Mythology Studies - Cuchulainn, The Irish Achilles - Alfred Nutt (1900)

7/28/2019 Mythology Studies - Cuchulainn, The Irish Achilles - Alfred Nutt (1900)

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Iopular Studies

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Mythology Remance &> Folklon6d. net each

?V y9. 8 ** Cuchulainn, theIrish Achilles. By AlfredNutt, Author of "The Legend ofthe- Holy Grail/' &c.

Published by David Nutt, at theSign of the Phoenix, Long Acre, London

1900

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UNIVERSITYOF FLORIDALIBRARIES

I

ALFRED NUTT.

A List of the Series will be found on tite bacliof the Cover.


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CUCHULAINN, THE IRISHACHILLES

*'Mors Conchulaind fortissimi herois Scottorumla Lugaid mac tri con, i. ri Muman, agus la Ercc,i. ri Temrach, mac Coirpri Niad fir, agus la trimaccu Calattin de Chonnachtaib ; vii mbliadna aaes intan rogab gaisced, xvii mbliadna dano a aesintan mboi indegaid Td,na b6 Cudilge, xxviibliadna immorro a aes intan atbath.""The death of Cuchulainn, the mightiest hero

of the Scots, by Lugaid son of Three Hounds,king of Munster, and by Ere, king of Tara, sonof Carbre Nia fer, and by the three sons of Calatinof Connaught. Seven years was his age when heassumed arms, seventeen was his age when hefollowed the Driving of the kine of Cualgne, buttwenty-seven years was his age when he died."

Such is the entry made in his Annals, under adate corresponding roughly to the year of Christ'snativity, by Tigernach hua Braein, Abbot of Clon-macnois, who died in the year 1088, concerningthe Gaelic hero whose legend I propose to examine


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"^J ^ o/^^s^y?^*^ CUCHULAINN

briefly in the following study. It cannot butinterest us to know what stories were told by theancient Irish of their /o?'/zssmws lieros, their mostfamous champion, what the manners and customs,the social and political organisation which thesestories reveal, what the ideals of conduct, the out-look upon life and death of the race by whichthey were fashioned.A few, but very few words are needed respectingthe extent and date of the stories which have comedown to us and the mode of their transmission.Fuller details will be found in the Appendix.Here it suffices to say that we possess a MS. lite-rature of which Cuchulainn and his contempo-raries are the subject, the extent of which may beroughly reckoned at 2000 8vo pages. The greatbulk of this is contained in MSS. which are olderthan the twelfth century, or which demonstrablyare copied from pre-twelfth century MSS. ; wherepost-twelfth century versions alone remain, thestory itself is nearly always known from earliersources ; in fact, there is hardly a single scene orincident in the whole cycle which has reached usonly in MSS. of the thirteenth and following cen-turies. At the same time a not inconsiderableportion of the cycle comes before us altered inlanguage, and to some extent in content, style ofnarrative, and characterisation, showing that thesaga as a whole remained a living element of


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THE IRISH ACHILLES 3Irish culture and participated in the accidents ofits evohition.The great bulk of this literature is, as I have

said, certainly older than the twelfth centurybut we can carry it back much farther, apartfrom any considerations based upon the subject-matter. Arguments of a nature purely philo-logical, based upon the language of the texts, orcritical, based upon the relations of the variousMSS. to each other, not only allow, but compel usto date the redaction of the principal Cuchulainnstories, substantially in the form under whichthey have survived, back to the seventh to ninthcenturies. Whether or no they are older yet, is aquestion that cannot be answered without pre-liminary examination of the subject-matter. Inthe meantime it is something to know that theCuchulainn stories were put into permanent lite-rary form at about the same date as Beowulf,some 100 to 250 years before the Scandinavianmythology crystallised into its present form, atleast 200 years before the oldest Charlemagneromances, and probably 300 years before theearliest draft of the Nibelungenlied. Irish isthe most ancient vernacular literature of modernEurope, a fact which of itself commends it to theattention of the student.The form of these stories is a mixture of prose

and verse. The men to whom thev owe their


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4 CUCHULAINNexisting shape are : (1) the court story-tellers, whounderwent a long and severe professional training,and were of high social standing ; the ollaiiih orchief minstrel ranks immediately after the Brehonor lawman, and occupies a position corresponding tothe second class of the fighting, landholding aristo-cracy ; (2) the scribes. Christian monks for themost part. It is also worthy of note that manyexisting texts are mere skeleton summaries, andwere doubtless intended to be filled out in oralrecitation.Thus these stories are the work of a professional

class specially charged with the preservation ofthe tribal traditions, and handsomely rewarded fortheir labours both in wealth and honours. Theyformed the subject of oral recitation as well as ofwritten record, from the seventh century onwardsfor at least a thousand years. I now propose tobriefly summarise the most important of them inso far as they are immediately concerned with thelife and personality of the hero, and have essayedto omit no incident essential to the conduct of thetale or that may throw light upon its date andnature, using, where possible, the words of theoriginal.

The Hero's Birth. All the stories agree inmaking him a son of Dechtire, sister of Concho-bor, king of North-Eastern Ulster, who held hiscourt at Emain Macha (in the present county of


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THE IRISH ACHILLES 5Armagh), and was surrounded by a band ofwarriors known as the Red Branch, chief amongwhom was the king's nephew, Conall Cearnach.But there is by no means the same unanimityrespecting his father. Some texts, especially suchas have obviously been arranged to give theman aspect of historical truth, represent him asson of an Ulster chieftain, Sualtam. But thereexists a small group of stories, betraying theirage by their obscure, fragmentary, and confusedform, which tell a very different tale. Of these,one hints at an incestuous union between Con-chobor and Dechtire, whence sprang the hero.We are reminded that Siegfried, the Teutonichero pai' excellence, had the same origin. Twoother texts assign to him a divine parentage.Lug, at once Sun-god and Master of Arts andCrafts in Irish mythology, transformed himself,according to one version, into a small insect, hidhimself in Dechtire's goblet, and, swallowed byher, was reborn as Cuchulainn. According toanother version, Dechtire and her attendantmaidens vanish suddenly and mysteriously fromthe Emanian court. After a while a bird flockbegins to frequent the plain of Emania, consum-ing everything, until not a blade of grass is left.The Ulster chiefs yoke their chariots and followin pursuit. At nightfall they come to the man-sion of Lug, who reveals it was he had carried


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6 CUCHULAINKoff Dechtire and her maidens, had changed theminto birds, and sent them to lure hither the war-riors of Ulster. In the morning Dechtire bearsa son ; Conchobor and his nobles agree to sharehis bringing up, and to confer upon him each hisspecial gift, whilst Morann the lawman breaksinto prophecy of his future greatness. " Hispraise shall be in the mouths of all men . . .kings and sages shall recount his deeds ; he willwin the love of many ... he will avenge all yourwrongs ; he will decide all your quarrels."

His Boyish Exploits.We next hear of Cuchu-lainn from a text the final redaction of whichbelongs to what may be called the Sualtam stageof the cycle. He is described as " reared in hisfather's and mother's house by the seaside, north-wards in the plain of Muirthemne," though, as amatter of fact, the mother alones takes any partin the tale. One day the boy, whilst quite little,tells his mother he is bent upon visiting Emania,and measuring himself against the youths of Con-chobor's court. In vain she objects his youth andweakness. Away he goes, taking with him hishurley of brass, his ball of silver, his throwingjavelin, his boy spear. Striking the ball, he castsafter it hurley, javelin, and spear, and catches allup ere the spear touches the ground. ReachingEmania, he wins goal after goal against the entirestrength of Conchobor's youth ; nay, more, when


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THE IRISH ACHILLES 7attacked by them he drives them before him intothe king's presenc.e, and does not hold his handuntil they have acknowledged him as their chief.All this takes place when he is five years old.

