structural and hydrologic changes was also needed. A contract was signed with the UMN and the IGC (International Geomechanical Commissison) was formed. The report “Underground Nuclear Testing in French Polynesia” in was published in 199927

. The Stability group, led by Emmanuel Detournay (US and Belgium) of the UMN, included Ted Brown (Australia), Victor Nikolaevsky (Russia), and Anthony Pearson (UK) with Peter Cundall, Branko Damjanac,and Charles Archambeau as consultants. The Hydrology group,

24 Reflecting on this incident, I have wondered whether Pierre’s lack of coins’ was real- or an effective way to forestall my penchant, when excited about a topic, to discuss it ‘ad nauseum’ My children were less inhibited. When seeking help with homework, I would be told “Dad, just want the answer I do not need a lecture!” 25 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comprehensive_Nuclear-Test-Ban_Treaty 26 http://www.csmonitor.com/layout/set/r14/1995/0825/25014.html 27 Copies are available from La Documentation Française, 29, quai Voltaire,75344 Paris, Cedex 07, France

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“As you can see, we are leaving the atoll exactly as we found it”.

Cartoon, Auckland Post, 198828

led by Lloyd Townley (Australia), included Ghislain de Marsily and Anthony Pearson,with Pierre Perrochet and Laurent Tacher (Switzerland) as consultants, plus a group of assistants! The Commission visited the atolls, and met both in Europe and in the USA. The report has been praised for its thoroughness and high scientific quality. France reduced the number of tests from eight to six and signed the CTBT, on time, in September 1996. Unlikely to find projects as exciting as ‘the atolls study,’ and buoyed by the increased value of my retirement account29

, I decided that it was time to make way for younger colleagues with fresh ideas, and submitted my retirement in June 1997. It had been an eventful four decades.

Compressing such a period into a relatively few pages must inevitably leave out events and contributions from numerous professional colleagues, faculty and students who have made important contributions to my career. To all l, I say thank you for a wonderful and rewarding experience. Today, almost two decades later, I have been fortunate to see some significant changes in rock mechanics. In my last chapter, I will complete these reflections with some brief personal observations on the challenges and opportunities that lie ahead for rock mechanics.

28 This cartoon illustrates an important characteristic that influence public reaction to underground ‘engineering’ activities. The consequences of these activities can often not be discerned at the surface. 29 Heavily invested in Silicon Valley this account took a serious downturn when the dot.com bubble burst in 2000. I was grateful for my association with Itasca.

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References Anon.(1983),Outstanding Civil Engineering Achievement, Civil Engineering, June, pp 33-37. Abercrombie, T.J (1980) "A Tale of Twin Cities: Minneapolis and St. Paul," National Geographic (November). pp. 665-691 Baker R.F. et al; (1972) The Use of Underground Space to Achieve National Goals. Underground Construction Research Council of ASCE New York. Bergmann,M. (1977) Editor, Rockstore 77 - Storage in Excavated Rock Caverns Proc. First Int’l Sym,. Stockholm, September 5-8 September, [3 Vol.] Bergmann, M. (1980) Editor, Rockstore 80, Environmental protection, low cost storage, energy savings ; Proc. Int’l. Symp,.Stockholm, June 23-27. (3 vol.) Pergamon Press (Oxford) (over 800 attendees Cherry, J.T. (1967) Computer calculations of explosion-produced craters. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences & Geomechanics Abstracts, Volume 4, Issue 1, January 1967, Pages 1-12, Cundall, P. A.(1971-a) “A Computer Model for Simulating Progressive Large Scale Movements in Blocky Rock Systems,” in Proceedings of the Symposium of the International Society for Rock Mechanics (Nancy, France, 1971), Vol. 1, Paper No. II-8.

Cundall, P. A. (1971-b) “Discussion in Symposium on Rock Fracture,” in Proceedings of the Symposium of the International Society for Rock Mechanics, Vol. 2, pp. 129-132.

