u D

NATIONAL SPELEOLOGICAL SOCIETY CAVE DIVING SECTION

VOLUME 19, NUMBER 6 - NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1992

2

UNPERWATER SPELEOLQGY

The official publication of the Cave Diving Section of the National Speleological Society, Incorporated.

P.O.OOX 950, BRAJIFORD, FL 32008-0950

Editor: Carl sutton 5721 NW 84 Terrace 1 Gainesville, FL 32606-3824 904-374-8168 (h) 9u4-377-2822 (w)

BOARQ OF DIRECTQRS

Chairperson: Dan Lins P.O. Box 211, Ocala, FL 32678-0221 904-629-9749 (h)

Vice-Chair~rson: Mark Leonard Rt. 141 Box 136j Lake City, FL 32055 904-75d087 (w

Treasurer: Eric Tasso 3535 NW 54 Lanel Gainesville, YL 32605-0808 904-378-5207 (h

Secretary: Gene Broom P.O. Box 822, Branford1 FL 32008-0822 904-935-1141 (w) 904-9J5-0146 (h)

Training Chairperson: Lamar Hires Rt. 14 Box 16r. Lake City YL 32055 904-75~-1087 (wl 904-755-5913 (h)

Leadership Coordinator: VACANT

Director at Large: Kelly Brady P. 0. Box 4278 Gainesville, FL 12613 904-372-3819 /eve) C01puserve 76100,2213

Program Coordinators

Abe Davis Award ......................................... Wendv Short Accident Files ............................................ Joiln Crea Activities Coordinator ..• •.•.•••••.•....•..••••••.•..•... ~ic Tasso BiolQCJY ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ••••••••••• Dr. J1ll Yager Bonaire Speleological Survey •••.••......••.••.••••••••••• John Burge Calendar Coordinator .•••.•.•.••.•.......••.•.••••.•• Randy Christian Cartography ..... , ...................................... Ftank Howard Cave Files Coordinator ....•••.......•••••••...•••••••• Tot Gilleland Cotputer ~plications •••••••.•••••••••....••••••••• , •. To1 Gillela~d Cons~rvatlQD: •••••••••••••••••••••• , ••••••••••••••••••••• Tom Morr~s Foreign Maillngs ........................................ Mary Garvin ICDSA ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• Wenay Short International Infomtion Contact .••.•.••••••••••..••••••• Pete Butt International Correspondent ••••..•.•....•••••••••.••••.••.•..••... ? Ma~ ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ~ ••••• , ••••••••••••• Frank Howard Photography ............................................. Bob Janoski Pro!l(!ity Manager ........................................ Lal!ar Hires Publications Chairperson •••....•••••••....••••••••••.••. Lal!ar Hires Publications Coordinator •••...•••••••....••••.....••••• Gene Hellwig Quintana Roo Speleological Survey •••••••..••..•...••• : ••••• Jim Co~e

Lorie Beth Conlin RescuejRecovery Teat .......................... Capt. Henry Nicholson Safety Cooittee !Mexico) ................................. ,Ji1 Coke Safety Colllttee Horthl .......................... Randy Kwiatkowski Safety CoiiJI.ittee South ................................ Wendy Short Science CoiiJI.ittee ........................................ Toll Morris SUIIp Diving Project ................................... John Schw~yen Survey .................................................. Lal!ar Hires Techn1ques ............................................. Woody Jasper Yana Springs Project Coordinator •••.....••••.•..•.•••••• Gene Broo11e

VOLUME 19, NUMBER 6 NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1992

TABLE OF CONTENTS

SECTION NEWS Guidelines & Maintenance in Mexico ........... .................... 11

written by James G. Coke IV Obituary: Ja11es Welborn Storer .............................•.... .12

written by Sheck Ex ey NSSCDS Warning Sigl) Report ...................................... .12

submitted by Philip Sirota

SAFETY Safety RecoDaendations for Extended Range Diving .••....•........ 3-5

by Michael Menduno & Capt. Billy Deans

FEATURE ARTICLE Dean's Blue Hole: Deepest in the World ......................... 6-10

LETTER TO THE EDITOR •Aussie• 'lbank You ............................................... 12

EDITORIALS Cooperation Between the Cave Diving Organizations .•.•............ 13

written by R.D. Milhollin Memorati ve ....................................................... 14

written by Ian Jones

PLEASE REMEMBER THAT ALL EDITORIALS ARE THE OPINION & KNOWLEDGE OF THE AUTHOR AND NOT NECESSARILY THOSE SHARED BY UWS.

IF YOU HAVE A COMPLAINT ... WRITE AN EDITORIAL AND SEND IT IN.

YOUR SUPPORT OF UNDERWATER SPELEOLOGY THROUGH SUBMITTING JUST ABOUT ANYTHING THAT IS PRINTABLE AND RELATIVE TO THE PHILOSOPHY OF CAVE DIVING ... IS GREATLY APPRECIATED . .. THANK YOU FOR YOUR CONTRIBUTIONS.

UNDERWATER SPELEOLOGY

~~[F~UW [ru~©@UYAJ0¥1J~~[Q)~ lr~@~~ [F@[R1 uu~)MF~~[Q)~[Q) [R1~~@~uu [Q)~W~~@

WRITTEN BY: Michael Menduno and Captain Billy Deans Reprint from a support docunent for •Blueprint for Survival Part n•

presentation at the NAUI ICUE in October 1992

Definitions: Technical diving is a discipline that utilizes special methods, equipment, training and skills to improve underwater safetr and performance, enabling divers to explore a wide range of underwater environ­ments and perform tasks beyond the scope of recreational diving.

This typically involves "atended range'' exposures outside the recreational envelope (no-stop dives in the 0-130 fsw range) and is usually conducted in the "overhead envfromnent'' of a cave, wreck or decompression ceiling where the diver cannot freely ascend to the surface.

Requirements For Conducting "Extended Range" Divesl.

A-Attitude: Why Are You Doing This? K-Knowledge: Without Knowledge You Have No Options. T-Training: Skills Must Become Second Nature ('"muscle memory"). E-Experienc::e:""Exposure & Enviro11meutal Spedfic"-Takes Time To Build. E-Equipment: The '"Right"" Tools For The Job.