His Naming.The boy stays at Emania. Inthe following year the king and his court arebidden to a banquet by a smith named Culann.Conchobor asks the boy to come with him, but thelatter, engaged in single-handed play against hiscomrades and not caring to interrupt his game,says he will follow. The king and his train arereceived in becoming fashion by Culann ; freshrushes are laid, the banquet is served, and thehost asks the king's permission to let loose hisban-dog ; " the strength of a hundred was in him,surely an extraordinarily cruel, fierce, and savagedog was he." Conchobor, forgetting his nephew,grants the permission. After a while, Cuchulainn,his game finished, follows up the chariot tracksand reaches Culann's house. The ban-dog chargeshim, minded at one gulp to swallow him down,but the boy, seizing him by the hind-legs, bangshim against a rock and slays him. The feastersrush out, and Culann, finding his dog slain, isheartily vexed, but the boy bids him not beangered ; were there a whelp of the same breed,he would rear it until full-grown, and meanwhilewould do a ban-dog's ofiice in guarding the cattleand strong place of the smith. All hail the


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8 CUCHULAINNaward, and Cathbad the Druid declares that here-after Setanta (such had been his name hitherto)shall be called Cu Chulainn, Culann's hound.The lad protests he prefers his own name, butCathbad assures him " that all men in the worldshould have their mouths full of his new name,"and upon that understanding itwas pleasing to him.The Assumption of Arms.^In the following

year Cathbad, the Druid, being one day with eightof his pupils, declared that should any striplingtake arms on that day, his fame would transcendthat of all Ireland's youth, but his life would befleeting, short. Though separated from the Druidand his throng by Emania's breadth, Cuchulainnhears this. Putting off his playing suit, he comesbefore Conchobor and declares his wish to takearms. The king consents, but every weapon hebestows upon Cuchulainn is broken, until he giveshis own spear and sword and shield. TheseCuchulainn proves and finds good. Cathbadentering, and amazed at seeing so young a ladequipped warrior-like, learns that his own speechhad determined Cuchulainn's decision. TheDruid confirms his sooth, " noble and famousshall Cuchulainn be, but transitory, soon gone."*' Little care I," says the hero, " not though Iwere to live but one day and night, so long asafter me the tale of myself and my doings mayendure."


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THE IRISH ACHILLES 9Thereafter Cuchulainn mounts a chariot, but

not until he has broken seventeen does he findthe car of lubar, son of Riangabra, strong enoughto bear him. With lubar for his charioteer hemakes his way to Slievefuad, where Conall Cear-nach, Ireland's pre-eminent man of war, is mount-ing guard over the province of Ulster. Joininghim, he expresses his intent to start forth alone ona venture of danger. To free himself from Conall,who would follow and protect him, Cuchulainnhurls a stone at his cousin's chariot, and Conall,dashed to the ground, wrathfully lets him continuehis way alone. Despite his charioteer's reluctance,Cuchulainn pushes on into enemies' country untilhe nears the dun of Nechtan's three sons, " thetale of Ulster braves now alive exceeded not thecount of those fallen by their hands." Cuchulainnchallenges and slays the three champions, and, onhis way back to Emania, runs down on foot andcaptures two wild stags. Wrathfully and fiercelyhe approaches the king's court, " for when hisbattle fury was upon him he knew not friendfrom foe." To overcome him, the ladies of thecourt appear before him unclad, and, when heshuts his eyes to the sight, he is seized, passedthrough three vats of cold water, w^hich hisfury causes to boil, and his rage departs fromhim.

Such before his seventh year was accomplished


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10 CUCHULAINNwere the mighty deeds of Cuchulainn, and theposition he held at Conchobor's court.How he Wooed Emer.As the hero grows uphe surpasses all his comrades, and the women ofUlster love him greatly " for his dexterity infeats, the excellency of his wisdom, the sweetnessof his speech, the beauty of his face." He has nowife, and the men of Ulster are troubledhad he,thought they, a maiden to woo, 'tis the less hewould spoil their daughters and accept the loveof their women. Moreover, knowing he is toperish early, they wish he may have an heir, forhis re-birth would be of himself. Messengers aresent throughout Ireland, but a year's search re-veals no maiden whom he deigns to woo. '' Onesuch alone of all the maidens of Erin was there,one having the six gifts, voice, sweet speech,needlework, wisdom, and chastity . . . nonewere a fitting match for him, save his equal inage and form and race, in skill and deftness, andthe best handworker of the maidens of Erin.Such a one was Emer, daughter of Forgall theWily."

So Cuchulainn dons his festal array and mountshis chariot, with his charioteer, Laeg, son ofRiangabra, " that was the one chariot that thehosts of the horses of the chariots of Ulster couldnot follow on account of its swiftness and speed."Surrounded by her maidens, Emer receives the


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THE IRISH ACHILLES 11hero, who woos her with dark sayings which shealone understands. He vaunts his descent andvalour and accomplishments, " all the men ofUlster have taken part in my bringing up, chariotchiefs, kings, and head poets ... I am the darlingof the host ... I fight for the honour of all alike."In reply to his inquiry as to her bringing up,Emer answers, " In ancient virtues, in lawfulbehaviour, in the keeping of chastity." Has hea wife, she asks, and when he says no, declaresshe may not marry before her elder sister ; buther Cuchulainn will in nowise have, becauseshe has slept once with Cairpre Niafer, theKing of Ireland's son, and " never would Cuchu-lainn accept a woman who had known manbefore him." Emer is scornful of Cuchulainn'sexploits, which she derides as the " goodly featsof a tender boy," but she gives him to understandthat if he slay so and so many of her kindred shewill be his. And so they part.

Forgall is away whilst this is passing. On hisreturn he plans to hinder the lovers. Donningthe garb of a foreigner, as it were an embassyfrom the King of the Gauls, he journeys to Con-chobor's court. There he witnesses the feats ofCuchulainn and the other champions, and assertsthat if the former would but go to Domnall theSoldierly in Alba, and to Scathach, to acquiresoldier's skill, he would excel all the warriors of


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12 CUCHULAmNEurope. Cuchulainn consents to go, but firstexacts Forgall's oath to grant him his wish on hisreturn. Before starting, he and Emer meet again,and promise to keep their chastity until they metagain, unless either should get death thereby.As he journeys to seek Scathach, Cuchulainn en-

counters many and great dangers. But helperspresent themselves; a lion serves him as guide andsteed through a desert in which he had lost his way,a magic wheel and apple bestowed upon him areclues across the Plain of 111 Luck and through thePerilous Glens. Finally he achieves the venture ofthe swinging bridge which gives access to the isleof Scathach the Amazon. Here he perfects him-self in all warlike exercises, loves and is loved byUathach, Scathach's daughter, and finally over-comes Aife, an Amazon chieftainess, Scathach'srival. Upon her he begets a son, whom themother promises to send to Erin in seven years'time, and for whom he leaves a name. Thereafterhe journeys back to Erin, and comes, on hishomeward way, to the house of Ruad, King ofthe Isles. Sounds of wailing are audible, andCuchulainn learns that the king's daughter isto be given as a tribute to the Fomori. Herescues her, slaying three of the sea-robbers, butdeparts without making himself known. Sheseeks him later in bird guise, is wounded by him,and, when she reassumes human form, is cured by


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THE IRISH ACHILLES 13his sucking the blood from her wound ; this setsa barrier between them, so he gives her to hiscomrade Lugaid of the Red Stripes. So well isEmer guarded by her kinsmen, that a year passesbefore Cuchulainn can overcome and slay the guardand carry her off to Emania. They wed, and Bricriuof the Poison Tongue, intent as ever upon mischiefmaking, points out that Conchobor, as king, has theright of passing the first night with Emer. Thenobles of Ulster conciliate Cuchulainn, whilst safe-guarding the king's right by insisting upon a purelysymbolical exercise of it. In the morning theking pays Emer's wedding gift, the marriage isconsummated, and " Cuchulainn and his wife didnot separate till they were both dead." And thechieftancy of the youths of Ulster was given toCuchulainn.How Cucliulainn Guarded the Marches of

Ulster.We now come to the culminating pointalike of the hero's prowess and renown, and ofIrish heroic legend, the description of how, single-handed, he held at bay the forces of all Irelandbent upon raiding Ulster to carry off the famousBrown Bull of Cuailgne. This w^as no commonbull. Two members of the god-clan of the ancientIrish, after passing through a series of transforma-tions in which they perpetually strive against eachother but without either gaining the mastery, con-trive to be reborn as bulls ; one, Finnbennach,


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14 CUCHULAmNthe White-horned, is the property of Meave, Queenof Connaught, but scorning to be under petticoatrule, he departs and takes his place among theherds of her husband Ailill ; the other, the BrownBull, is owned by Daire mac Fachtna, an Ulsterchieftain. Now, one day Meave and Ailill dis-pute as to which is the better of the two. Theytotal up their belongings and find them equal invalue, save that Ailill's bull, the White-horned,surpasses all Meave's cattle, " and because shehad not a bull of his size, it was as though sheowned no pennyworth of stock." She is told ofthe Brown Bull, and sends MacRoth, the Con-naught herald, to beg it of Daire, offering himmost liberal terms of purchase. MacRoth playshis part with his wonted discretion and skill, butunfortunately one of his attendants drinks toofreely, and boasts in the hearing of Daire' s menthat if the latter did not give up the bull freelyMeave would take it by force. Daire, told of this,swears by his gods that unless taken by foulmeans the bull shall never be Meave's. Incensedat his refusal, the queen summons all her forcesand allies ; chief among the latter are Fergus,Conchobor's uncle, and Cormac, Conchobor's son,exiled from Ulster after the treacherous slaughterof the sons of Usnech, as is told in the tale ofthat name. Meave determines to attack at a timewhen the Ulster warriors are prostrate from a