Cundall, P.A. (1974), “Rational Design of Tunnel Supports –A Conputer Model for Rock mass Behaviour using Interactive Graphics for the Input and Output of Geometrical Data’ Tech.Report. MRD-2-74. Missouri River Division, US Army Corps of Engineers. NTIS Report no. AD/A-001 602, 1974. Fairhurst C. (Editor) (1966) Failure and Breakage of Rock Proc. Eighth Symposium on Rock Mechanics, University of Minnesota AIME (New York) Fairhurst, C. (1976) “Going Under to Stay on Top,” Underground Space, 1, 71-86), Pergamon Press (Oxford).

Fairhurst, C (1999) Chairman - Underground Nuclear Testing in French Polynesia –Stability and Hydrology Issues (1999) Report of the International Geomechanical Commission. La Documentation Française 29,Quai Voltaire 75344, Paris. 1999. ISBN : 2-11-004371-7 (Full Report on CD -included) Freeman L.W. and R. P Highsmith (2014) Supplying Society with Natural Resources. The Future of Mining - From Agricola to Rachel Carson and Beyond, The BRIDGE Vol.44-1 US Nat. Acad. Eng, January See http://www.nae.edu/Publications/Bridge/106112.aspx Hoek E and J.W. Bray (1974) Rock Slope Engineering, Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, London (309 p.)

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NAS/NRC (2013) -1 Emerging Workforce Trends in the US Energy and Mining Industries. http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=18250 (see Chapter 2 pp74-86) NAS/NRC (2013) -2 Underground Engineering for Sustainable Urban Development, Chapter 7 - Institutional, Educational, Research, and Workforce Capacity Box 7.3 p.194 Nelson, C.R. and Yardley D.H. (1973) Low cost tunneling. Report MTC -73-01. Metropolitan Transit Commission 330 Metro Square St. Paul MN 53p. Press, F. (1975) Earthquake Prediction, Scientific American May 1975 Vol.232 No. 5 pp. 14-23

Winquist,T and K. E. Mellgren (1988) Going Underground Published by IVA (Royal Swedish Academy of Engineering Sciences),Stockholm, 1988

Appendix 3.1

University of Minnesota — Geoengineering Ph.D. Graduates 1977 – 2013 This list complements the list ‘Ph.D. Graduates advised by Charles Fairhurst, University of Minnesota, 1965-2000, which was included in Part 2 of these notes.

Year Graduate Advisor Thesis Title

1977 Sterling, Raymond L. Nelson, Charles R; Goodman, Leonard E.

Roof design for underground openings in near-surface bedded rock formations

1979 Krishna Paratap Sinha Crouch, Steven Lee Displacement Discontinuity Technique for Analyzing Stresses and Displacements in Seam Deposits

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Year Graduate Advisor Thesis Title

1981 Hart, Roger D. Beskos, Dimitrios E; St John, Christopher Michael

A Fully Coupled Thermal- Mechanical-Fluid Flow Model for Nonlinear Geologic Systems

1982 Callahan, Gary Delmar Crouch, Steven Lee A Plasticity Approach for Rock Containing Planes of Weakness.

1982 Haitjema, Hendrik Marte Strack, Otto Modeling Three-Dimensional Flow in Confined Aquifers using Distributed Singularities

1982 Sharp, Samuel Crouch, Steven Lee Boundary Element Methods in Quasistatic Thermoelasticity with Applications in Rock Mechanics

1983 Curtis Jr, Thomas Gray Strack, Otto Simulation of Saltwater Intrusion by Analytic Elements

1983 Lindner, Ernest Crouch, Steven Lee A Constitutive and Experimental Investigation of Load-History Influences on the Creep Behavior of Salt

1983 Wang, Yongjia Crouch, Steven Lee Numerical Model for Computing Time-Dependent Displacements and Stresses in Rock Mechanics