Safety Recommendations: Training 1. Always oe prepared and "trained" for the dive you plan to conduct. Ask yourself if you, and your

partner, meet the "AKTEE" criteria.

2. Review and practice "emergency procedures" frequently so that they become second nature.

Gas Supply 3. Always dive a •redundant'' breathing system2 in an "overhead environment," or when diving beyond

about 60 fsw.

4. Pre-plan and "calc::ulate" the gas required to conduct the dive (gas requirements= planned consumption plus suffident reserves) and dive your plan. Always dive your bottom gas using at least ''7he Rule of Jldrds'' in an overhead environment, or a suitable equlvalent3 in open water, depending on the operation.

S. Plan at least a 33% reserve (1.5 x planned usage) for your decompression gas (equipped with redun­dant regulators).

6. When possible4, carry all the gas you will need for the dive unless it can be "safely staged," depending on the operation and environment.

Gas Mix 7. Always plan and dive the ''safest possible " mix( es) for the dive you are conducting. 8. Always aru~lyze and hillel your gas before making the dive. Make sure you know what mix you are

breathing, and its operating parameters.

9. Maintain your P02s below l.S atm (recommended: 1.2-1.45 atm depending on workload)5 dur­ing the "working phase" of the dive and anytime more than ''light work" is being done, boosting oxygen levels to a maximum of 1.6 atm, with care, during resting decompression. Take regular •air hrealcs" as a safety hedge every 20-25 minutes when breathing oxygen.

10. "Just Say No" to nitrox mixes, spec::ific::ally "air," beyond about 180-200 fsw or less, depend­ing on the operation and environment.

UNDERWATER SPELEOLOGY VOLUME 19, NUMBER 6 NOVEIIBEPIDECEAIBER 1992 3

4

... cotttiltud .tro-~ 3

Deco• pression 11. Always plan your decompression, and use appropriate and reliable decompression methods and

tools for the dive your planning to conduct, and be conservative.

12. Utilize a ''hJ'Pef'oxiC mh " for decompression (ex. suitable EAN mix (es) and/or oxygen) whenever an equivalent "air decompression" would exceed aboutlS-20 minutes6.

13. Limit oxygen decompression to 20 fsw or less and use care.

14. Plan for and always be prepared to deal with decompression illness (DCI). In particular have plenty 7 of oxygen immediately available for treatment during any diving operation and know how to use it.

Equlp•ent IS. Always use the best possible equipment, that is well-maintained and appropriate for the dive

you plan to conduct and the environment. Redundancy on all essential subsystems is key. In particular, always carry appropriate emergency equlpment8 and know how to use ft.

For example: • Three lights (overhead environment) • Decompression reel & lift bag (open water) • Bail-out bottles (a "team of one") • Surface signaling device (open water)

16. Always use a "continuous guideline" when diving in an "overhead environment", and/or a suit­able"decompre.ssfon line system" when conducting extended and/or deep open water dives9.

17. (Emerging technology) When possible, wear "breathing equipment" that allows you to survive an underwater convulsion/loss of consdousness, such as a full face mask system or retaining strap.

Operations to 18. Pre-plan all aspects of the dive you intend to conduct. Design your "operation" with the goal of being

able to provide "effective and Immediate assistance to a diver In distress at any point ln the dive." In particular, "be prepared for the worst," and always have plenty of 02 on hand.

19. Always dive as a "team 11," and utilize surface support personnel, ami when appropriate, in-water support divers, whenever possible. In particular, designate an "Operations Manager'' who is responsible for overseeing diver safety and keep "good records." Always honor rule number one of team diving,"Anyone can "call" the dive at any time for any reason."

20. Utilize an effective "communications system" between the dive and support team whenever possi­ble. In the future, wireless communications systems will become the standard.

21. Remember, YOU, and YOU ALONE, are responsible for your own safety. Never permit overconfidence or peer pressure to allow you to compromise safety procedures. Above all, if you're not prepared to do it right, don't do it. It could rui11 your wllole day.

*A summary of this presentation," A Blueprint For Survival Part II, Safety Recommendations For "Extended Range" Diving," given at the NAUIICUE, October 10-llth, Philadelphia, PA. A written version of this pre­sentation will be published in an upcoming aquaCorps publication.

Special thanks to the following individuals and organizations for their input and help in developing these safety recommendations; Jim Baden, Ed Betts, Dr. Jolie Books pan, Bernie Chowdhury, John Crea, Terry DeRouin, Sheck Exley, Lalo Fiorelli, Steve Gerrard, Dr. R.W. Bill Hamilton, Lad Handelman, Lamar Hires, Jay Jeffries, Jim King, Dick Long, Bart Malone, National Association For Cave Diving, National Speleological Society-Cave Diving Section, Phil Sharkey, Karl Shreeves, Wes Skiles, Dr. Bill Stone, Frans Vandermolen, and Dr. Richard Vann.

Please note that Sheck Exley was one of the Individuals responsible for developing and applying "accident analysis" to cave diving. His book, "Basic Cave DJl'lng: A Blue Print For Sumt'td" is recommended reading for all technical divers, and can be obtained as explained below.

VOLUME 19, NUMBER 8 NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1992 UNDERWATER SPELEOLOGY

... contiiJJwl from page 4

Notes:

1. First proposed by jim Baden, owner, Scuba Adventwes Unlimited

(Technical Diving Center), San Bernadino, CA.

2. Dive with at least "first stage" redundancy. This can be achieved in several alternative ways.

3. There should be sufficient reserves for the dive team to exit safely in the event one member suffers a "catastrophic" gas loss. For "extended" open water dives, the emerging standard seems to be to reach your first decompression stop with one third of your bottom gas remaiaiag.

4. The ability to "safely" stage gas, i.e. have it inunediately available when needed, is one of the major differences between cave and wreck diving. Ia open water diviag the goal b to be "self-saf­ficleat," to the maximum exteat possible. The self-suffi­ciency "breakeven point" for extended open water dives appears to be about 250-300 fsw for a two person team depending on the dwation of the dive. Open water dives beyond thb require a surface support team and effective commuaicatloas.