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THE lEISH ACHILLES 15weakness that overtakes them periodically in re-quital of a shameful wrong wrought by one ofConchobor's ancestors upon a member of the Irishgod-clan, who had put off her goddess-hood to wedan Ulster chief. Before starting she decides toconfer with her wizard, and seek of him foreknow-ledge and prophecy. The wizard reassures her," whoever comes or comes not back, she shouldreturn." But on the homeward way she is stayedby a maiden, who announces herself as a seeressout of Cruachan's fairy hill. " How seest thouour host? "asks Meave. " I see them all in red,I see them all becrimsoned," is the answer re-turned again and again to the repeated and in-credulous expostulations of the queen. Finallythe seeress bursts into an enthusiastic panegyricof Cuchulainn and his prowess.Meave persists, and her army, drawn from every

part of Ireland save north-east Ulster, sets forthunder the guidance of Fergus, but he, thoughbitterly wronged by Conchobor, has still an over-whelming affection for his land, and misleads thehost whilst he secretly warns Ulster. In spite ofall, the invaders draw near Ulster's borders, andare beheld from afar by Sualtam and Cuchulainn,who are free from the weakness that overcomesall the other Ulstermen. Cuchulainn refuses togive up a love tryst he has that night, saying thathis word has been passed, and must be kept at


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1 16 CUCHULAINNt all costs. Certain feats, however, he performs,

the effects of which fill the invaders with amaze-ment. Nevertheless, they cross the borders. Onthe morrow, Cuchulainn, following up their tracks,gives a most accurate account of their numbers,and " this was one of the three best estimatesever made in Ireland." Slight skirmishes follow,in which Cuchulainn cuts off and slays the invad-ing scouts, but the host draws near Daire's home-stead and would have carried off' the Brown Bull,had not the latter, warned by the Morrigu ( = theGreat Queen, the war-goddess of the ancientIrish), retired with fifty of his heifers into themountains. Cuchulainn continues to harass theinvaders, whom he slays by the hundred at atime, until at last Meave seeks an interview,which he grants. She is greatly disappointed atfinding in him but the bulk of a small boy. Herterms he rejects, and slays his hundred everynight until the queen accepts his terms ; everyday he is to meet a warrior of Ireland in singlecombat ; during the fight the invaders may pro-gress unhindered, but must stop as soon as itit finished ; food and clothing are to be suppliedto him the while.

Combats follow in which, though Cuchulainn isalways victorious, he cannot prevent the drivingof the Brown Bull into the invader's camp. TheMoi'rigu comes to proffer him her love, but he


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THE IRISH ACHILLES 17urges that his bloom is wasted with hardship andthat it is uneasy for him to hold intercourse witha woman so long as he is engaged in such, strife.It was like to go hard with him in consequence,for at his next conflict the spurned goddess comesagainst him as a white-eared heifer, as a blackeel, and as a rough grey wolf-bitch, and he issore pressed to overcome both her and Loch More,with whom he is fighting. But he does so, andgrants the dying request of Loch that he may besuffered to rise and fall on his face, and not back-wards, towards the men of Erin. " Surely awarrior's boon," answers Cuchulainn.

The, Morrigu disguises herself as an old crone^and obtains healing from Cuchulainn of the three-fold wound he had inflicted upon her. In thecontests that follow faith is broken with Cuchu-lainn, and he is assailed by numerous adversariesat a time. But one of his fairy kin comes tosuccour him, throws him into a deep sleep, andtakes his place for three days, at the end of whichthe hero rises refreshed, and avenges fearfullyupon the men of Ireland the slaughter of hisschoolfellows of Emania who had attacked theinvaders in the interval. At length Meave in-duces Fergus to proceed against Cuchulainn, andthe latter consents to retreat on condition thatFergus will do the same another time. AgainMeave sends against him Calatin and his twenty-


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18 CUCHULAINNseven sons, a gang of poisonous wizards. Cuchu-lainn, hard pressed, is succoured at the rightmoment by one of the Ulster exiles. At lengthin despair Meave calls upon Ferdia, an old com-rade of Ouchulainn's whilst the latter was learn-ing arms with Scathach. All unwillingly thehero consents, but he does consent, and the twofriends meet face to face at the ford. Ferdiaasks how his old fag (" his attendant to tie up hisspears and prepare his bed ") dare stand up againsthim. All day they fight but without result, andere they separate for the night each puts his armsround the other's neck, and gives him threekisses. Their horses are in the same paddock,their charioteers at the same fire ; and of everyherb and healing plant that is applied to thewounds of Cuchulainn he sends an equal portionto Ferdia, tliat the men of Ireland may not sayshould the latter fall it was through lack of meansof cure. And of every food and pleasant drinkbrought to Ferdia, he sends a half to Cuchulainn.On the morrow they fight, but again without

result, and again they interchange gifts andcourtesies. But on the eve of the third day'sfighting their parting is mournful, sorrowful,disheartened. The fourth day dawns, and eachknows that one of them would fall there thatday, or that both of them would fall. Terrible isthe fight, and Cuchulainn must needs have re-


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THE IRISH ACHILLES 19course to the mysterious gae bulga before Ferdiafalls. " It did not behove thee that I should fallby thy hand," says the dying warrior. " ThenCuchulainn ran towards him, and clasped his twoarms about him, and brought him across the fordthat he might not be with the men of Erin.And he began to lament and mourn for Ferdia,and to utter a panegyric over him

" Dear to me was thy beautiful ruddiness,Dear to me thy perfect form,Dear to me thy clear grey-blue eye,Dear to me thy wisdom and thine eloquence."

" We will leave now, my friend Laegh," says thehero, " but every other combat and fight that everI have made was but a game or a sport comparedto the combat and the fight of Ferdia."

After this Cuchulainn is borne away to behealed of his wounds, and divers of the Ulster-men come to keep up the conflict^ until at lastSualtam succeeds in arousing Conchobor, and theking, summoning all Ulster, moves against theinvaders. In the great and terrible battles thatensue, the fortunes of war are balanced untilCuchulainn, escaping from his leeches, rushes tothe field. Fergus retreats before him, as he hadpledged his word, and the men of Ireland with-draw from Ulster. But Meave carries off theBrown Bull, " whoso might or might not cometo Connaught, at all costs the Bull should do so."


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20 cuchulain:ntThe rivals meet, the Brown Bull is victoriousand returns to his own land, but his heart bursts,and vomiting black mountains of dark red gore,he expires.

This, then, was the hosting of the men of Ire-land for the driving of the kine of Cualgne, andtheir withstanding by Cuchulainn, and their re-treat before the men of Ulster.

The Death of Cuchulainn.^Three posthumoussons and three daughters are borne at one birthby the wife of the wizard Calatin. These joinwith Lugaid, son of Ouroi of Munster, with Ere,King of Tara, and with other chiefs whose fathershad been slain by Cuchulainn, and invade thehero's land. As he goes to his last fight he isbegirt with terrible omensthe land is filled withsmoke and flame, and weapons fall from theirracks. His faithful charioteer refuses to harnesshis steed, the Grey of Macha, and thrice does thehorse turn his left side to his master. ThenCuchulainn reproaches him : he was not wont todeal thus with his master. So the Grey ofMacha obeys, but as he does so, his big roundtears of blood fall on Cuchulainn's feet. In vaindo the thrice fifty queens who were in EmainMacha beseech him to stay. He turns his chariotfrom them, and they give a scream of wailing andlamentation, for they know he will not come tothem again.


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THE IRISH ACHILLES 21As he fares onwards he encounters the three

daughters of Calatin, as crones blind of the lefteye. They are cooking a hound on a spit, andbecause Cuchulainn will not seem to scorn theoffer of poor food, he accepts the flesh they pre-sent, although it was a gets (taboo) for him todo so. Then he comes in sight of his foes, and herushes against them. " The halves of their headsand skulls and hands and feet, and their redbones were scattered broadcast throufifhout theplain in numbers like unto the sand of the sea,and the stars of the heaven ; like dewdrops inMay ; like leaves of the forest, and grass underthe feet of the herbs on a summer's day. Andgrey was that field with their brains after theonslaught which Cuchulainn dealt out to them."