1984 Karabalis, L Dimitris Vardoulakis, Ioannis Dynamic Response of Three-Dimensional Foundations

1984 Lorig, Loren Jay Cundall, Peter Alan A Hybrid Computational Model for Excavation and Support Design in Jointed Media

1984 Spyrakos, Constantine Beskos, Dimitrios E Dynamic Response of Strip Foundations by the Time Domain Bem-Fem Method

1985 Detournay, Christine Jeanne Strack, Otto Application of Boundary Elements to the

Hodograph Method

1985 Harnpattanapanich, Than Vardoulakis, Ioannis Numerical Laplace-Fourier Transform Inversion Technique for Soil Consolidation

1987 Dasgupta, Biswajit Vardoulakis, Ioannis Vibration Isolation of Structures in a Homogeneous Elastic Soil Medium

1987 Lemos, Jose Cundall, Peter Alan A Distinct Element Model for Dynamic Analysis of Jointed Rock with Application to Dam Foundations and Fault Motion

1987 Trent, Bruce Collins Cundall, Peter Alan The Effect of Micro-Structure on the Macroscopic Behavior of Cemented Granular Material

1988 Asgian, Margaret Isabel Cundall, Peter Alan A Numerical Study of Fluid Flow in Deformable, Naturally Fractured Reservoirs

1988 Zaadnoordijk, Willem Ja Strack, Otto Analytic Elements for Transient Groundwater Flow

1989 Debbarh, Abdelhafid Vardoulakis, Ioannis Consolidation of Elastic Saturated Soil Due to Water Withdrawal by Numerical Laplace-Fourier Inversion Methods

1989 Leung, Kon Lim Vardoulakis, Ioannis Vibration Isolation of Structures from Ground-Transmitted Waves in Non-Homogeneous Elastic Soil

1990 Fitts, Charles Richard Strack, Otto Modeling Three-Dimensional Groundwater Flow About Ellipsoids of Revolution Using Analytic Functions

1990 Papanastasiou, Panos Ch Vardoulakis, Ioannis Numerical Analysis of Localization Phenomena with Application in Deep Boreholes

1990 Tian, You Crouch, Steven Lee Boundary Element Methods in Elastodynamics

16

Year Graduate Advisor Thesis Title

1990 Watson, Alan Gordon Barnes, Randal J Infill Sample Network Design for Characterization of Extremes in Geo-Engineering

1991 Han, Chunhua Drescher, Andrew Localization of Deformation in Sand

1991 Mack, Mark Gavin Crouch, Steven Lee A Three-Dimensional Boundary Element Method for Elastodynamics

1991 Petersen, David Lee Crouch, Steven Lee A Hybrid Numerical Model for Seam and Vein Mining Problems

1992 Alstenawy, Abdulhafz Alsiny Vardoulakis, Ioannis; Drescher, Andrew

Deformation Modes in Thick-Walled Cylinder Experiments on Dry Sand

1992 Chen, Chee-Nan Labuz, Joseph F Microcrack Characterization and the Fracture Mechanisms of Damaged Rock

1992 Lee, Chengho Sterling, Raymond Lesli Identification of Failure Mechanisms of Underground Openings by an Approximate Reasoning System

1992 Loken, Marc Clifton Crouch, Steven Lee A Three-Dimensional Boundary Element Method for Linear Elastodynamics

1992 Papamichos, Euripides Vardoulakis, Ioannis Surface Instabilities and Fracture: Theory and Experiment

1992 Park, Yeonjun Sterling, Raymond Lesli Influence in Below-Freezing Temperatures on the Shear Behavior of Wet Rock Joints

1992 Selcuk,Sakir Crouch, Steven Lee A Higher-Order Direct Boundary Integral-Displacement Discontinuity Method for Fracture Propagation in Layered Elastic Media