5. "Below" is the operative word. The conununity standard today is to run travel and bottom mix at about 1.2-1.45 atm. depending on conditions and the operation- below the level at which CNS oxygen toxicity is likely. "CNS Toxicity Is lUce the .sand be.sUk the rOflfl. If you .stay on the rOfUI you won't get Into trouble." Note that, DCIEM classifies P02 of 1.5-1.6 atm as "exceptional exposwes, while the USN sets its P02 operating range to 1.2-1.3 atm for closed drcuit operations.

6. Air (and to a Jesser extent EAN mixes) is generally regarded as very lnefficleat at reducing decompression risk. See Richard Yann, PH.D, "Till! Pl'Ysiology of Mixed Gas Diviug. • Sept.92 Talk To BSAC. 1992.

7. "Plenty• means just that. A DAN 02 unit may be excellent for recreational diving where medical services and a treatment facility are inmtediately available, but not for technical operations. One to two hundred cubic feet of extra 02 is reconmtended depending on the operation.

8. Other examples would be a high performance regulator for deep diving, appropriate thermal protection, etc.

9. Coadactiag multi-level, extended open water haap without a safety line home b tricky aad can be haor.anlous, particularly when using hyperoxic "decompression" mixes, where depth control is critical. Decompression lines are a long held st;an­dard in professional and commercial diving as they greatly improve sakty.

10. Technical dives are "operatwns:" a project or ventwe Involving; planning, preparation, set-up, the use of proper equip· ment, team work, competent execution, and the capability of responding to emergencies effi!cti•·ely a11d immediatLly, where diver safety is always tile first priority. In terms of support requirements,technical dives fall somewhere in between "recreational dives" and commercial operations, Note that all dives are "operations. • In the case of recreational div­ing. the requirements are minimal.

11. The "Baddy System" b aot reliable eooa•h for '"extelltl­ed range" diving. A "team approach is required. Note that a "team of one" is appropriate and reliable in some circumstances,depending on the operation and envirorunent, partk­ularly where a surface support team is used.

UNDERWATER SPELEOL.OGY

References & Additional Reading: !."The Application of Enriched Air Mixtures: The Complete Users Guide," by Edward A. Betts, American Nitrox Divers Inc., Freeport, New York, 1992. Contact ANDI: 516-546·2030.

2. "Aspects of Recent Scuba Diving Accidents," by Y. Mano and M. Shibayama . Marine Technology Society journal, Vol. 23, Number 4,"Diving Safety", Dec. 1989 . For information write: MTS, 1825 K St. N.W., Washington, DC 20006.

3. • Accident Analysis Revisited," by Sheck Exley. Underwater Speleology, 1990. Contact: NSS-CDS, PO Box 950, Branford, FL. 32008.

4. "Basic Cave Diving: A Blue Print For Survival," by Sheck Exley, NSS·CDS, Branford, FL. Fourth Edition. 1981. Contact: NSS..CDS, PO Box 950, Branford, FL. 32008.

5. NSS Student Cave Diver Workbook, Compiled by Mark D. Leonard and Lamar Hires, NSS-CDS, Branford, FL. 1991. Contact: NSS-CDS, PO Box 950, Branford, FL. 32008.

6."0xygen: The Princess of Gases," john Crea, aqua Corps journal No. 3, "DEEP,"1991. aquaCorps, Key West, Florida.

7 ."Proposed NACD Training Standards and Procedures," prepared by Lalo Fiorelli, April, 1992 Contact: L Fiorelli, 250 Rocky Rd., Soquel, CA.95073

8."Rethinking Oxygen Limits," by Dr. R.W. Bill Hantilton, technicaiDiver 3.2, Oct. 1992. aquaCorps, Key West, Fl.

9. "Safe Deep Sea Diving Using Hydrogen, by G. hubert, T. Ciesielski, and X. Fructus. Marine Technology Society Journal, Vol. 23, Number 4, "Diving Safety•, Dec. 1989 . For infonnation write: MTS, 1825 K St. N.W., Washington, DC 20006.

10. "Safety First; An Analysis of Recent Diving Accidents," by Michael Menduno. technicalDiver 3.2, Oct 1992, aquaCorps, Key West,l'l.

11. "Understanding Special Tables," Dr. R.W. Bill Hamilton. aquaCorpsJournal, No.4, "MIX,"1992. aquaCorps, Key West, FL

12. "The Wakulla Springs Project," edited l>y William C. Stone, U.S. Deep Wreck Diving Team, Derwood, Md. 1989. Contact: NSS-CDS, PO Box 950, Branford, Fl.

13. "Wreck Diving Analysis, 1970-1990", by Bernie Chowdhury, in affiliation with The National Underwater Accident Data Center, John ). McAniff. U.S. Underwater fatality Statistics, 1989, Report No. URI· SS12·91-22; Jan.1991.

For More Information:

aqua Corps PO Box 4243, Key West, FL 33041 305-294-3540, fax: 305-294-7612

Key West Diver Inc. MM 4.5, US#1, S.l., Key west, FL. 305-294-7177, fax: 305-294-7612

VOLUME 19, NUMBER 6 NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 19112 5

DEAN"S BLUE HOLE: DEEPEST IN THE WORLD

latl'odwetioa

By William L. Wilson, November 6, 1992

Dean's Blue Hole is located 2. 8 miles west-northwest of Clarence Town along the east coast of Long Island , Commonwealth of the Bahamas. The hole occurs at the extreme northwest end of Dean's Bay.

On September 7, 1992, Jim King reached the bottom of Dean's Blue Hole at a depth of 663 feet as recorded by a Beuchat digital depth gauge. King's dive has shown that Dean's Blue Hole is an extraordinary karst feature. It is the deepest known blue hole in the world and is nearly twice as deep as any other known underwater cave in the Bahama Islands. The room below the entrance shaft is 240 feet wide, 350 feet long and 603 feet high, making it the largest known underwater cave room and one of the largest cave rooms (wet or dry) in the world.