His spear is claimed of him. "I need itmyself," says the hero. " I will revile thee ifthou givest it not," says his foe. '' Never yethave I been reviled because of my niggardli-ness," and with that Cuchulainn dashes his spearat the claimant, killing him and nine others.But with a cast of that spear Lugaid slays Laeghthe charioteer. A second time the claim is madefor the spear, and Cuchulainn is threatened thatUlster shall be reviled if he refuses. '' Keverwas Ulster reviled for my churlishness," and againhe parts with his weapon, and with it Ere, son ofIreland's high king, makes a cast that lights on


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22 CUCHULAINNthe Grey of Macha, and he and Cuchulainn bideach other farewelL A third time the spear isclaimed-Cuchulainn's kin should be defamed ifhe refuse. " Tidings that my kin has been de-famed shall never go back to the land to whichI myself shall never return, for little of my liferemains to me," and again he parts with hisweapon. Then Lugaid seizes it and strikesCuchulainn, so that his bowels come forth onthe cushions of the chariot, and the King of theHeroes of Erin is left dying alone on the plain." I would fain," says he, " go as far as that lochto drink a drink thereout." " We give thee leaveif thou come again." " I will bid you come forme unless I return myself." Then he gathers hisbowels into his breast and drinks, and when hehas drunk his eye rests upon a pillar stone in theplain ; to it he fastens himself by his breastgirdle, " that he may not die seated nor lyingdown, but that he may die standing up." Hisfoes gather round him, but they dare not go tohim, thinking him to be yet alive. But in vaindoes the Grey of Macha return to protect hismaster, so long as his soul was in him, " and fiftyfall by his teeth and thirty by each of his hoofs."Lugaid cuts off Cuchulainn's head, but even indeath the hero avenges himself ; the sword fallsfrom his right hand and smites off that of Lugaid.They sti-ike off Cuchulainn's right hand in re-


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THE IRISH ACHILLES 23quital, and bear away head and right hand toTara, where they give them burial.How Conall Cearnach Avenged Cuchulainn.There was a compact between the two Ulsterchampions to avenge each other. "If I be thefirst killed," said Cuchulainn, " how soon wiltthou avenge me ? " " On thy death day beforeits evening." And on his part Cuchulainn sworevengeance before Conall's blood was cold uponthe earth.

Conall pursues Lugaid and comes up with him." I am thy creditor for the slaying of my comrade,and here I stand suing thee for the debt." AtLugaids request Conall binds one hand to hisside that they may fight on equal terms, but inthe end overcomes him. " Take my head," saysthe dying warrior, " and add my realm to thyrealm, and my valour to thy valour. I preferthat thou shouldest be the best hero in Erin."

The foregoing incidents are, as may be seenfrom the Notes, taken from tales independent inthemselves, but which allow of a chronologicalclassification, and which fall into their place ascomponent parts of a cycle. There are also othertales which, whilst they cannot so definitely beassigned to a particular period of the hero's life,are obviously of a cyclic character. Thus the factthat Cuchulainn is slain by Lugaid, son of the


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24 CUCHULAINNMunster chief Curoi mac Daire, cannot but beconnected with the tale which presents the Ulsterhero as the lover of Blathnait, wife of Curoi, whomhe kills. Curiously enough, this story is one of agroup which presents Cuchulainn in an unfavour-able light ; it must, I think, have had its finalshaping, if not its origin, in Munster. It is notonly that Cuchulainn figures as eloping withanother man's wife, and as overcoming the in-jured husband by stratagem ; there was, I think,no matter for reproach in this when the storywas framed. But, what is far more grave, he isat first worsted, and worsted ignominiously, andthis can only be the version of an inimical clan.

Another story of a cyclic character is unfortu-nately only known to us by a very late version,although it is alluded to by a tenth-century poet,and is presupposed by the story of Cuchulainn'ssojourn in Scathach's isle. It tells of the son bornto him by the Amazon Aife, of his journey toEmania to defy the warriors of Ulster, of theconcealment of his name, and of the combat be-tween father and son, in which the latter succumbs,revealing his personality when it is too late. Ofall the Ar^^an vei'sions of the father and son com-batwoven into the Rustum saga in Persia, intothe Dietrich saga in Germanythis is probablythe most archaic, and it is an unkind fate whichhas destroyed the early Irish form of the story.


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THE IRISH ACHILLES 25There also exist a number of episodic tales

of which Cuchulainn is the hero. I imply bythis that they have no assigned place in thechronological sequence of the tales, and that theymight be removed without mutilating the saga as awhole, although their loss would greatly impoverishit. They may very possibl}^ represent an earlierstage of the saga before it had been thrown intocyclic form.

Three of these tales deserve detailed notice,both on account of their intrinsic interest andfor the help they afford in determining the truenature of the Cuchulainn legend.How Cucliulainn was Wooed by the Sea-God'sQueen.-One of these tales, known as the Sick-bed of Cuchulainn, tells of Fann, wife of Man-annan mac Lir, the Irish Poseidon, and of herlove for the hero. She and her sister visit theUlster court in bird guise. Cuchulainn tries tokill them as a present for Emer, but fails. Atnight he is visited by two women magnificentlyclad, each armed with a horse -switch. Theysmile and strike him, continuing until they leavehim nearly dead, in which state he lies for a year,speechless. A messenger comes to promise himhealing if he will accept Fann's invitation to goto her land. Cuchulainn first sends his charioteer,Laeg, who returns after a while with the mostglowing description of the exquisite beauty and


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26 CUCHULAINNmanifold delights of Faun's country. Cuchulainnproceeds thither himself, aids the goddess'sbrother-in-law to overcome his foes, and, afterpassing a month with Fann, returns to Ulster,but appoints a trysting-place for her to join him.But Emer hears of the assignation, and takingwith her fifty maidens armed with knives, goesto the appointed place of meeting. Fann appealsto Cuchulainn for protection, and he promises it,in spite of Emer's bitter upbraidingshe haddishonoured her before the women of Erin, oncethey were together in dignity, and might be soagain were it pleasing to him. Cuchulainn takespity upon her, and a generous strife arises betweenthe two women which should give the hero up.The goddess yields to the mortal with the words :

" Woe 'tis to give love to oneIf he take no notice of it.Better far to be turned away,Save one is loved as one loves."

Then Manannan appears, visible only to his im-mortal wife, who is seized with remorse at hissight, and is minded of their ancient love. Shefrankly tells him she would prefer Cuchulainn, butas he has abandoned her she will return to herhusband. So Manannan shakes his cloak betweenthe two lovers to the end that they should nevermeet again, and the immortals vanish.


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THE IRISH ACHILLES 27How Cuchulainn Won the Headship of the

Champions of Ulster.The famous story knownas Bricriii's Feast tells how Bricriu of the PoisonTongvie, minded, as was his wont, to stir up strifeand dissension, incites the charioteers of Cuchu-lainn, of Conall Cearnach, and of Loagaire Buadachto claim each for his master the cm^admir, or hero'sportion. He also urges the wives of the threechampions to claim right of first entry into thebanqueting hall. This brings the heroes to blows,as Bricriu had foreseen, and peace is only restoredby the proposal of Sencha the lawman to remit thedecision to Meave and Ailill. The three heroesjourney to the Connaught court, undergo diverstrials, in all of which Cuchulainn is pre-eminent,but none of which is accepted as decisive by theother two. They are then sent to Curoi, w^io is agreat wizard as well as a famous warrior. Moretrials follow, and though Cuchulainn is alwayssuccessful, yet there is room for dispute. Theyreturn to Emania, and one day an ugly, ill-shapengiant appears at the court. He offers to let anyone cut off his head on condition of undergoingthe same fate on the morrow. The other heroesessay the feat, but when on the morrow the giantreturns none the worse and claims fulfilment ofthe bargain, they go back upon their word.Cuchulainn alone keeps his pledged faith, andafter being tried to the utmost by the giant, is


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28 CUCHULAINNsaluted thus : " Arise, O Cuchulainn ! Of thewarriors of Ultonia and Erin, no matter theirmettle, none is found to be compared with thee invalour, bravery, and truthfulness. The sovrantyof the heroes of Erin to thee from this hour forth,and the champion's portion undisputed, and tothy lady the precedence alway of the ladies ofUltonia in the Mead Hall."How Patrick called up Cuchulainn from the

Dead.In spite of Patrick's preaching, Laegaire,High King of Ireland, remains incredulous. Hewill believe neither in Patrick nor in God, untilCuchulainn be called up in his dignity, as isrecorded in the old stories, after which he willbelieve. " Even this is possible for God/' answersPatrick. On the morrow saint and king meet,and the king is speechless until the saint hasblessed him, when he describes how Cuchulainnhad appeared to him in his chariot. But he isstill unsatisfied ; he would have liked a longerconversation with the hero. Thereupon Cuchu-lain appears a second time, performs his chieffeats, and exhorts Laegaire to believe in God andholy Patrick. But the king's disbelief will not beconquered until the hero tell of his great deeds.Cuchulainn then tells of his battles against Loch-land, and of his capture of Dun Scaith, a fortressfull of serpents and monsters, whom he slew, andfrom which he carried off a wonderful caldron.