1992 Siebrits, Eduard Crouch, Steven Lee Two-Dimensional Time Domain Elastodynamic Displacement Discontinuity Method with Mining Applications

1992 You, Kwangho Barnes, Randal J Infill Sampling Design For Tunnel Rock Classification Using Both Quantitative and Qualitative Information

1993 Shou, Keh-Jian Crouch, Steven Lee A Higher Order Three-Dimensional Displacement Discontinuity Method with Application to Bonded Half-Space Problems

1994 Bakker, Mark Strack, Otto Two-Dimensional Groundwater Flow with Free Boundaries Using the Hodograph Method

1994 Board, Mark Patrick Crouch, Steven Lee Numerical Examination of Mining-Induced Seismicity

1994 Shah, Ketan R Labuz, Joseph F; Stolarski, Henryk K Damage and Localization in Brittle Materials

1994 Sun, Yi Ming Sterling, Raymond Lesli A Three-Dimensional Model for Transient Fluid Flow Through Deformable Fractured Porous Media

1994 Wang, Wu Sterling, Raymond Lesli; Goldberg, Louise F

Moist Soil Thermal Conductivity Measurement

1995 Dawson, Ethan Mark Cundall, Peter Alan Micropolar Continuum Models for Jointed Rock

1995 Handley, Matthew Francis Cundall, Peter Alan An Investigation into the Constitutive Behaviour of Brittle Granular Media by Numerical Experiment

1996 Birgisson, Bjorn Crouch, Steven Lee A Two-Dimensional Dynamic Direct Boundary Element Method for Piecewise Homogeneous Elastic Media

1996 Carbonell, Roberto Segundo Detournay, Emmanuel; Fairhurst, Charles Self-similar solution of a Fluid-Driven Fracture

17

Year Graduate Advisor Thesis Title

1996 Cheng, Liangsheng Crouch, Steven Lee; Gerberich, William W

Numerical Modeling of Indentation and Scratch Problems

1996 Dai, Shongtao Labuz, Joseph F Failure of Rock-Like Materials Under the Plane Strain Condition

1996 Liu, Hsifen Grace Sterling, Raymond Lesli Numerical Modelling of Shear Behavior of Rock Joints Using Microscopic Structures of Joint Surfaces

1996 Steward, David R Strack, Otto Vector Potential Functions and Stream Surfaces in Three-Dimensional Groundwater Flow

1996 Zhang, Wei Drescher, Andrew; Newcomb, David E

Viscoelastic Analysis of Diametral Compression Test on Asphalt Concrete

1997 Amano, Satoru Barnes, Randal J Discrimination of Conductive Fractures Based on the Information from Geological and Hydrological Investigations

1997 Hovan, Jean Michel Sterling, Raymond Lesli; Newcomb, David E

Measurement and Analysis of Pore Water Pressure in Thawing Pavement Structures Subjected to Dynamic Loading

1997 Jankovic, Igor Barnes,Randal J High-Order Analytic Elements in Modeling Groundwater Flow

1998 Berchenko, Ilya Detournay, Emmanuel Thermal Loading of a Saturated Rock Mass: Field Experiment and Modeling Using Thermoporoelastic Singular Solutions