King used open circuit scuba equipment and mixed gases (trimix, air, nitrox and oxygen). He was assisted by Paul Slater, a dive instructor from the United Kingdom and Berne Acre, a dive master from Stella Maris Inn, Long Island. His descent required approximately 10 minutes. He spent about one minute on the bottom and then began his ascent. Decompression required approximately five and a half hours and was accomplished in water. The following article describes Deans Blue Hole and the exploration that was undertaken recently by Deep Breathing Systems, Sevierville, Tennessee.

&plonlioa -• Scieldific Shdy

Deep Breathing Systems undertook a project to explore, map and scientifically study the geomorphology and hydrogeology of Dean's Blue Hole. Three diving expeditions were fielded to Long Island in July, August and September, 1992. The objectives of the dives were to determine the size and shape of Dean's Blue Hole, measure the flow of water into and out of the hole as the tide changed, and collect samples of the rock(s) in which the cave was developed.

The personnel involved in these efforts were Jim King, Paul Slater, Bill Wilson, and Jim Schlesinger. They were assisted by Berne Acre, Dive Master, Stella Maris Inn. Trimix was used for deep dives. Decompression was accomplished using air, nitrox and oxygen at the appropriate depths for the appropriate times.

P•J'sical Descriptio•

The surface pool of Dean's Blue Hole is 150 feet wide from northwest to southeast and 200 feet long from northeast to southwest. A rugged, limestone cliff, 10 to 30 feet high, encompasses the northeastern two-thirds of the pool. Steeply cross-bedded eolianitic (wind-blown) carbonate grainstone forms the cliff, which descends directly to the water so that no beach is present around most of the pool.

B VOLUME 19, NUMBER B NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1992 UNDERWATER SPELEOLOGY

.. . continlled from page 6

A prominent ledge, 10 to 20 feet wide, occurs in the upper part of the cliff. The ledge is probably the exhumed portion of a flank-margin cave. Other small caves occur in the cliffs. On the northeast side of the pool, the cliff overhangs the water forming a small, underwater, shelter cave that extends approximately 30 feet back from the cliff face.

The southeast side of Dean's Blue Hole is open to Dean's Bay and normal marine waters. The opening forms a channel that is 170 feet wide at low tide. It averages 3 feet deep and has a maximum depth of 5 feet . Water flows either into or out of Dean's Blue Hole depending on the stage of the tide. Reversal of flow with the tide is a normal occurrence at blue holes. The flow at Dean's Blue Hole reverses very nearly in sequence with tide . The absence of a lag time in the flow reversal indicates that the hydrologic connections between the hole and surrounding aquifer is not restricted .

The velocity of the water averages approximately 0.25 ft/sec, indicating a rate of flow of approximately 135 cubic feet per second. The flow is significantly large. but probably not a record . Discharge from blue holes has rarely been measured so meaningful comparisons are not possible, at this time.

Immediately south and southeast of Dean's Blue Hole is a pleasant beach made of carbonate sand extending along the entire 1-km length of Dean's Bay. The beach may be used for conveniently staging dives.

From the edge of the surface pool, a coarse-grained carbonate sand floor slopes steeply to a depth of approximately 30 feet, where a large elliptical shaft occurs in the limestone bedrock. The shaft is 84 feet wide from northwest to southeast and 120 feet long from northeast to southwest. Coral heads grow at random locations on the sloping floor of the entrance funnel. The floor of the funnel is so steep that sand is almost continuously cascading down the slope and pouring into the shaft. During rising tides, water flowing from Dean's Bay into the pool washes pieces of turtle grass into the shaft. Visibility in the surface pool is usually 30 to 60 feet. The best visibility occurs near the end of a falling tide , when water has been flowing out of the blue hole.

The vertical shaft drops from a depth of 30 feet to a ledge at a depth of approximately 50 feet. The ledge is approximately 5 to 10 feet wide and passes almost completely around the circumference of the shaft. An approximately 30-foot long section of the ledge is absent on the southwest side and appears to have fallen into the blue hole.

Below 60 feet of depth the walls of the shaft are extremely undercut. The roof slopes downward at an angle of approximately 30 to 45 degrees to a depth of approximately 140 to 150 feet where the walls become nearly vertical, but remain slightly overhanging . This enormous underwater room is at least 240 feet long from north to south and 350 feet long from east to west (Figure 1 ).

Although the entrance shaft is 80 feet wide and 120 feet long. it is less than one-half the diameter of the deeper underwater shaft. Therefore it is valid to call that part of the shaft, below 60 feet of depth, a room; because it is more covered by roof than not.

Dr. Antonio Jimenez, Institute of Geography. Academy of Science of Cuba. measured the depth of Dean 's Blue Hole in 1988. He dropped a weighted line down the entrance shaft to a depth of 630 feet. In July , 1992 , Paul Slater dropped a weighted line along the north wall of the room from a depth of 200 feet and found the depth to be 650 feet. On September 7. 1992 , Jim King . President, Deep Breathing Systems made a dive along the northeast wall to a depth of 663 feet as measured with a Beuchat digital depth

UNDERWATER SPELEOLOGY VOLUME 19, NUMBER 6 NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1992 7

... co~ from page 7

Northeast

Loog Island

Bend in Profile I

Southeast

Exhumed Flank-Margin ca,re Dean's Bay

~------100'

Discontinuous Ledges -150Ft Short Caves

Cave Extends 300Ft at

-142'

-158Ft 1-----200'

-270, Paul Slater, July 11, 1992 -315Ft, King and ~----lOO' Wilson, August 14, 1992

Wall sever ly undercut at -600Ft

-350 Ft, Circumnavieation by Jim King, September 6, 1992

-432Ft, Jim King, August 13, 1992

Jim King, September 7, 1992, -663 Ft,

d, Light Brown Dolomite

? .

DEAN'S BLUE HOLE, LONG ISLAND, BAHAMAS Explcred and Mapped By Deep Breathing Systems, Seviervil~ T~

Figure I. Generalized profile of Dean's Blue Hole, Long Island, Commonwealth of the Bahamas. The underwater room is 240 ft wide, 350 ft long and 603 ft high. Below 60 ft of depth, it has a volwne of about 1.5 million cubic yards making it the largest known underwater cave room in the world and the eighth largest cave room (wet or dry) in the world. This is the deepest known blue hole (-663 ft) in the world and is nearly twice as deep as any other explored cave in tM Bahamas. Copyright, 1992, DBS.