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THE IRISH ACHILLES 29He also tells how after death demons carried offhis soul, and though he plied the gae bulga onthem, yet he was crushed into the red charcoal.He winds up by beseeching Patrick to bringhim to heaven. The saint grants the boon, andLaegaire believes.

A few words may here be interposed settingforth certain more or less assured results of criti-cism concerning the date and development ofthese stories, and the conclusions that may legiti-mately be drawn as to the age and true nature ofthe saga as a whole. The section of the abovesummary which describes Cuchulainn's defence ofthe Ulster marches is from the tale entitled theTain ho Cuailgne. The distinguished French andGerman scholars, Mons. d'Arbois de Jubainvilleand Professor Zimmer, have made it almost certainthat this tale substantially assumed, during thefirst half of the seventh century, the shape underwhich it has come down to us in eleventh cen-tury MSS.; existing texts, which vary considerablyamong themselves, represent, they hold, modifica-tions of a written original rather than independ-ent transcripts from oral tradition. Granting this,what follows ? The Tain obviously belongs to a latestage of development of the saga ; it gathers upand thi'ows into cyclic form a vast amount of olderepisodic material. If it belong to the early seventh


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30 CUCHULAmNcentury the matter which it codifies and stereotypesmust be very much older. Again, our present textsof Bricriu's Feast are obviously an amalgam of atleast two, and probably four, separate versionswhich, originally, differed considerably. Theseversions can be traced back linguistically to theninth or even eighth century ; they must in theirturn I'epresent tribal variations of a common theme,which common theme must itself be carried backmuch earlier. Now, Brici'iu's Fead, like the I'ain,cannot belong to an early stage of the saga ; ithas been romanticised, at times it produces analmost parodistic effect ; it necessarily presupposesa much earlier and a well-developed body of litera-ture, and yet, as we have seen, its earliest formcan hardly be dated later than the end of the seventhcentury. The Demoniac Chariot (as the tale ofCuchulainn's appearance to Laegaire and Patrickis styled) clinches this contention. Whilst it mustof course be later than the introduction of Christ-ianity, it must equally date from a time when itwas felt desirable to I'econcile the old and newfaiths, when belief in and love of Cuchulainn wereso vivid and potent as to compel alike his receptionby the apostle and his acceptance of the newteaching. If this be granted, it is noteworthythat, as far as actual language and wording go,the Demo7iiac Chariot is decidedly less archaicthan many other texts of the cycle, whilst at


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THE IRISH ACHILLES 31the same time the adventures which it records areahnost unknown from other sources, and have astrongly mythical aspect.

Thus taking the tales as they stand and applyingordinary critical tests, we are forced to assign themto a period not only far antedating that of theirexisting transcript (tenth to twelfth century), butalso that of their substantial redaction (seventh toeighth century). We may pass to the considerationof the broader issues which they raise with thecertainty that we are dealing with material ofrelatively great antiquity.One point there is which readers of the fore-

going pages will not, I think, require me to labourthe futility of any discussion as to the histori-cal reality of Cuchulainn. It is really indifferentwhether a warrior of this name did or did notflourish in Ireland at the beginning of our era.If he did, he did not perform the feats ascribed tohim in these tales, for the all-sufiicient reason thatthe feats are superhuman. But although therecord is necessarily untrue as involving im-possibilities, it may nevertheless be true in thesense of being a faithful reflection of mannersand customs, a faithful expression of mood andthought. In this sense I believe the Cuchulainntales to be true, and, as being true, to be infinitelyprecious. As do no other surviving monumentsthey reflect the manners and customs, they


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32 CUCHULAmNexpress the mood and thought of the men whosacked Rome and harried Delphi, who foundeda state in Asia Minor, and withstood for longyears the greatest of the Romans.

It is not often that, as in the present case, aclaim such as this can be substantiated de-cisively, and in a way to be apprehended evenby those who have not specially studied thematter. When the Romans first came into con-tact with the Gauls in the third century B.C., theGaulish war-chariot impressed them profoundly.Two hundred years later Opesar found this modeof fighting disused in Gaul proper, the Gaulishwarriors having taken to horseback in imitationof the Romans, but on crossing over to Britainhe was again confronted by the war-chariot, ofwhich he left the vivid description familiar toevery schoolboy. Now Cuchulainn and his fellow-champions invariably fight from the war-chariot,and are thus exponents of a system of military equip-ment and tactics already obsolete on the Continentin the middle of the first century B.C. The reformwhich substituted cavalry for chariots probablytook place in Ireland towards the close of thefirst century of our era, and was a consequence ofthe intercourse between Ireland and RomanisedBritain. At all events, in the large number ofsemi-historic Irish tales of which the scene is laidin the second and subsequent centuries, there is no


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THE IRISH ACHILLES 33longer any mention of the war-chariot. As itwould obviously have been impossible for thestory-teller of the seventh century to invent amode of fighting disused for centuries, it is equallyobvious that the Cuchulainn tales have in thisrespect preserved a contemporaneous record ofthe life they depict. It is more than probablethat in other respects their record is equally to berelied upon, and that they do depict with sub-stantial accuracy the life of the warrior andchieftain class in Ireland in the first century ofour era, a mode of life which, there can be littledoubt, was that of the Continental Celts beforethey came into contact with the advanced civilisa-tion of Greece and Rome.

This conclusion will appear the more justifiedwhen we consider how similar in essentials thelife of the Irish Celts of the Cuchulainn period isto that of the Gauls as presented by the classicwriters. The predominantly military organisa-tion, the power and status of the war-chief, whowould be absolute were it not for the counter-vailing influence of the wizard or Druid class, thehighly-developed clan system which splits thepeople up into a number of rival and jarringgroups, these marked traits of Celtic Irelandmay also be discovered on the Continent. Butthe Continental Celts, warring as they did againstmore highly-organised foes, had cohesion forced

c


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34 CUCHULAINNupon them, and could not but borrow organisationin their turn. Here, again, the Irish Celt of a.d. 1stands on a more primitive level than the Con-tinental Celt of the second or even third centuryB.C. In fact_, to find his parallel within theAryan speaking group we must fall back upon theHomeric Greek of 1000 B.C., and if we bear inmind that the Homeric Greek inhabited a richerland, w^as in contact with ancient, powerful, andwealthy civilisations, and has been depicted for usby poets themselves familiar with a materialculture far in advance of anything known tothe Irish Celts, we shall yet find the parallelextraordinary close and suggestive. Herding andraiding, such are the bases upon which alike inancient Ireland and in Homeric Greece the socialorganism rests ; the chiefs are large farmers, sur-rounded by fighters picked to defend their ownand despoil their neighbours' cattle ; wealth isexpressed in terms of slaves, kine, personal orna-ments, and chattels. The differences are for themost part such as naturally arise from the varyingadvance in culture made by the two peoples : oneof the most marked is in the position of women.This was, if we may accept the evidence of thetales, freer and more independent in ancientIreland than in Homeric Greece. Nor is thisto be wondered at : the contact with the Eastwhich brought about such a degradation of woman


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THE IRISH ACHILLES 35in historic Greece had ah'eady begun in Homerictimes. Again, then, we may hold that in thisrespect the Irish tales take us back to an earlierstage of Aryan custom.

Bearin" in mind this fundamental likeness of theotwo culture groupsGreeks of the Homeric period,say, 1200-900 b.c, Irish Celts of the heroic period,lasting well down into the first centuries of theChristian erait need not surprise us to find theirheroic ideal embodied in such markedly similarforms. In styling Cuchulainn the Irish Achilles,I do but emphasie a parallel which must suggestitself to whomsoever, familiar with the Iliad,familiarises himself with the Irish heroic romances.The parallel carries with it a danger against whichthe reader must be on cruard. Hallowed bv twoand a half millenniums of reverence and classicuse, the work of Homer comes before us with aglamour which, for most of us, distorts our viewof his world. That world is barbaric alike in itsmode of life and in its conception'*of life. If weseek for nineteenth-century analogues to Achillesand Cuchulainn, we are probably best advised inturning to the Maories of New Zealand as offeringthe nearest parallel alike of the conditions and con-ception of life. In the case of the Irish tribes theparallel is probably very close ; the Homeric Greek,as already noted, stood on a higher level as far asthe material conditions of life were concerned.