1998 Garagash, Dmitriy Igorevicm Detournay, Emmanuel Near Tip Processes of Fluid-Driven Fractures

1999 Anderson, Erik I Strack, Otto Groundwater Flow with Leaky Boundaries

1999 Carvalho, Fernanda Labuz, Joseph F; Crouch, Steven Lee

Characterizing Brittle Failure Through Quantitative Acoustic Emission

1999 Huang, Haiying Detournay, Emmanuel Discrete Element Modeling of Tool-Rock Interaction

2000 Savitski, Alexei A Detournay, Emmanuel; Crouch, Steven Lee

Propagation of a Penny-Shaped Hydraulic Fracture in an Impermeable Rock

2001 Adachi, Jose Ignacio Detournay, Emmanuel Fluid-Driven Fracture in Permeable Rock

2001 Boukpeti, Nathalie K Drescher, Andrew Modeling Static Liquefaction in Granular Deposits

2001 Mitaim, Sanchai Labuz, Joseph F; Detournay, Emmanuel

Excavation-Induced Damage Around Underground Opening in Brittle Rock

2001 Richard, Thomas Marc Detournay, Emmanuel Self-Excited Stick-Slip Oscillations of Drag Bits

2003 Chen, Li-Hsien Labuz, Joseph F Failure of Rock Under Normal Wedge Indentation

2003 Larson, Mark Kevin Labuz, Joseph F; Drescher, Andrew

Time-Dependent Deformation and Shear Strength Along Weakness Planes in the Roof of a Coal Mine

2003 Nintcheu Fata, Sylvain Guzina, Bojan 3D Subterranean Imaging via Elastic Waves

2004 Wang, Jianlin Crouch, Steven Lee; Mogilevskaya, Sofia

Numerical Modeling of Elastic Materials with Inclusions, Holes, and Cracks

2005 Bunger, Andrew Paul Crouch, Steven Lee; Detournay, Emmanuel Near-Surface Hydraulic Fracture

2006 Hoffmann, Olivier Jean-Marie

Detournay, Emmanuel; Guzina, Bojan Drilling Induced Vibration Apparatus

2006 Huang, Yun Crouch, Steven Lee; Mogilevskaya, Sofia

Computational Modeling of Viscoelastic Composite and Porous Materials

2006 Madyarov, Andrew Igorevich Guzina, Bojan Fast Solutions for 3D Elastic-Wave Imaging of

Piecewise- Homogeneous Bodies

2006 Sadraie, Hamid Reza Crouch, Steven Lee A Boundary Spectral Method for Elasticity Problems with Spherical Inhomogeneities

18

Year Graduate Advisor Thesis Title

2007 Chikichev, Ivan Sergeevich Guzina, Bojan Generalized Topological Sensitivity for Inverse Scattering of Elastic Waves

2008 Gordeliy, Elizaveta Crouch, Steven Lee; Mogilevskaya, Sofia

Numerical Modeling of Transient Heat Conduction and Transient Thermoelasticity in Heterogeneous Media

2010 Bellis, Cedric Guzina, Bojan; Bonnet, Marc Qualitative Methods for Inverse Scattering in Solid Mechanics

2010 Hambleton, James Paul Drescher, Andrew Plastic Analysis of Processes Involving Material-Object Interaction

2010 Kovalyshen, Yevhen Detournay, Emmanuel Fluid-Driven Fracture in Poroelastic Medium

2010 Lin, Qing Labuz, Joseph F Identification of Rock Fracture by Imaging Techniques

2011 Cao, Yuejian Labuz, Joseph F; Guzina, Bojan Full Waveform Analysis of Ground Penetrating Radar Measurements

2011 Kao, Chu-Shu Labuz, Joseph F Surface Instability as Damage Evolution in Rock

2011 Liao, Minmao Ballarini, Roberto Towards Fracture Mechanics-Based Design of Unbonded Concrete Overlay Pavements

2011 Piccinin, Roberto Ballarini, Roberto Effects of Compressive and Tensile Fields On the Load Carrying Capacity of Headed Anchors

2011 Yuan, Huina Guzina, Bojan; Labuz, Joseph F Extension of Topological Sensitivity and its Applications to Medical Imaging

2012 Dontsov, Egor Vladimirovich Guzina, Bojan Mechanics of the Acoustic Radiation Force in

Tissue-Like Solids

2012 Han, Yanhui Cundall, Peter Alan Construction of a LBM-DEM Coupling System and its Applications in Modeling Fluid Particle Interaction in Porous Media Flow

2013 Perneder, Luc Detournay, Emmanuel A Three-Dimensional Mathematical Model of Directional Drilling