8 VOLUME 19, NUMBER 8 NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1992 UNDERWATER SPEL.EOLOGY

... contiluud from pag~ 8

gauge. At the bottom he saw smooth carbonate mud floor. No walls were in sight. A mound of sediment, approximately 30 to 33 feet high is thought to have accumulated on the floor of the room beneath the entrance shaft and probably accounts for the difference between Jimininez's and King's depths.

The shape of the base of the shaft has not yet been examined in detail. King found that along the northeast side of the room, the wall is undercut by more than 100 feet at depths below 600 feet. Besides its impressive width and lengtb, the room extends from a depth of 60 to 663 feet so it has a height of 603 feet. The volume of the room is at least 1.5 million cubic yards (Myd3) making it the largest known underwater cave room and the eighth largest cave room (wet or dry) in the world.

By volume, Dean's Blue Hole is approximately one-half as large as the Big Room in Carlsbad Cavern. It is larger and deeper than any air-filled shaft known in the United States. It is the largest cave room between Carlsbad Cavern, New Mexico, and Salle de la Verna, Reseau de la Pierre Saint-Martin, France. This ranking excludes karst shafts that either have no roofs or have entrances more than one-half the area of the floor.

At depths of approximately 150 to 160 feet, many discontinuous ledges and small caves occur around the circumference of the shaft. Most of the ledges or caves extend about 30 to 50 feet before they become too low for divers with back-mounted tanks. Little or no flow was observed in these openings that may be submerged examples of flank­margin caves.

The longest known passage occurs on the east side of the room at a depth of 150 to 160 feet. The passage opens on a prominent ledge, but decreases in size to about 6 feet high and 8 feet wide. The passage extends generally east for about 300 feet before becoming too small to follow. Strong currents flow in and out of this passage depending on the tide. Velocities were at least as high as 0.5 ft/sec.

Calcitic speleothems including stalactites, stalagmites and columns were found in a small ceiling alcove at a depth of 142 feet on the east-northeast side of the room. The speleothems were approximately 3 to 4 feet high and were developed in a small room approximately 4 feet wide, 6 feet long, and 3 to 5 feet high. The speleothems were thinly encrusted with marine organisms and mineral deposits. It is not known whether the speleothems developed concurrently with the large underwater room, or whether they were deposited in a small cave that was later intersected by the room as it developed. If these relations can be worked-out then it may be desirable to do uranium/thorium radiometric age dating of the speleothems.

Calcareous worm tubes and small sponges heavily encrust the walls of the large room at depths below 100 to 120 feet. Some calcareous tubes have secondary subaqueous aragonitic frostwork. The biogenic deposits show that the cave is not currently enlarging by dissolution. The thick layer of the worm tubes impeded sampling the wall rock. But, a chip of cream-colored, hard dolomite was obtained at a depth of 300 feet by Bill Wilson and Jim King.

Visibility beneath the overhanging ceiling is usually better than that in the surface pool. The ceiling protects the water near the walls from the nearly constant rain of in­falling sediment that comes down the entrance shaft. Visibility along the walls of the underwater room is commonly 100 feet or better. Faint light is present to depths of about 140 feet. Lights are necessary for safe diving below depths of approximately 100 feet.

UNDERWATER SPELEOLOGY VOLUME 19, NUMBER 6 NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1992 9

... conti111.1ed from page 9

10

Deptll

No other known blue hole or underwater cave in the Bahama Islands is deeper than 360 feet. Lighthouse Reef Blue Hole, along the coast of Belize, is 440 feet deep. Red Snapper Sink, east of Crescent Beach , Florida, extends to a depth of 495 feet, but the top of the sink is in approximately 90 feet of water, so the total vertical relief of the sink is 405 feet . At this time, Dean's Blue Hole ( -663 feet) is the deepest known blue hole in the world . Only two other caves, Naciomente del Rio Mante , Mexico, and Fontaine de Vaucluse, France, have been explored to depths that extend farther below sea level than Dean's Blue Hole.

Until the discovery of Dean's Blue Hole, the depth of blue holes and underwater caves in the Bahamas was not known to exceed 360 feet . This depth nearly coincides with the low stands of sea level during glacial stages of the Pleistocene Epoch (Ice Ages). The blue holes were presumably formed during the Pleistocene by rainwater soaking into fractures in the limestone bedrock and descending vertically to the water table , which was very nearly at the same elevation as the glacial sea level. So, little opportunity existed for blue holes and caves deeper than 360 feet to form during the Pleistocene. Dean's Blue Hole extends nearly twice as deep as the glacial sea level.

Mechanisa of DevelopmeDl

The great depth of Dean's Blue Hole indicates that it may have formed in association with a rare, deeper-seated mechanism. Perhaps Dean's Blue Hole has developed along a major fault through which corrosive water or gases, such as hydrogen sulfide (H2S) ascended . Or possibly , the blue hole has developed above a very deeply­buried ancient cavern that has collapsed upward, perhaps thousands of feet , to intersect the surface.

Columns of collapsed rock are called "breccia pipes". Seismic surveys along the northeast coast of Florida have detected collapse pipes that rise several thousand feet from caves in reef limestones deposited during the Paleocene Epoch (earliest part of the Age of Mammals). Red Snapper Sink may be the surface expression of a breccia pipe that broke through the surface during the late Pleistocene. Dean's Blue Hole may be a more modern example of a breccia pipe where the roof of the pipe is still mostly intact.

s .... ...,.

Dean's Blue Hole is an exceptional, world-class, karst feature for several reasons:

1) It is the deepest known blue hole in the world ( -663 feet) and is nearly twice as deep as any other known cave in the Bahama Islands.

2) The underwater room beneath the entrance shaft is the largest known underwater cave room and may be the eighth largest cave room in the world .

3) The volume of water displaced during a tidal cycle indicates that significant cave passages may connect to the blue hole.