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36 CUCHULAINNIn the comparison, a fair and legitimate one

between Achilles and Cuchulainn, the hero of theless advanced, of the more barbaric race suffersnothing from our point of view. In both casesthe ideal is, of course, purely warrior-like : the pre-eminent hero cannot but be the chief fighting braveof the race. Superb and fiery courage, passionateand irresistible energy, fierce and utter devotion tothe standard of honour recognised by himself andhis fellows, such are the dominant traits. Bar-barians both are, but magnificent and admirable bar-barians, and of the two the hero of the ruder raceis nearer to our idealmore admirable. The Gaelis a better gentleman than the Greek. Cuchu-lainn fighting for his land and tribe is nobler thanAchilles fighting in revenge of personal injury.Cuchulainn granting, in admiration, the dying re-quest of his foe. Loch More'' 'tis a warrior's boonthou askest"appeals to our sympathies whereAchilles, rejecting Hector's last appeal, repels them.Cuchulainn, lamenting the much-loved comrade ofhis youth, whom all unwillingly he must needsslay in defence of his land, moves us yet morepoignantly than Achilles yielding to the prayer of

suppliant Priam. Fate, an unkindfate, has denied

us the picture of Achilles' doom, that doom fore-told him by his horse, Xanthos of the GlancingFeet, even as the Grey of Macha foreknew thedoom of Cuchulainn. It could not, even had it


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THE IRISH ACHILLES 37come down to us limned by the Father of Poetr}'himself, have surpassed that vision of the King-chief of the Heroes of Erin, self-attached to theimmemorial menhir " that he might not die lyingor sitting, but that he might die standing up."

There is yet another aspect under which Cu-chulainn may be compared with Achilles. In bothcases the saga of the mortal, of the hero, has pre-served for us, M'ith the necessary modifications dueto altered conditions, the legend of an immortal, ofa god. At first blush it would seem that theGreek tale, wholly the outcome of pagan timesand pagan life, must preserve such a legend farmore faithfully than does the Irish. In one sensethis is so. The supernatural machinery occupiesits proper place in Homer, the gods appear in alltheir power and splendour. In the Irish tales thiselement has been almost entirely eliminated, or,where suffered to remain, glossed over, minimised.Could a second or third century story-teller beevoked from the dead and made to recite hisversion of the Tai7i we should certainly find theGreat Queen of Battles, the god-sire of Cuchulainn,the deities reincarnated in the two bulls, appearingin the visible might and glory of their god-hood.The partly Christian story-tellers, the Christianscribes of the seventh and following centuries,whilst they altered little and added scarce any-thing, as far as we can judge, have certainly left


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38 CUCHULAmNout much. Yet in spite of the obvious differencebetween the two bodies of legend, it may confi-dently be urged that Cuchulainn belongs to anearlier, more primitive stage of saga evolution thandoes Achilles. In the Iliad, despite the promi-nence of the supernatural element, the originalmyth has been heroicised, suited to human con-ditions, set within the limits of a historic frame-work, and thereby compressed, modified, run intonew forms, more than is the case with the Cuchu-lainn stories. In the former, although scholarsare agreed in regarding Achilles as the heroicreflection of a mythic prototype, the utmostdiversity of opinion has existed as to the natureof that prototype ; nor can the current interpre-tation of him as a personification of the rushingtorrent be regarded as securely established or ascommanding universal assent. In the case ofCuchulainn no doubt is possible ; here, if anywhere,we have the sun-hero, hypostasis, or, as in thiscase, actual reincarnation of the sun-god ; thestory of his origin, his adventures and his fatemodelled upon and partly reproducing those ofhis divine original, but modified by their trans-position from immortal to mortal conditions, fromthe realm of divine happenings, dateless, limitless,featureless as that is, to a community of men andwomen related to each other by definite historicties, and assigned to a definite historic period.


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THE IRISH ACHILLES 39In asserting the mythic nature of Cuchulainn I

do not assert that the tales about him which havecome down to us were regarded by their tellers ina symbolic or allegorical light. They and theirhearers, as did Homer and his hearers, mostcertainly believed in the historic reality of theirheroes ; one of the main causes of the continuedpopularity of the Cuchulainn stories was that theyflattered the pride of the North Irish chiefs, andthat for over 500 years the High Kingship ofIreland was, though nominally elective, practicallyhereditary in the leading North Irish family, theO'Neills. In the tenth century, South Ireland, inthe person of the Munsterman Brian, wrested theHigh Kingship from the North. Had this takenplace in the sixth or seventh century, the Cuchu-lainn saga would in all probability either havebeen lost, or he would have been the villain ratherthan the hero of the piece.

In spite, however, of the precise way in whichthe Irish sun-hero is localised in a particular dis-trict and associated with a definite group of quasi-historic personages, it is wonderful with what clear-ness the outlines of his mythic personality havebeen preserved, and in how many of his adventureswe can detect his mythic nature as the animatingand controlling element in the story. In the firstplace, it should be noted that all the leading char-acters of the cycle are descendants in the third or


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40 CUCHULAINNfourth generation of the chief member of the Tuathade Danann, or ancient Irish god-clan, the Dagdaor good god. Long after the Cuchiilainn storieshad assumed a fixed literary shape, the mediaevalIrish annalists turned the Tuatha de Danann intoearly kings and warriors. The annals representthe Dagda as reigning in Ireland some 1700 yearsbefore the date of Fachtna Fathach, his greatgrandson, according to the stories. But, apart fromthis fact, which shows how long anterior to theannalistic scheme the stories must be, and howtenaciously they have retained the original frame-work, the mythic nature of Cuchulainn is self-apparent even in the bare recital of his chiefadventures which I have given. Attention mayalso be called to some features in his personalitybest explained by reference to his original solarnature. That which practically distinguishes himfrom every other hero of Irish romance is hiscapacity, when M'rought up into a paroxysm offury by opposition, of startling and terrific trans-formation. The passages in which this transforma-tion is described are in the last degree obscurethey were probably unintelligible to the scribes ofour present texts, and have suffered from the cor-ruptions to which all archaic and obscure passagesare liable in the course of transcription. Trans-lated literally into English, they often have anaspect of ridiculous bombast, redeemed by flashes


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THE IRISH ACHILLES 41of barbaric force and insight. One example maysuffice : " Then it was that he suflfered his riastradh,wliereby he became fearsome and many-shaped, amarvellous and hitherto unknown being. All overhim, from his crown to the ground, his flesh andevery limb and joint . . . quivered as does a tree,yea, a bulrush in mid-current. . . . His mouth wastwisted awry until it met his ears. His lion'sgnashings caused flashes of fire, each larger thanthe fleece of a three-year-old wether, to steam fromhis throat into his mouth. . . . Among the cloudsover his head were visible showers and sparks ofruddy fire, which the seething of his savage wrathcaused to mount up above him. . . . His hero'sparoxysm thrust itself out of his forehead longerand thicker than a warrior's whetstone. Taller,thicker, more rigid, longer than a ship's mast, wasthe upright jet of dusky blood which shot upwardsfrom his scalp, and then was scattered to the fourairts."

It is, I think, legitimate to refer these archaicdescriptions of the sun hero "hindered" (theoriginal signification of riastradh according toProfessor Zimmer) by foe or obstacle to pre-heroicand purely mythical descriptions of the sun-godhindered by cloud and storm-wrack, and assumingunwonted and terrific aspects. They are part ofthe sun-god's gear bequeathed by him to his hero-son.


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42 CUCHULAINNIn ancient Irish heroic romance the heroes are

almost invariably subject to geasa (nom. geis\taboos, the breaking of which generally heralds oreffects the tragic issue of the story. On p. 21 wesaw that Cuchulainn broke such a geis when heaccepted from the daughters of Calatin the fleshof the hound, his namesake. Another of his geasais significant. The Irish sea-god is Manannan macLir; it is a geis of Cuchulainn's "to see the horsesof Manannan, or to hear the harp of Maner's sonplay soothingly and sweetly." It is taboo for thesun-god to "see the wild white horses foam andfret " ; when he does so it is that his course is endedin the western waves.

Miss Hull has summarised so admirably theargument for the mythic nature of Cuchulainn,that I need not apologise for borrowing herwords : " He reaches his full development at anunnaturally early age, and even as a boy of sevenyears he conquers heroes and performs the featsof a prime champion. Small, but comely ofperson, he waxes in conflict to a prodigious size,a halo shines from his head, the ' bird of valourflutters over him, a furious heat exudes from hisbody ; he destroys armies by his look ; he haspower in his eyes to blind the women of Ulsterwhen they look upon him with love. His featsare terrific ; he is irresistible both in war and inlove. He is bound by his geasa to rise before


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THE IRISH ACHILLES 43dawn falls on Emain Macha ; he is seldom at rest,for his energy is untiring. He rides a chariotdrawn by a black and a grey horse, symbols of dayand night. He himself has caught those famoussteeds, which have emerged from a magic lakeand return thither on the death of their master.On them when caught he scours the plain andrises at a leap over the mountains. Three timeswithout pausing for breath they carry their tamerround the entire circuit of Erin. Such is theIrish conception of the Solar Hero."One further point, but that of capital importance,

should be noted in this connection. The quest ofthe Brown Bull takes place in winter ; the forces ofMeave start in October, and from the end of thatmonth until the end of January Cuchulainn has tofight single-handed because the warriors of Ulsterlie prostrate in their pains. When Lugaid, Ere,and the sons of Calatin finally overpower the hero,his fellow-warriors are unable to aid him for thesame reason ; thus his death takes place in winter.It is impossible not to recognise that Cuchulainn'slife record is here modelled upon earlier year mythswhich picture the sun-god assailed or vanquishedduring the winter season. In the cycle, as we haveit, racial and historical elements have been added tothe myth ; Cuchulainn's adversaries are not simplypersonifications of cold and darkness ; we can detectin the cycle the clash of races, possibly even of


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44 CUCHULAINNmythologies. The hardest struggle which the herohas to undergo is that with Ferdia, and Ferdia isexpressly described as the chief champion of theFirboIgcJ, a race which preceded the sons of Mil onIrish soil, and which in other tales of a decidedlymythical character is found allied with the Fomori,dark and evil powers, against the Tuatha de Danann,gods of light, and life, and increase.

If this view of Cuchulainn as the sun-hero, thehypostasis of the sun-god, be admitted, it may beasked if traces of his legend exist in Celtdom out-side Ireland. Monsieur d'Arbois de Jubainvillehas interpreted the sculptures on a Gaulish altarfound at Paris as illustrative of a sequence ofmythic incidents analogous to that set forth in theTain ho Cuailgne. Even if the interpretation becorrect it would only prove that the Celts of Francehad stories about the sun-hero similar to those toldby the Celts of Ireland. We cannot speak of apan-Celtic Cuchulainn. The latter is, I believe,substantially the sun-hero, but the sun-hero localisedin a particular district of Ireland, associated withparticular Irish tribes, with a particular period andset of events which inay or may not be mythical. Itis not the features he has in common with othersun heroes, but the differentia of his saga whichestablish his individuality, which make him Cuchu-lainn.

To sum up. In these stories we have the oldest


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THE IRISH ACHILLES 45Gaelic form of a widespread Aryan hero-mythin certain respects this Gaelic form is more archaicthan can be found elsewhere, is nearer the mythicprototype, is less influenced by the human con-ditions to which it has been adapted. It is thusof priceless value to the student of heroic myth.To the historian the environment and the materialconditions of the saga are perhaps of greater interest.Thanks to the isolation of the Irish Gael, to theirescape from the far-reaching influence of Rome,they have preserved for us a polity, a social organisa-tion, a mode of life more archaic than those recordedof any other Aryan people, and of this socialorganisation, these manners and customs, the Cuchu-lainn stories are the oldest and, in some respects,the most genuine witness. Finally, they embodythe heroic ideal of races which have contributedlargely and influential!y to the mixed population ofthe British Isles ; they give warrant of a lofty andinspiring, if barbaric, outlook upon life and death,which is in consonance with the little we learn of theCelts from classic writers. If we seek for a com-mentary upon Caesar's record of the superb self-sacrifice of Yercingetorix, we shall best find it inwhat for century after century the oUamhs of Erintold of their fortissimus heros, of Cuchulainn.


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BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIXAND NOTESThe reader of the foregoing Study who wishes to pursuethe subject further should first turn to the followingwork : The Cuchullin Saga in Irish Literature, being acollection of Stories relating to the hero Cuchullin.Translated from the Irish by various Scholars. Compiledand Edited with Introduction and Notes by EleanorHull, 1898. The contents of this volume are as under :

(1) The Birth of Conachar ; (2) How Conachar gainedthe Kingship over Ulster ; (3) The Origin of Cuchullin(abridged); (4) The Tragical Death of the Sons of Usnach(5) The Wooing of Emer (abridged); (6) The Siege ofHowth ; (7) The Debility of the Ultonian Warriors ; (8)The Appearance of the Morrigu to Cuchullin before theTain bo Cuailgne ; (9) The Tain bo Cuailgne : a summaryanalysis with translation of important passages ^in full(10) The Instruction of Cuchullin to a Prince ; (11) Thegreat Defeat on the Plain of Muirthemne before Cuchul-lin's death ; (12) The Tragical Death of Cuchullin; (13)The Tragical Death of Conachar; (14) The PhantomChariot of Cuchullin.Miss Hull has prefixed an excellent Introduction deal-

ing with the Saga as a whole in its various aspects, andhas added careful bibliographical and critical notes.The present Study and Miss Hull's work fully enable any

intelligent reader to form a fair and accurate conceptionof this body of heroic literature.

FORTISSMUS HEROS SCOTTOEUM (page 1).It may be necessary to say that the Scotti are first

heard of as inhabiting Ireland ; that they settled in46


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BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX 47Western Scotland (heretofore known as Alba) in the fifthcentury, and that by the eleventh century they imposedtheir name upon the northern half of the island. Downto the eleventh century Scotia in mediaeval texts meansIreland, and not Scotland.

TiGERNACH (page 1).The Annals of Tijernach have been edited and trans-lated by Dr. Whitley Stokes, Revue Celtique, vols, xvii., xviii.

Tigernach was one of the distinguished native scholarswho flourished from 950 to 1100, to whom we owe theIrish Annals substantially in their existing form, and also,in all probability, the learned compilations of Irish sagaand legend. Tigernach is remarkable among the earlierIrish historical writers for his almost entire disregard ofall pre-Christian history save precisely in so far as thekings and warriors who flourished at Emania are con-cerned.

Date of the Stories (pages 2, 3).Almost every story about Cuchulainn is contained in

or alluded to in the two oldest Irish MSS., the Book ofthe Dun Cow, transcribed before 1104, the Book of Lein-ster, transcribed before 1154. Both MSS. are avowedlytranscripts of, or compilations from, older MSS. TheBook of the Dun Cow comprises almost certainly, asshown by Prof. Zimmer in his masterly study (Kel-tische Studien, V.: Ucber dem compilatorischen Charakterder irischen Sagentexte im sogennanten Lebor na L. Uidhre.Zeitschrift fur vgl. Sprachforschung, vol. xxviii., 1887), theversions of heroic legend made by Flann of Monaster-boice, the most learned Irishman of the early eleventhcentury, and Flann's versions are, as Prof. Zimmer hasshown, harmonies of pre-existing versions. In severalcases one of the texts used by Flann in his harmony, con-tinued to be copied in its entirety and has been pre-


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48 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIXserved by the Book of Leinster or later MSS. Anotherpoint which Prof. Zimmer has clearly brought out is theintrusion of glosses into our existing texts ; this, ofcourse, presupposes that a scribe, finding the originaltext partly unintelligible, added glosses in the margin toexplain it, and that a later scribe transferred these mar-ginal glosses into the text, a process testifying to a longperiod of repeated transcribing.

The Form of the Stoeies (page 3).As a rule, the verse and prose are repetitions of the

same portion of the narrative. The same device is usedin Aucassin and Nicolette, as readers of that charmingtale will recollect. But sometimes the verse is comple-mentary to the prose. This is especially the case withpassages composed in rose, an abrupt, compressed, irregu-lar metre, which is apparently the earliest kind of Irishverse. Many of the passages in rose are so archaic andobscure as to defy all attempts at translation. Apartfrom rose, the Irish metres are extremely complicated,and abound in formal difficulties of the most severe nature.In this respect Irish versification transcends even theProvencal Troubadour poetry.