Deep Breathing Systems looks forward to conducting additional studies at Dean's Blue Hole and would be happy to assist other researchers who have an interest in this exceptional karst feature.

VOLUME 19, NUMBER 6 NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1992 UNDERWATER SPELEOLOGY

/-~ GUIDEliNES & MAINTENANCE IN MEXICO :( 0 1:

~ WRIITEN BY: J811'18S G. Coke N (NSS 26442)

As brief as our (M) visit light be, our passion to encounter the unknown is perhaps the lOSt powerful 10tivation ve have when entering an underwater cave. OUr curiosity, however, is telpered through training and experience. In order to glide through a passage studded by white spears of calciUJ carbonate or descend in free fall through a pit where tite is recorded in scalloped beds of liteStone, ve rely on a vital elaent for our safe return to the surface: the guideline.

Guidelines are one of our lOSt basic caving tools. They are utilizes by divergent cave diving teals for various reasons. They can be used as avenues for further discovery, or an escape route for a blinded teat. They are a classic aid in surveying underwater caves, while saeti1es being a cluttered register of past visitors. Divers clip equi(aent on tha, becole en~led in thet, stretch thet, splice thet, fray thet and re-tie thE!I to chanqe their position in the cave. lie vould like to assUJe that every pertanent line ve use in a ~ular cave is generally reliable, but can ve? As i1p0rtant as they are, ve should retind ourselves that just like a tool, lines are used and jostled JOSt every day. Eventually they need to be replaced. It can be a tile-consUJing and costly effort. 'lhls article is written in appreciation to you as a CDS IE!Iber, for your aid in supporting safe cave diving in Quintana Roo, Jlexico.

As cave diving grew in ()lintana Roo during the late 1980's, the ~ Roo Speleological Sliney (QRSS) initiated a regular line Jaintenance progru. OVer 7000 feet of nylon line vas used to replace the tattered lines in the popular tunnels of the Carvash, Mayan Blue, Baharon, and Sac Actun caves. liith the arrival of the 1990's cave diving had expanded even further in the region; sote of the replaceJiellt lines had already begun to show the usual wear and tear in less than 2 years.

During the suaer of 1992, the QRSS and the cave Diving Section's Safety

UNDERWATER SPELEOLOGY

Conittee--Mexico requested the Section's assistance in replacing another 2000' of guideline with a 10re durable cordage. 'lhls new line vas to be placed in tvo cave sites that receive the JOSt diver traffic. In response to the request, the Section delivered a spool of yellow eighth inch braided nylon as a gift to the region. As for it's subterranean h01e today ....

'!lle camsh Cenote

Dived as early as 1982, this cenote vas originally known as the Cenote del Rancho de IDs Tres Benanos (The Cenote of the 'nlree Brother's Ranch) • It's current nne vas coined in 1984 by a group of visiting divers, Cenote Divers AnonYJOus. Ho mre than a stone's throw fr01 the tain road, this site is very popular due to it's large upstreat cavern. It is estieted that over 95t of the cavern and cave divers vho are nev to the area dive this cenote first.

Surveyed over a tvo year period (Coke, Conlin, De Groot, Young 1990), carwasb is actually one of the least extensive caves in the 'l'ulUJ region. The upstreat cave consists of only 4800 feet of surveyed passage, and is divided into two regions. The Jain passage is characterized by a series of shallow aesthetic dote rOOIS connected by deeper hallways. Tvo SJall cenotes are also passed along the route. replacing over BOO feet of line in this passage, it now terlinates at a splice with the older line at the end of Adrianna's Roo1. In an effort to conserve a very fragile portion of the cave, the 300 foot j111p to this region retains UDJarked on the Jain line. Even though the da.age to the Roo1 of Tears and nov Dreuland is unintentional, it has been increasing each year at an alarming rate. lie ask you to strongly review your caving skills and 10tive before you go there. If you have already been there, do you really need to qo back?

Dle Tetple of Pool Cen9te

First dived in 1986, this cenote vas known to the residents of TUlUJ as Blgleleto, the skeleton cenote. 'l'he relains of a Jodern hUJan being were found and retoved frca the cenote in the late 1970's; a Jachete fight and foul play were thought to be involved. Located '600 feet frca the Coba road, this cave site also contains a veri large cavern that reselbles a classic sink which slopes to the oottoJ of this eno1110us cavern. Frca here, 4 cave passages radiate fr01 the central cavern hub.

Surveyed in 1992 (To be released at June CDS workshop: Sutton) to mre than 7000 feet, this cave vas the last of the JOSt popular sites in the area to surrender to COipaSS and tape. lillile there are tvo sell upstreat tunnels which pinch out quickly, it vas discovered that JOSt of the cave developaent vas downstreat fro• the sink. Known for it's occasional s11011 white passage developaent, certain areas of the cave are very popl1ar for training and tooring dives. The downstreu cave can be divided into three sections. The first is the Madonna Passage/canyons PassagejBall of Giants section. As this section is also the whitest, over 1000 feet of it's passages were relined due to it's rep~tation. Yellow in fact, is very easy to see in such a white cave! One line runs continuously through the Madonna Passage to return through the canyons Passage. It creates a 900 foot circuit that originates and ends in the Jain cavern. Additionally, 10re line vas replaced in a tunnel that leads to the Hall of Giants frOJ the Madonna Passage. It continues through the Ball of Giants ard eventually splices into the older line. '1\io other sections can be gained at this point: the Dovnstreu and Old Florida sections.

We vould like to thank everyone who helped us through donations of botto1 tite, 10ney or constructive advice. This of course includes the entire rank and file of the cave Diving Section, who's IE!Ibershi p support Jade the p~rchase of this line possible.

VOUJIIE 19, NUMBER 6 NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1992 11

\ ) 1/

v <l>ituary: Jues lellmn storey

I'll sure many long-time 11embers of the !ISS Cave Diving Section were as shocked as I was to read in the May 1992 KSS Hews of the recent passing of Jia and Barbara Storey. Jia was one of truly great pioneers in Alerican cave diving. A charter melber of the NSS-CDS, Jill vas also our first Vice Chairman and second Chairman. Jill, along with NSS-CDS instructor George Krasle and others, was one of the aelbers of the Descenders cave Diving Group in the early 1960's. 'Itle Descenders predated other well-known cave diving clubs of the period such as the Florida Cave Dwellers and the Dixie cavern Kings and was probably Alerica's first cave diving organization except for the Florida Speleological Society of the 1950's.