The Hero's Birth (page 4).See Miss Hull, No. 3. The versions summarised are found

partly in the Book of the Dun Cow, partly in much laterMSS., which have, however, preserved an older form ofthe story than that of the Book of the Dun Cow. I havediscussed and illustrated the critical questions involved,Voyage of Bran ^ vol. ii.

The Boyish ExploitsThe Assumption ofArms (pages 6-10).These form an episode of the Tain ho Cuailgne. As


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AND IS'OTES 49soon as the invaders enter Ulster, Fergus recognisesCuchulainn's handiwork, and tells the wondering Con-naught court of his youthful prowess. The episode istranslated almost in full, Miss Hull, pp. 135-155.

The Wooing of Emer (pages 10-13).Two main redactions are known, (a) a fragmentary,simple one found in a thirteenth-century MS., but assigned

by its editor and translator, Prof. K. Meyer, to the eighthcentury ; (6) a longer and fuller one, found in the Bookof the Dun Cow and later MS., and probably redacted aslate as the tenth century. Redaction (a) is edited andtranslated, Revue Celtique, xi. pp. 442-453 ; redaction (5) istranslated by Prof. Meyer, Arch. Review, vol. i., whichtranslation is reprinted in a modified and abridged formby Miss Hull, pp. 58-84. Prof. Meyer has just edited thistext, Zeit. fur Celt. Philologie, iii. 2.

The Deoit du Seigneur in Ancient Ireland(page 13).

If we may trust, and there is no reason to doubt theevidence of the heroic and historic romances, this rightwas tenaciously exercised by the early Irish chiefs. Butthe Wooing of Emer is not the only text which betrays afeeling of aversion and revolt on the part of the inferiorchiefs. It may be thought that this feeling is due to theintroduction of Christianity, but I believe it to be earlier,and to be symptomatic of the greater power acquired bythe lesser chiefs once the Gael had fairly settled down inIreland and crushed out the resistance of the aboriginalpopulation. The legal fiction by which both the king'sright and the champion's susceptibilities are conciliatedis interesting as anticipating similar devices of the latefeudal period.

D


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50 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIXHow CUCHULAINN GUARDED THE MARCHES OFUlster (pages 14-20).Summarised from Mr. Standish Hayes O'Grady's sum-

mary of the Tain bo Cuailgne in Miss Hull, pp. 112-227. The Tain has not yet been edited and translatedin its entirety, but Prof. Windisch promises an editionshortly. Mr. O'Grady's summary is based upon a latetext in which the language has been modernised.

The Story of the Bulls (page 13).Summarised from the story known as the Engendering

of the Tioo Stvineherds. Prof. Windisch has edited thiscurious tale, Irische Texte, iii. ; and I have printed anabridged English version, Voyage of Bran, vol. ii.

The Debility of the Ultonians (page 15).See for this story, Miss Hull, pp. 97-100,

The Fight with Ferdia (page 18).The Book of Leinster text of this episode of the Tain

has been printed and translated in full by O'Curry, Man-ners and Customs, vol. iii., pp. 414-463.

The Death of Cuchulainn (page 20).Summarised from Dr. Whitley Stokes' magnificent

rendering of the more salient portions of the Book ofLeinster version {Revue Celtique, vol. iii.). Miss Hullprints an abridgment of Dr. Stokes's rendering, pp. 255-263. She also prints, pp. 237-249, portions of a muchyounger version. Comparison between the two is veryinteresting and illustrates the extreme limits of literarydevelopment in the Cuchulainn cycle.


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AND NOTES 51The Sick Bed of Cuchulainx (page 23).

Edited and translated by O'Curry, Atlantis, vols. i. andii.A complete French translation in M. d'Arbois de Jubain-ville's Epopee Celtique en Irlande. I have given a fullerEnglish summary than in the text, Voyage of Bran, vol. i.

Beiceiu's Feast (page 27).Edited and translated by Dr. George Henderson.

Publications of the Irish Text Society, vol. ii.

The Demoniac Chaeiot of Cuchulainn (page 28).Edited with translation, from the Book of the Dun

Cow, by O'Beirne Crowe, Journal of the Killcenny Archao-logical Society, 1870-71. Crowe's translation has beenpartly reprinted, with considerable improvements, byMiss Hull, pp. 275-287.The Date of the Tain bo Cuailgne (page 29).The story runs that by the early seventh century thememory of the Iliad of the Western Gael had faded away,

and not an ollamh in Ireland could repeat it. At the en-treaty of the head ollamh, Senchan Torpeist, and accord-ing to one version, by intercession of the Saints of Ireland,Fergus rises from the dead to narrate the tale, which isforthwith carefully noted, so that never again it may belost. Senchan Torpeist, an historical personage, was chiefollamh at the date assigned to him by this story, the in-terpretation put upon which by M. d'Arbois de Jubainvilleand Prof. Zimmer is undoubtedly correct, namely, thatSenchan was the author of a redaction which effectuallysilenced all competing versions. It is possible even that hewas the first to put the tale in writing, and that before hisday it had only been preserved orally. All existing textshave been shown to go back to a common original. The


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52 BIBLIOGUAPHICAL APPENDIXversion of the Finding of the Tain, which brings in theSaints of Ireland, has been edited and translated by 0.Connellan in vol. v. of the Ossianic Society's publications.

Celtdom and Homeric Greece (page 34).See M. d'Arbois de Jubainville, Cours de Litterature

Celtique, vol. vi. : "La civilisation des Celtes et celle deI'epopee homerique."

The Mythic Descent op the Ulster Heroes(page 39).

See the genealogical table, Miss Hull, p. Iv.

Cuchulainn's Distortion (page 41).Slightly altered from Mr. Standish Hayes O'Grady'sversion, Miss Hull, p. 175. See also Prof. Zimmer's article,

"Beitrage zur Erklarung irischer Sagentexte," Zeit.fiirCelt. Philologie, vol. iii. part 2.

Possible Gaulish Traces of Cuchulainn (page 44).See M. d'Arbois de Jubainville's article, Eenie Celtique,

vol. xix. p. 245.

Printed by Ballantyne Hanson & Co.Edinburgh


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v/ / fUNIVERSITY OF FLORIDATHE CUCHULLI

lEISHJLITE]^ 3 1262 05425 9311Being a Collection op Stories relating to the HEroCUOHULLIN, translated PROM THE IrISH BY VARIOUS

Scholars, Compiled and Edited, withIntroduction and Notes

By ELEAXOR HULLWit^ Map of Heroic Ireland. Pp. lxxx + 316. 7s. 6d. net.

The Academy'" The English reader could not wish for a better introduction

to the wildest and most fascinating division of Irish myth."Mr. T. W. Roiieston in the Daily Express

"This great Saga has many aspectsmystical, historical,ethnological, and literary. I have here touched on the latteronly, but the more one reads it the deeper appears its signifi-cance and value, the fuller its interest. Every Irish readerwho desires to know something, as all of us should desire, ofhis spiritual ancestry should place this book on his shelves."

The Scotsman"A selection made and annotated with much judgment."Northern Chronicle

''The work of compilation has been exceedingly well done."

The Outlook"Miss Hull's very admirable edition of the Cuchullin Sagafurnishes one of the best available examples of the characterof Irish romantic legend."

The Daily Nation"Miss Hull's introduction is one of the most lucid and

careful studies of mediaeval Irish literature yet published inpopular form."


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\

Popular Studies ih MjCTioIogy Romansand Folklore

The following numbers have' appeared or are in thepress, November, 1900:No. ICELTIC AND MEDIJ5VAL ROMANCE. B^Alfred Nuxr.No. 2FOLKLORE: WHAT IS IT AND WHAT ISTHE GOOD OF IT? By E. S. Hartland.No. 3OSSIAN AND THE OSSIANIC LITERATURECONNECTED WITH HIS NAME. By Alfred Nuit.No. 4KING ARTHUR AND HIS KNIGHTS. ASurvey op Arthurian Romance. By Jessie L.Weston.No. 5THE POPULAR POETRY OF THE FINNS.By Charles J. Billson, M.A.No. 6THE FAIRY MYTHOLOGY OF SHAKE-SPEARE. By Alfred Nutt.No. 7- J^B'.MYTHOLOGY AND FOLKTAlI^^heirRelation and Interpretation. By E. S. Hartland.No. 8CUCHULAINN, THE IRISH ACHILLES. l;vAlfred Nutt. No. 9THE RIG VEDA. iJy E. V. Arnold, M.A.No. loCHARLEMAGNE AND HIS PEERS. 1;,Jessie L. Weston.

Documents

Mythology Studies - Cuchulainn, The Irish Achilles - Alfred Nutt (1900)