Froa the early 1960's through the early 1970's, Jit was personally responsible for dissetinating tucb of the safety infomtion on cave diving in the !ISS, through talks at !ISS conventions and handouts like •cave Diving llotes• and 'Advanced cave Diving•. A true landlark in cave diving literature was the cave diving chapters in Jia's classic 1965 book, American Caving Illustrated, which was the first publication in our country to advocate the use of submersible pressure gauges and several other safety procedures.

I tet Jit at a cave diving teeting in 1969. Like JOSt Florida cave divers in those days, I had long heard of the !ISS and wanted to be part of America's national caving organization. Unfortunate! y, in those days this was not easily done, since allaeJbership applications had to be endorsed by an ISS Ieiber. I'll always be proud that ay application was endorsed by Jill Storey.

- Sheck Exley (lfSS 13146LF)

"' / I

news brief THE NSSCDS WARNING SIGN REPORT

by Philip L. Sirota

At the present time the Section has two different warning signs: the 24x24 NSSCDS metal sign, and the plastic NACO PADI & NSSCDS 24x30 Grim Reaper sign. We are using a 4x4x16 block to keep the sign in place with the frame being made of lxl angle iron each custom-made. We use a small lift bag to move the whole unit into place, while using full-cave gear for added team safety.

Hopefully in the future we will be able to standardize the frames and use only the plastic signs.

Linda Sirota & I have just put new signs in both Devil's Eye and Peacock Spring. We hope to check on all of the signs for repairs this summer. If anyone knows of a cave that needs a sign or a replacement, or would just like to help out sometime, please call.

PHILIP SIROTA #904-963-2904

12 VOWME 19, MJMBER 8 NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1992

LETTER TO THE EDITOR ...

Dear Carl, Recently I had the pleasure of being part of a group of

Australian cave divers who spent an enjoyable vacation in north Rorida. We were fortunate to have many outstanding dives and were impressed with the friendly nature and warm hospitality shown by so many NSSaJS members. In particular I would like to extend a special thanks to Lamar Hires. Sheck Exley. John Zumrick, Scott Marion, Blain Merrill, and Bill ForT (from Califomia) for their special help and support. If any NSSCOS members are ever planning a trip to Australia, just ask them to drop us aline-we will do our best to show them the best "Aussie" hospitality.

Good luck with U.W.S. in the future, yours in cave diving, Greg Bulling 4 Pearl Court Hope Valley, South Australia 5()9j.

UNDERWATER SPELEOLOGY

Comments on the Need for Cooperation Between the Cave Diving Organizations

WRIITEN BY: R.D. Milhollin (NSS 29962)

'11le cave diving couuni ty is by it's nature a small, special interest group whose goals and desires are not necessarily those of the larger, openwater public. Issues such as decompression and depth limits are obvious illustrations of this fact. cave divers, in general, are still considered outsiders by the diving public, and cave diving for the JJOst part remains misunderstood, or worse, dis1issed as a daredevil activity. The two cave diving organizations, the NSS-CDS and the KACO, each realize the extent of this situation. Members of these organizations should realize that as cave divers, they have 1uch 10re in canon than not. '11le KACD and the NSS-CDS need to be seen as co-existing and co1plementary, rather than as COJpeting. They have co1110n concerns, desires and goals. They also have a common message to would-be cave divers, and to the diving and non-diving p.!blic.

The history of the two cave diving organizations appears to be punctuated by differences often 10re personal than of (Xllicy or philosophy. Most cave divers vi th preferences for one or the other of the organizations were originally influenced by their instructors or by another cave diver who tay have perpetuated beliefs about why one organization is better or worse than the other. Differences do not necessarily denote a superior/inferior relationship. And again, there are certainly more similarities than differences .

It is hoped that lOSt, if not all, cave divers affiliated with the NSS-COS or the KACO can agree with the following:

(1) ntere is a need for coaplete agreement between the two organizations in the areas of pri1ary concern: Safety, the Need for Education, and Conservation.

(2) There is room for difference in areas of policy implementation and internal structure/function.

( 3) There is a need for co-operation and unity of voice when representing the primary concerns of cave

UNDERWATER SPELEOLOGY

diving to the general (diving and non-diving) public.

On the surface it 1ay seea that having two melbership-based organizations for such a limited pursuit as cave diving would be redundant and unnecessary. But consider that there is seldot only one way to accomplish a particular end. In 1any technical endeavors, the approach often used in addressing subjects with two or 110re possible avenues of pursuit is to allow advocates to detail the virtues of each, and allow each trained, experienced and info111ed practitioner to make his or her best decision based on all things considered. Having a cave diving training organization helps to assure the divers are well-trained and encouraged to seek experience. Having two cave diving organizations helps to assure that all sides of a particular subject are sufficiently exposed. Consider SOle other areas in which the dual organizations add strength to cave diving:

(1) AllOliS for 'friendly competition• in such areas a publications, training taterials, special events, and other innovations.

( 2) All OilS for a wider base of leadership participation and development. Ko-one should feel locked out of leadership possibility.

(3) Allows personalities room for expression without getting in each other's way. It is a stall coouni ty, and s01e people get along better with one group than with another. TWo organizations allow all types to exist within the co~munity.

( 4) Allows specifically for differences in training standards and policies. Issues such as course duration, expiration of cards and nUllber of courses offered reflect philosophical, not safety, issues.

(5) Allows generally for flexibility and diversity within the cave diving infrastructure. ntis leaves the door open to creativity and could help to deter

atteupts at gover111ent or other outside control of cave diving activities.

How can these concerns be addressed? First, all active cave divers should be aelbers of both the KACO and the KSS-COS. All new cave divers should be actively encouraged by their instructors to join both organizations. The benefit of both newsletters is reason enough. Second, instruction standards for both agencies could be written in the sate fortat to allow for easy co1parison of differences for the benefit of instructors, as well as to highlight agree~ent between the agencies on key safety standards. ntis would serve to define a range of accepted procedures for liability purposes, preventing one person or agency fro1 dictating cave diving instruction standards. Rather a consensus of primary safety standards agreed upon by the co111uni ty and tactics to exist.

Finan y, the cave diving coouni ty can achieve econoties by sharing litited resources. Current emples are the NSS-cDS Recovery program and the NACO coaputer bulletin board. Extending this sharing and specialization could lead to couuni ty representation at DEMA and the regional diving shOliS, as well as liaison with open water SCUBA, goverllllent and scientific agencies. ntis effort should certainly enco~pass but be lilited to landowner relations. '11le two agencies working together could present a united viewpoint to outside interests on all points of mutual concern and agreement,

In suoary, the existence of two independent cave diving organizations is an asset rather than a liability to the cave diving community. As cave divers, the aembers have much in couon that can be expressed and supported by mutual co­operation of the NACO and the KSS-cDS. Concerned cave divers are encouraged to taintain active telbership in both organizations, and to encourage the leaders of each to strive for creative co-operation in teeting cave diving's goals.

VOLUME 19, NUMBER 6 NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1992 13

Two of l'f friends died on the 12 of tktober 199 2 •

They died as a result of an entangleJent that delayed their exit fro• the sublarine they were diving in, at a depth of 230 feet. Subsequent to the entanglement they had insufficient gas to cotply with their decompression obligations before surfacing.

The onset of the bends was swift and ulti1ately fatal for the. both.

I should aention that my two friends were father and son, Chris senior and Chris junior. Bother were HAUl Dive.asters and both were fully certified cave divers. they had been presented with the Abe Davis award for over 100 safely coapleted cave dives. Chris sr. was the Regional Safety Officer for the National Association of cave Divers (NACO). Their diving credits included dozens of dives past two hundred feet in Florida caves, and dives to three hundred feet in the sate systeJS. Their ocean diving experience was equally varied and spectacular. This year alone they dove 250 ft. to explore the Andrea Doria off New York. Off the Jersey shore they dove 175 ft. to the Oil Wreck, and to 145 ft. on the Elpress of Ireland in the frigid waters of the St. Lawrence Seaway, Canada. This is only a saall sa11pling of their diving activities this year. They both used state-of-the-art cave diving equipment in which they had aany hundreds of hours underwater. They were also extreaely proficient with both air and aixed gas tables. Simply stated, they were very, very good at what they did and they backed it up with experience in virtually every kind of dive enviro011ent you can find, except for ice. Chris sr. didn't particularly relish the cold.

They will be honored by all who knew thet and were touched by their fervour for their diving endeavors. The Cave Diving Conunity feels their loss keenly, so auch so that with the consent of the original discoverers, the fated Hinkle Restriction in the Ginnie Springs cave systet has been

renated the Rouse Restriction. The Janag~nt of Ginnie Springs also wish to donate a plaque to be placed in their 1e10ry at Ginnie Springs.

Given all of their training, abilities, state-of-the-art equipment, and aliOSt encyclopedic knowledge of the aspects of their chosen pursuit, they died. Was it worth the final reckoning? My friend Sue, Chris senior's wife and Chris junior's mum, has certainly had to contend lightily with that question in the short period since their deaths. Sue is also a NAUI Diveaaster and one of the relatively few fully certified female cave divers active in the world today. The more than five hundred people that came fro~ all over Alerica and canada to honor them at their memorial service have also had

. to wrestle with that sate conundruD: Was the prize worth the cost?

There is bound to be criticiSII of the kind of diving my friends did. They approached or exceeded the sport diving depth limit of 130 feet on al110st every dive they did, yet their approach was never conteaptuous or flippant. Each dive was executed with degrees of planning and built­in safety margins that would be beyond most people's coaprehension or ability. Yet they died.

Criticis11 from aajor certifying agencies will be understandable. Legally it would be counter-productive for thea to be seen to endorse this sort of diving, known in the diving couunity as •Technical Diving•. Yet it needs to be acknowledged by them that this sort of diving is practiced so that people with an interest can find their way to the proper agencies involved with training for •Technical Di ving•. other sources of criticis11 will include instructors and divers who will rail against 'this needless loss of life• in prrsuit of goals that they can't co1prehend for rewards that would be intangible to thea.

Soae of the cri ticis1 will be well teant, with a sincere desire to prevent others fro• this sort of tragic loss. Some

14 VOLUME 19, NUMBER 8 NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1992

of the criticisa will be petty and Jean­spirited, under-pinned by jealousy, because these critics are threatened by having to acknowledge that, no tatter who you are, there is always s01eone with greater ability and a co111ensurate degree of courage, who has the desire to expand the 'Technical Envelope•.

SUe has said of her husband and son that 1they weren't thrill-seekers or risk takers but explorers.• The validity of this statement is born out by the kind of diving they did. They constantly pushed at the boundaries of the 'Envelope•. Their ability to push the 'Envelope• was always re-enforce by their knowledge and their skill. I have dived with thet both aany tiaes and can testify to their meticulous and thoughtful planning and execution procedures.

In the end, critics will point out that all their knowledge, skills and abilities were insufficient to meet the final challenge. No one should doubt, however, that they met this challenge with a tenacity and courage that would elude 10st of us. Having been in tight situations with both of thea, I know that very few people would be able to equal their sang-froid in the face of danger, and in the face of death, I am sure.

So once again the question: Was the prize worth the cost? It is a question asked every time misfortune befalls any daring enterprise, be it the exploration of space, of new lands, of the poles, or of the deep. For ay friends the Rouses, undoubtedly it was worth it; they died doing something they loved, so11ething that there were extremely competent and well-equipped eaotionall y and physically to do.

As for the rest of us, well, we all have to 11ake our own deternination. Diving. is JOT for everyone and the sort of diving done by the Rouses is for very few.

For myself, I will continue with 'Technical Di ving• as I know Sue intends to do. I will dive to celebrate the courageous and daring lives of 11y friends.

UNDERWATER SPELEOLOGY

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